temple tradition in kerala

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Temple Tradition in Kerala - Shivaji Panikkar

Historical Evolution of Kerala Temples / Kerala Style-early phase

Dravida Style /Middle Phase (!D! "###-"$##% / &ate Phase (!D! "$##-"'##%

Basically, temple architecture tradition of Kerala comes within the mainstream of Indian temple building tradition. Though,in the detailed articulation of its formal structure Kerala temple follows its own indigenous methods, the basic conceptions

are not something different or extraneous from the total cultural developments of the mainland. It has been rightlyobserved that, "the temple as an institution, was an ryan gift to the south India and that the so!called Kerala school isresponsible only for covering the product of the ravidian tradition."#

Temples in Kerala used to be called in earlier times as mukkalvattom. $ater they came to be called ambalamor kshetram orsometimes tali. The Kerala temple has srikovil as its main core, which usually stands in east!west axis and the plan may bes%uare, rectangular, circular, elliptical or apsidal ground plan. &ompared to the other temple styles in the mainland li'eravida, nagara and vasara, Kerala temple tradition has distinct characteristics especially in their formal structure. Thearchitectural style of Kerala temples has an inherent simplicity which becomes very conspicuous when (uxtaposed to theexuberance of the nagara, vasara and ravida temple styles. In explaining this, influence of the natural environment uponthe temple form has to be recogni)ed along with the socio!historical developments. "In its original forms *architecture+ is

closely bound to the earth is sub(ect to the needs of society is faithful to a programme. It erects its great monumentsbeneath a 'nown s'y and in a 'nown climate upon a soil which furnishes particular material and no other.-- The basicrelationship of the particular landscape which contains and holds the respective architectural form is a ma(or decidingfactor. Between the two, an organic unity and balance exist, which 'eep on interacting with each other. The environmentalspace which envelopes the architecture has a ma(or role in the articulation of architectural form.

This interdependence or the reciprocal relationship between environment and architecture can be further noticed in theconstruction of superstructures in Kerala temples. The two monsoons a year, and the moisture of Kerala weather has adirect bearing on the use of sloping roofs and the selection of raw materials by which thesuperstructure is being constructed. The superstructure as a conspicuous example, shows an accurate usage of indigenousraw materials li'e timber and tiles to go with the climate conditions. ast ma(ority of temples have their bases built ofgranite, the walls made either of wood, bric's and stucco, or laterite the sloping superstructure made of wooden plan's,tiles or sheet metal on timber frames, are adopted to suit the high rainfall of the region. The roof timbers rest directly onthe wall and coverage in gable form to meet at the top. The roofing material covering the timber framewor' is clin'er built.It is made up of wooden plan's overlapping one another, and covered over by clin'er tiles or tiles highly heated in 'ilnswith a gla)y smooth surface that ma'es them water proof. The details given above substantiate that the raw materials

used are meant to withstand the damp weather.

truly indigenous contribution to the mainstream of Indian architectural tradition is the circular temples. The ponderousappeal of the sloping conical superstructure above the circular basement and walls is a clear testimony of the local idiom.0urther, the edge of the superstructure comes down to (oin the socle in hugging the earth. The height of the superstructureis further softened by the circular moulded bands which function to accent down the verticality and emphasi)e thehori)ontality. The symmetry of the circle does not hamper fine nuances and modulations of the wall below. The spread of

the conical roof above the wide cylinder, formed by the circular wall gives to the structure at the same time, a buoyant liftand a light winged aeriality. s a matter of fact, conical roof is the most satisfactory logical solution for the enclosure builton a circular plan. In few cases, the rhythm of the circular temples are further extended into elliptical shape.

