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www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.3988
A Women’s Sports Foundation Report
TEEN SPORT IN AMERICA: WHY PARTICIPATION MATTERS
January 2018
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.3988I Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Women’s Sports Foundation Acknowledgments This research builds on previous research and policy that view teen sports as an educational tool and public health asset. However, little to no research has scrutinized whether adolescent health and educational achievement vary from sport to sport. First, the Women’s Sports Foundation is indebted to the study authors, Nicole Zarrett, Ph.D., Philip Veliz, Ph.D., and Don Sabo, Ph.D. We’re proud to be associated with such creative and excellent researchers and writers. We are grateful to Bruce Y. Lee, M.D., M.B.A., the primary author of the policy recommendations, for his thoughtful and thorough development of recommendations that can lead to improvements in how teens experience sport.
We are deeply indebted to Deborah Slaner Larkin, who originally championed the idea that each sport might make unique contributions to the health and well-being of American youth and that understanding these benefits would ultimately lead to more opportunities for youth to play sports. She was a powerful advocate and supporter for this line of research when she served as the Executive Director of the USTA Serves (now Foundation) and oversaw the development and conduct of the research that resulted in More Than A Sport: Tennis, Education, and Health, a first-of-its-kind nationwide study that compared the educational and health profiles of adolescent tennis participants with participants in other non-contact sports and contact sports, as well as high school students who did not participate in sports. Later, as WSF CEO, she made this line of research an organizational priority, helped conceptualize the project, and made many important contributions to the final report.
The panel of scholars, health policy experts, and youth sport leaders who reviewed the findings and the policy recommendations provided invaluable feedback that improved the final report immensely.
Renee Cadzow Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Health Services Administration; Director, Center for Research on Physical Activity, Sport & Health (CRPASH), D’Youville College
Alexander Chan, CEO, Clinton Health Matters Initiative
Cheryl Cooky, Ph.D., Associate Professor, American Studies in the School of Interdisciplinary Studies, Purdue University
Simon C. Darnell, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Kinesiology and Physical Education, University of Toronto
Wayne B. Moss, Senior Director, Healthy Lifestyles, Boys and Girls Club of America
Sharon Z. Roerty, Senior Program Officer, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation
Renata Simril, President and CEO, LA84 Foundation
We are grateful to Benita Fitzgerald Mosley, CEO, and Katie Tomaino, Sr. Manager of Research & Evaluation, for the Laureus Sport for Good Foundation USA. Lead funding was provided by the Laureus Sport for Good Foundation USA.
Additional funding was provided by Kerry Burrows and Colleen May.
The Women’s Sports Foundation also thanks its national sponsors Chevrolet, espnW and ESPN, Fox Networks Group, Gatorade and NBC Sports Group.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.3988II Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Authorship This report was authored by Nicole Zarrett, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina; Philip Veliz, Ph.D., Assistant Research Professor, School of Nursing, University of Michigan; and Don Sabo, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, Health Policy, D’Youville College.
The policy recommendations were authored by Bruce Y. Lee, M.D., M.B.A., Associate Professor of International Health at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Executive Director of the Global Obesity Prevention Center (GOPC) at Johns Hopkins.
Authors’ Acknowledgments We are grateful to the Women’s Sports Foundation for making this report a reality. Deep thanks to Dr. Marjorie Snyder, WSF Senior Director of Research, whose vision and project management skills illuminated every step of this project. A special note of acknowledgement and appreciation is extended, as well, to Deana Monahan for her editorial and graphic skills. Finally, special thanks to all the researchers who, over time and across a wide variety of disciplines, have contributed to the growing body of knowledge discussed in this report.
About The Women’s Sports Foundation The Women’s Sports Foundation — the leading authority on the participation of women and girls in sports — is dedicated to creating leaders by ensuring girls access to sports. Founded by Billie Jean King in 1974, our work shapes public attitude about women’s sports and athletes, builds capacities for organizations that get girls active, ensures equal opportunities for girls and women, and supports physically and emotionally healthy lifestyles. The Women’s Sports Foundation has relationships with more than 1,000 of the world’s elite female athletes and is recognized globally for its leadership, vision, expertise and influence. For more information, visit www.WomensSportsFoundation.org.