In the case of rectangular or s%uare based temples the four sided pyramidal roof is favoured. This has hipped ends on eachof its two sides and the ridge of the roof running breadthwise is extended beyond the hipped end and carried with it theupper most part of the roof which thus forms a widely pro(ected gable. "The concave curve, however so slight, wasintroduced to redeem an all too star' rigidity of angles, the convex curve such as might have resulted in this 'ind of roofconstruction, as it does, for example in the rural houses and temples of Bengal, found relatively little favour inKerala."1 This tendency to relax the linear vigor and produce a slightly concave s'y line, is a feature which is also found in

2epalese tradition.

3nli'e the other architectural traditions in the mainland the design of Kerala temples shows a close similarity with thedomestic architecture of the region. The earliest studies of Kerala temples include references to houses, with 4tellaKramrisch pointing out the nalukettu and ettukettu houses, with four or eight wings, apartments or rooms, were builtaccording to re%uirements of the classical Vastusastra, the architectural treatise. This closesness of layout between thesecular and religious architecture are not in fact uncommon when we consider other traditions all round the world. In fact,

the ma(or architectural traditions li'e 5ree', 6apanese, &hinese and Islamic show the evidences of this inter!relationship.0urther, the first mos%ue in rabia was designed after the prophet-s house. In Kerala, however, logical hypotheses areneeded to identify any sort of relationship between the two. The surviving Nair houses have many structural elements li'eraised foundations, wall and ceiling carvings, steeply sloping roofs, etc., that are reminiscent of temple architecture. Thebuilding materials used in the sacred and domestic architecture, vi)., timber, laterite, bric' and stucco are also the same,and thus create identical textural surfaces. 7ost conspicuous similarity between the two is in the presence of the innercourtyard that is open to the s'y. The courtyard in both the cases is depressed slightly, but in the case of temple design itencloses the srikovil and provides space for circumambulation while in domestic types, it is entirely an open space exceptfor the presence of a pedestal to grow the sacred tulasi plant. 0unctionally, space thus constructed within the architecture

provides the interior with proper air and light. 8ere, the light is being enclosed in the architectural form and its rays,streaming forth at predetermined points are compressed, and attenuated and thus creating an air of openness within thearchitectural complex.

http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#historicalevolutionhttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#keralastylehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#dravidastylehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#middlephasehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#latephasehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#latephasehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#keralastylehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#dravidastylehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#middlephasehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#latephasehttp://www.keralahistory.ac.in/templetradtion.htm#historicalevolution


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The development of structural complexity in later periods is managed without ostentation. Temple extends hori)ontallyalways hugging the earth, the structure emerging according to its precise functional needs, their spacing, creating anelegant rhythm and repose. Thus, the whole growth is organic and the final complex, bright, spacious and airy.

Historical Evolution of Kerala Temples

4cholars find that study of the stylistic development of Kerala temples problematic, due to various reasons."2otwithstanding ac'nowledged early origin of good number of Kerala temples, especially those which had the specialmerit of having been visited and sung by the vaishnavite hymnist *alwars+ siants of Tamil 2adu, the actual forms of thetemples today belie their true anti%uity by the renovations and modifications that have ta'en place from time, that obscurethe original format."9

7ost of the temples, some with original adisthana, dating from eighth!nineth centuries of the &hristian era, haveconsiderably renovated superstructures, and as a result do not reveal much of their original forms. 7oreover, theinscriptions in Kerala temples are often restricted only to the plinth of the temples. This is so because the very format ofthe temples largely using laterite, stucco and timber prevent epigraph from being engraved on the body of the temple.

Thus, absence of any clear cut date of the subse%uent renovations largely diminish their use as historiographic material,however, %uite a few early records engraved on the temple mouldings can be cited.

Inscriptional evidences of the nineth!tenth centuries, clearly inform us of the beginning of temple building in Kerala. Thecave temples of seventh!eighth centuries in Kerala on hard granite medium imbibe direct inspiration from Tamil countryespecially the :andyas of 7adurai through the passes in the ;estern 5hats which lin' Kerala with Tamil plains.

2evertheless, Kerala roc'!cut architecture could evolve certain distinct mannerisms of its own. ;hen we view the Keralatradition of roc'!cut architecture in the wider context of the mainland, i.e., in comparison to the roc'!cut architecture of7ahabalipuram,


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century B.&. is circular.C In the medieval period temples of &housat yoginies were built in the circular ground plan. Theseexamples are found at Bairagat in 7adhya :radesh and 8irapur in rissa. 8owever, these temples are open to the s'y orhypaethral in type, except for the cloistered space, which display the sixty!four forms of evi.

The original source of the circular temple in Kerala is still a controversial issue among scholars. number of scholars, li'e4ar'ar holds the view of the Buddhist origin of the circular plan.D 8e provides the evidence that the southern part of Keralawhere Buddhism had a strong hold shows comparatively large number of circular temples. nother viewpoint in this regardis that circular temples with a garbhagriha surrounded by one or two rows of columns bear some similarity to the circular

Buddhist temples of 4ri $an'a, 'nown as vatadaga. There is a strong tradition in Kerala about the migration of!havas from 4ri $an'a and these people might have populari)ed this type of architecture which in course of time gotmingled with the Brahmanical tradition. Kramrisch on the other hand, holds the view of an indigenous origin.#E 4hementions that the prototype of the circular temples has to be seen in the circular huts set up by some of the primitive

people of Kerala. 4he points out two instances in this regard. The tribe 'nown as Malampandaram lives in circular orconical huts, and the tribe 'nown as "llatas set up circular structures for ritual occasions.

ttention has fre%uently been drawn to the similarity of certain 2apalese structures and the pent or multiple sloping roof of temples of Kerala, thus ascribing the origin of such superstructures to foreign sources. ccording to Kramrisch, noinfluence should be seen in the affinity of these buildings. In both the countries the perennial Indian tradition is living, andboth are rich in the use of wood.## Brown searches for lin's to 4aurashtra and to Kashmir temples li'e :andrenthan and7artand.# In fact, temples having a s%uare plan and a double or triple sloping roof exist in stone form not only in Kashmirfrom the eighth century, but also in 4aurashtra of theMaitraka age. Vastusastra also classifies these temples and namesthem after mountain pea's #imavan, andMalayavan or Shringavan if there is but one pea'ed roof $Vishnu %harmotraPurana 1rd, $FFFI+. Both 4oundara >a(an and 4ar'ar hold the view that Kerala temples are local adaptations of the southIndian temple architectural tradition, and the divergences in the structural form were introduced primarily to counteractthe heavy rainfall of the region. Bernier also endorses the same possibility.#1 4ar'ar moreover goes to the extent of saying

that similarities with the 8imalayan architectural tradition is a superficial one due to the use of sloping roofs on woodenframe.#9

The temples with apsidal ground plan of some of the Kerala temples, however can easily be associated in their structuralsimilarity, with the Buddhist &haitya halls found elsewhere in the mainland. The origin of such structures could be ascribedto the Buddhist influence.

Before going into the actual discussion of the architectural phases, it is necessary to 'eep in mind that ravida andindigenous Kerala types of architecture co!existed and had simultaneous development in the same land from the eighthcentury. The ravida school of architecture shows a concentration in the southern part of the state, which from the veryearly period was under consistent Tamil influence.

In the north Kerala, on the other hand, a building tradition existed truly at home. s observed by Kramrisch, the origins ofindigenous architecture may be in the tribal forms. Temple architecture of Kerala is classified into three stages ofdevelopments by 8. 4ar'ar.#= The discussion below ta'es into consideration those three phases of temple architecture inKerala.