Follow us:
www.Facebook.com/WomensSportsFoundation, Twitter @WomensSportsFdn, Instagram @WomensSportsFoundation
Contact us at [email protected]
This report may be downloaded from WomensSportsFoundation.org/TeenSportReport. This report may be reproduced and distributed only in its entirety. Any material taken from this report and published or transmitted in any form, electronic or mechanical, must be properly attributed to Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters published by the Women’s Sports Foundation.
Preferred citation: Zarrett, N., Veliz, P., & Sabo, D. (2018). Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters. East Meadow, NY: Women’s Sports Foundation.
© 2018, Women’s Sports Foundation, All Rights Reserved.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.3988III Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Founded more than 40 years ago by Billie Jean King, the Women’s Sports Foundation is a powerful
voice and catalyst for ensuring all girls have equal access to sports and physical activity and the benefits
they provide. Sports teach us to be strong and to work together toward a common goal. Sports teach
us perseverance in the face of loss and obstacles and they teach us to win gracefully. We know that
courageous leaders are made on the playing field and the court, and in the rink, arena or gymnasium.
Research is the centerpiece of the work we do at the Women’s Sports Foundation, and is essential to
demonstrating that sports lead to healthier, happier, more productive lives.
Since our inception, we have been conducting evidence-based research to measure the impact of physical
activity and sport on girls, gaps in access, gender inequality, and need for role models. We recognize that
data drives public education, debate, action and policy, which can lead to greater access, opportunity,
leadership and gender equity for women’s sports.
We are also driven by the knowledge that teen sports are both an educational tool and a public health
asset. We embarked on this report, Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters—which is the first to
offer in-depth analysis into how the type of sport and number of sports that teens play impacts their health
and well-being—in order to identify opportunities to improve access to high quality sports programming for
teen girls.
With this study, we reaffirm that teens who play sports not only do better in school, but also are more
likely to have high self-esteem, stronger relationships and improved physical health. The data reveals this
is especially true for teen girls who participate in two or more sports. The data shows that, while all sports
have benefits, some sports generate more positive impacts than others. The report findings identify the
unique benefits and opportunities for improvement that exist within each sport to maximize the health
benefits for teens.
LETTER FROM THE CEO
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.3988Iv Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Unfortunately, too many teens, primarily teen girls of color, still don’t have equal access to sports. And
with an increase in teens between eighth and 12th grades dropping out of sports, this means that teen
girls—a group that is already 15 percent less likely to participate in sports than their male counterparts—are
disproportionately missing out on experiencing the full academic, educational and health benefits of sports.
We encourage policymakers, administrators and coaches to read the report and the detailed policy
recommendations, which we believe will strengthen the positive impact of sports, and will ensure more
teen girls—particularly girls of color—have access to high quality sports programming, and its benefits.
We also look forward to reaching a wide community of teen-serving organizations, thought leaders and
parents so they can understand how sports can unlock the future for teen girls. This report empowers us
all to be stronger advocates for the teen girls in our lives—whether they’re our daughters, sisters, neighbors
or friends.
The Women’s Sports Foundation will continue to lead the way for girls and young women with its unique
focus on ALL girls and ALL sports. This investment in girls creates a more just and equitable society and
pays dividends in the form of personal and public health, self-determination, achievement, leadership
and prosperity.
Dr. Deborah Antoine
CEO, Women’s Sports Foundation
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39881 Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 Executive Summary 3 Key Findings
6 Introduction
8 Design, Sample, and Data Analysis
10 Results 10 U.S. Teen Sports Participation Rates 12 Demographic Profile of U.S. Youth Sports 17 Attrition
19 Sports and Youth Development 19 Sports and Teen Health Behaviors 28 Sports and Academic Achievement 33 Sports and Psychological Health
38 Conclusion
41 Evidence-Based Policy Recommendations 41 Increase Youth Participation in Sports 41 Improve Girls’ Participation in Sports 42 Encourage Participation in Multiple Sports 43 Decrease Attrition from Sports 43 Prevent Unhealthy Behaviors Associated with Certain Sports 44 Develop More Tailored Approaches to Increasing Sports Participation
45 Measures Index
50 Endnotes
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39882Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
EXECUTIvE SUMMARYThe Women’s Sports Foundation commissioned the Teen
Sport in America: Why Participation Matters report to better
understand the impact of sports participation on teen
health, well-being and academic achievement. We sought
to understand how each sport impacts teen well-being, and
whether the number of sports in which a teen participates
influences their health. We also sought to better understand
whether sports opportunities overall, as well as individual
sports, are accessible to all teens across genders, race and
ethnicities, levels of family income and regions. Finally, we
wanted to identify the unique benefits and opportunities for
improvement that exist within each sport to maximize the
health benefits for teens.