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2arayan'annur temple at >amantali, 4iva temple, Kaviyur, ruined temple at :erumpa)hutur near 2eyyattin'ara areexamples of this. >amantali temple is associated with two inscriptions, one dated to .. DC, and the other to .. ##1.In this circular temple, the outer circular wall encloses the circular garbhagriha which has been transferred internally into as%uare. The outer wall on all sides has functional doors, a feature shared by a temple type 'nown in theancient Vastusastra as the Sarvatobhadra temple. This particular feature, irrespective of the ground plan followed, is astylistic peculiarity of the early and middle phase temples built in Kerala.

ccording to the inscriptional evidence, the apsidal temples were also built during this phase. The 4iva temple at

Tri''andiyur and Kalasamharamurti temple at Triprangod and yyappan shrine in the Kari''ad, 'shetram at 7an(eri have

retained their adhishtana which are now being used as their upapithas. These apsidal shrines situated close to each other

in the alluvanad region form a group and probably owe their origin to some particular line of rulers who favoured apsidal

temples and ga(aprastakara superstructure. 0urther, these early ground plans form a breadth to length ratio #?#.= which in

the later periods became #?#, transforming the elongated plan into semi!circular.#A

Dravida Style

part from the Kerala style temples, there are a few temples built in the ravida style also of this phase. ravida templesof this phase are being preserved as small shrines, consisting of a cell having a superstructure and sometimes with aporch. The temples at i)hin(am of nineth century are based on a s%uare plan built in bric' and stone. Their original form

unli'e the indigenous Kerala temples of this phase are preserved and thus facilitate a study of its structure.

In i)hin(am, the base, the pilasters and pillars in the corners, the porch as well as the entablature and roll cornices are ofstone. The walls are of bric' masonry and also the superstructure. The superstructure has a s%uare dome shape, togetherwith its dormer windows and finial li'e portion, all of which are solid. The superstructures have pro(ected niche in thecentre. They are overshadowed by a deep and long roll cornice and this has a lowering effect on the superstructure. llthese structures are set up on a very wide terrace.

5uhanathaswamy temple of tenth century at Kanya'umari does not represent a development of the type of temples builtin i)hin(am. It is another 'ind of temple, larger and more ornate. Its ground plan shows a difference in its originalpurpose. ;hile i)hin(am temple houses nothing but a small cubic space, the 5uhanathaswamy temple comprises a hallwithin an interior, and in its centre is a small sanctuary the superstructure of which is destroyed. 4tructural halls used astemples, such as this example, are described in the Samaranganasutradhara *&h. F$IF+ of eleventh century.#C The5uhanathaswamy temple is a'in to hall temples at :udu''ottai and the 4iva temple at 7angudi. Temple at:arthivase'harapuram of tenth century .. has to be ta'en as a development from the i)hin(am type of temples.Because of its flat ceiling, the three stroyed pyramidal superstructure becomes invisible from inside. The three storeysconsist on each level of an interior prism of stone masonry to which is attached a parapet composed of small shrines. Thes%uare stone kuts on the top without enrichment is similar to those of i)hin(am.

Middle Phase (!D! "###-"$##%

Interesting developments occurred in the layout of the structural temple patterns during this period. Kerala temples of thisphase represent the synthesis of the two styles!ravida and Kerala. The former represented by its miniature vimana formhoused inside a Kerala styled temple with sloping roofs. Thus, the inner garbhagrihaor the core temple has becomecompletely a separate entity with its own characteristics and sometimes with exclusive flight of steps. Invariably, it is an

example of miniature ravida vimanas, either circular or apsidal in plan with an independent griva and sikhara, andoccasionally it has its own adisthana and other components peculiar to a south Indian temple. The type thus accepted asthe most suitable one which basically did not violate the architectural norms of the mainland and together with theessentially and invariably utilitarian indigenous types, both secular and religious. The double walled vimana type of theearlier period got more elaboration which ma'es the characteristic feature of this middle phase. 7oreover, as a support forthe superstructure the inner wall together with the outer wall touches it and so creates a pradakshinapatha aroundthe garbhagriha. Get another distinguishing mar' of the middle phase is the existence of double pradakshinapatha aroundthe srikovil distinct from the uncovered one around the srikovil. 0urther, one notices the continuation of the

earlier Sarvatobhadra type of srikovil in this phase too.

Kerala Style

Kerala style temples ascribed to the middle phase, as in the early period, continued to be built variously on four sided,circular and apsidal ground plan. The 4ubramanya shrine at 7an(eri with an inscription of the twelfth century on thestone adhisthana, is a circular double storeyed vimana of the Sarvatobhadra type having four functional doors.The pradakshinapatha around the s%uare garbhagriha inside has a row of twelve columns. f the same period is the 4ivatemple of the Tirunelli. The circular inner shrine has a pradakshinapatha all around. The inside of the sreekovil istransformed into a s%uare and it has an octagonal griva and sikharaconstructed on corbelled arch. The small inner shrinewas enclosed by an outer circular wall now represented simply by granite adhisthana.


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The middle phase witnessed spectacular growth in the temple architecture of Kerala. 7any new temples were built, and%uite a good number as various temple inscriptions show, underwent renovations. 7any an important shrines of today hadtheir beginnings in this phase. 0or example, the ada''umnatha shrine in the ada''umnatha temple complex of Trissoor,and the Irattayappan temple at :eruvanam had their beginnings in the middle phase. Both are circular shrines *enclosing as%uare ravida vimana as the garbhagriha+ with two and three functional doors respectively.

The miniature ravida vimana as the garbhagriha was incorporated into the apsidal temples also. The

apsidalvimana temple at Ki)havellur, with an inscription of #E1= .. is a characteristic example of this type. Built oflaterite slabs, this temple houses have an apsidal garbhagriha with a ga(aprastakara roof above it. row of fourteencolumns runs along with the pradakshinapatha and thus divides it into two.

By the end of thirteenth century and beginning of fourteenth century .. several dvitala temples also came into existence.The 4iva temple at Tiruvan(i'ulam is one of the most ornate specimens, and retains many of its older features despite thesubse%uent renovations.

Dravida Style

long side the Kerala style of temples, few south Indian temple types were also built during this phase. n the whole, the

ravida temples in Kerala of this phase do not show much development from the previous phase. The :arasurama temple

at Tiruvallam, with an inscription of thirteenth century consists of a circular shrine combined with a

rectangular mandapa. This temple of granite has renovated superstructure of a later period. nother example of the

ravida vimana of this phase is the Kattilmadam at &halapuram. It is a s%uarenirandhara temple built in ravida style with

octagonal sikhara, made of one piece of stone. The 2iraman'ara temple of eleventh century .. is raised on a circular

paved disc which forms the outer path of circumambulation. This sandharaprasada has an inner covered ambulatory in

addition to the one outside. The inner wall of the inner shrine is of s%uare plan and is surmounted by an octagonal sikhara.

&ate Phase (!D! "$##-"'##%

In thirteenth!fourteenth centuries, when the state underwent a political revival, rising out of which, a technicalindigeni)ation of its art idioms was consciously adapted in such a way that it did not violate either the earlier architecturaltradition or the essential character and symbolism of the cult traditions of Kerala. nd thus, the developments which too'place in the earlier periods has got further elaboration and enrichment.

Kerala Style

The temples from fourteenth century show more elaboration in the layout * pan&haprakara scheme+ finally resulting in aconventionali)ation of the instruments and concepts of temple modelling in the late medieval period. In regard to thegeneral plan of the individual shrines, no further developments can be noticed. But the layout of the entire complex hasdeveloped into greater complexity and elaboration. The conception of pan&haprakara scheme of temple building withthe antaramandalam *called in 7alayalam as akatte balivattam+ , antahara $&huttambalam or nalambalam),mahdyahara $vilakkumadam) bahyahara *seevelipura)and marvada $puramadil +#D led the temples into greater complexityin structure and layout. In architectural layout of such an evolved Kerala temple, the srikovil forms the nucleus while theother components li'e the open air pradakshinapatha, the nalambalam, the vilakkumadam, the pavedouter pradakshinava!hy, koothambalam and prakaras are aligned in orderly succession centering the main shrine. In sometemples, especially in south Kerala, there is another pillared structure, the balikkalmandapam in front of

thevaliyambalam providing the main entrance into the temple proper. In front of the balikkalmandapam in some casesthe dwa(astambham and deepastambham also can be seen. The large edifice, the koothambalam meant for the

performance of visual arts also can be seen in some large temple complexes.

The last phase also witnesses the concept of composite shrine, as well as the practice of dedicating one complex to morethan one 5od. The number of sub!shrines in some examples increased to no less than ten as in the case of the 4iva templeat Tri''andiyur. long with the elaboration in the temple layout, other arts li'e mural painting and wood carving also gotmuch attention in this phase. The earlier tradition of having functional doors on all the four sides was eliminated in thisfinal phase.

4tandard silpa texts on the architecture of Kerala are the *antrasamu&hayam, Manushyalaya +handrika, of fifteenthcentury, and the Silparatna of 4ri'umara of sixteenth century. It is interesting to find that these have a decidedly localslant and can be considered as having been compiled for local or regional guidance. case in pointis *antrasamu&hayam which is primarily intended for Kerala region and spells out the regional architecture in its most


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outstanding features.

ue to various reasons, one of the most important of temple complexes of this period is the ada''umnatha temple atTrissoor. s one of the most uni%ue ancient temples of Kerala, ada'''umnatha temple has all the features attributable toa temple which has all the elements of the pan&haprakara scheme. 7oreover, this temple complex is a clear testimony ofthe synthesis and co!existence of various Brahmanical cults, as evinced from the cult images and ritual practices seenthere. The temple complex stands on a hilloc' in the centre of the Trissoor town. ccording to the inscriptional evidences,the temple is 'nown to have been in existence from .. twelfth century, though its foundation could have been much

older. This complex is a clear evidence to the ever!expanding structural vistas in accordance to the evolving functionalneeds.

In the ada''umnatha complex the three independent sri'ovils in north!south axis, are being dedicated respectively

to Siva, Sankaranarayana and ama. These are enclosed by a common enclosure *nalambalam+. Thecircular srikovil of Siva, northern most of the row has its garbhagriha divided by a transverse diagonal wall. The westernhalf dedicated to Siva has its own door opening and flight of steps in front with a detachednamaskara mandapam. Theeastern half is dedicated to Parvati , with the door opening on the east. The northern and southern cardinal pointshave ghanadwaras. n the stone adisthana, the outer sanctum wall and the prastara shows the characteristic reliefs ofpilasters, and miniature shrines of the kuta, sala and pan(aramodels. The slopy conical roof of metal sheet covers these byits over!hanging caves supported by brac'ets sprung from the walls at intervals. The inner wall, rising further above theouter wall, carries the immense conical roof or sikhara with a single metal stupi on the top.

The southern most of the group is the temple dedicated to ama, s%uare in plan, with its adhistana, wallsand prastara reliefs on the side and the rear faces, corresponding to the door opening on the west, haveghanadwaras insetbetween the pilasters carrying the sala motif on top. The corner bays have the karnakutasat the corners and theintervening ones, the pan(aras. The recesses have lesser shrine motifs on paired pilasters. These kuta, sala, pan(ara reliefs

are over shadowed by over hanging caves of the pent roof slopping down from hoo's and beams set higher upon the faceof the inner wall and resting on the wall plate on the outer wall. The over!hanging caves are further supported by woodenbrac'ets from the top region of the outer wall. The inner wall rises upto a further level carrying the sikhara covered with

metal sheets, with a stupi on the top.

The 4an'aranarayana shrine which stands between the 4iva and >ama temple, is a two!storeyed circular shrine.Its adisthana and wall are li'ewise relieved, the larger bays in the middle of the north!east and south sidesbeing sala patterns with a false door inside a stambha torana, front with makara arch on the top. The other bayscorrespond to the kuta or pan(ara patterns H all two!storied models H while the recesses have again such two storeyedmodels of lesser si)e with salasikhara motifs on top of shorter and more closely set pairs of pilasters. The walls of the4an'aranarayana shrine is decorated with mural paintings, ascribable to seventeenth century. n the southern side of 4ivashrine, on the floor of the open court, is the saptamatrika group which are being represented by a row of padma

pithas which is a characteristic feature of Kerala temples. ll the three shrines have s%uare namaskara mandapa on thewest. Inside the cloister, is another stone shrine, dedicated to Ganapati , which stands in between the 4iva and4an'aranarayana shrines. The nalambalam or pillared corridor, surrounding the nuclear group has on its outside a largerand wider open court, with a paved cirucumambulatory passage. The lesser shrines for subsidiary deities li'e Krishna,Nandi, Parasurama, andSastha are also located in the outer court. The shrine of Sastha on the southwest is an elegant,

small east!facing ektala, apsidal structure. In the north!west corner of the outer court is the large koothambalam. Thewhole complex is surrounded by a massive stone prakara, with four!storeyed gateways on the four cardinal sides withslopy gable roofs, standing as good examples of gopuram construction in the Kerala style.

Dravida Style

$i'e Kerala temples, ravida temples of this phase also developed into greater complexity and elaboration which wasdirectly following the mainland developments. Belonging to this period are the 4thanunathaswamy temple at 4uchindram

of sixteenth century. ery interestingly, according to the inscriptions, the srikovils of this temple belong to nineth century.. The lofty enclosures and gopurams of later period practically hides behind them the main temples, as is the case withravida temples of the same phase in the mainland. 8ighly ornategopurams, sculptured corridorsand balikkalmandapam broadens the temple layout resulting in a grandeur appeal, which is conspicuous when compared tothe Kerala style temples. The navaratri mandapam *festival hall+ in 4uchindram is a clear cut example of the last phase ofravida architecture in Kerala. Its pillars withdipalakshmis carved on it, do not support flat ceiling as is usual, but acoffered one, raised above the beams by a brac'et construction which has the shape of four sided collar ceiling. In every

detail, the example of wooden constructions is imitated in the stone as a continuation of ancient practice of architecturaltransformation from wood to stone. Building and carving in wood were the contribution of the indigenous craftsmen to theart of Kerala, to their ravida temples the Kerala craftsmen have contributed the living practice of their country, which hasdetermined certain modifications in ravida architectural form as adapted in Kerala. % 2otes

#. 7.5.4. 2arayanan, :olitical and 4ocial &onditions in Kerala under Kulase'hara


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. 8enri 0ocillon, *he ife of /orms in -rt, #D1@

1. 4tella Kramrisch, -rts and +rafts of Kerala, #DAE, pp. C!D.

9. 4oundara >a(an, K., *emple -r&hite&ture in Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, #DA9., p. =.

=. 8. 4ar'ar, Monuments of Kerala, #DA1, p. #.

0. 4oundara >a(an, *he -rt of South 1ndia, *amil Nadu and Kerala, 2ew elhi, #DAC.

A. 1bid.,

C. 4tella Kramrisch, #DAE, p.#.

D. 8. 4ar'ar, #DA1, p. A.

#E. 4tella Kramrisch, #DAE, p.1@.

##. 1bid., p.C.

#. :ercy Brown, 1ndian -r&hite&ture, Bombay, #D@=.

#1. Bernier, #DCE.

#9. 8. 4ar'ar. #DA1, p. C.

#=. 1bid.

#@. 8. 4ar'ar, #DA1, p.1E.

#A. 4ar'ar, #DC1, p. C!C1.

#C. 4tella Kramrisch, #DAE, p.#A.

#D. 4oundara >a(an, #DA9, p.1.

temple tradition in kerala

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