This report builds on previous research and policy showing
that athletic participation has a favorable influence on
academic achievement,1-5 psychological well-being,6,7 and
physical health.8,9 And it digs deeper by looking at the
little-studied question of whether adolescent health and
educational success vary from sport to sport.10 This report
goes beyond most previous research by looking at a larger
number of positive health outcomes; previous research
considered only a small number of well-being outcomes,
which can limit discovery and understanding of how sports
contribute to positive youth development.5
The research is based on an analysis of the Monitoring
the Future (MTF)* nationwide surveys, a federally funded
longitudinal study of American secondary students.11 We
evaluated 20 sports most commonly accessible to American
teen girls and boys to identify which sports are doing well in
promoting health and preventing risk, and which have room
for improvement. This included the 13 most popular sports
in the U.S. (baseball/softball, basketball, cheerleading**,
cross-country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming/
diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, and wrestling) and
seven emerging youth sports (crew, equestrian, field hockey,
gymnastics, ice hockey, water polo, and weight lifting). All
data analyses controlled for key sociodemographic variables
like sex, race, and socioeconomic status. In this way, our
report answers questions about how each specific sport is
related to healthy development for all participating teens,
regardless of their sex, race, or socioeconomic background.
* See the Measures index on page 45 for more detailed information on the study design, sample and data analysis. More details on the MTF can be found at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/.
** Monitoring the Future asks respondents if they “competed in competitive cheerleading.” Many sideline cheer squads do have a culminating competitive cheer opportunity, which may have prompted respondents to respond favorably. However, it should be noted that a squad whose main focus is sideline cheer with limited competitive cheer opportunities would be unlikely to qualify as a ‘sport’ for Title IX purposes as defined by the Office of Civil Rights.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39883Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
We found that each sport has its own subculture12 and
provides a unique experience that likely influences youth
behaviors and development in different ways. Young
people’s experiences can also differ depending on how
many sports they play.
We also identified opportunities to strengthen the impact
of sports participation and make it even more beneficial
to teens. For example, some studies suggest potential
risks of sports participation, including higher rates of
substance use,13,2 consumption of fast food and sweetened
beverages,14,15 lack of sleep,16 and self-criticism.17,18 By
better understanding the potential risks, we can make policy
recommendations to improve or strengthen the impact
sports have on youth.
With this study, we hope to provide useful insights for
use by Women’s Sports Foundation and Laureus Sport
for Good Foundation USA leadership and beyond. The
findings can be used as a catalyst for evidence-based
policy development, provide new and reliable information
for sport governing bodies and support the development of
sport programming. They also will help educators, coaches,
athletic directors, and parents understand and assess the
role that different sports can play in youth development.
Key FindingsSports are transformative in the lives of teens.
Research has shown that sports participation and physical
activity support long-term health,19 achievement,20 and
well-being.21
Physical health
Findings linked sports participation to positive physical
health. Teens who played sports were more likely to
have a healthy diet — eating breakfast, and fruits and
vegetables, daily — get ample daily physical activity, and
sleep at least seven hours per night. All of these have been
identified as important factors in preventing obesity and
related diseases.
Academic achievement
Sports participation was directly related to teens having
a more positive attitude toward schoolwork, improved
academic performance and higher grades, and higher
aspirations for earning a college degree and post-college
education specialization.
Previous research has shown that these academic factors
are important predictors of future educational attainment
and occupational success.1-6
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39884Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Psychological well-being
In addition, our study showed that teens who played
sports fared better than non-athletes on multiple markers
of psychological health, including high self-esteem and
stronger social connections, such as higher levels of social
support and fewer feelings of loneliness.
The number of sports teens participate in matters.
In almost all the outcomes considered in this report, teens
who participated in two or more sports benefitted the most
from their involvement. They performed better academically
and also reported better psychological and physical health
than teens who played just one sport. This may be because
the positive development fostered by playing sports has a
cumulative effect, with the benefits of one sport reinforcing
the other. In addition, playing multiple sports may expose
youth to a broader range of growth-related opportunities
and skills, such as teamwork, task commitment, or the
ability to balance multiple scheduling demands. These
opportunities give teens more chances to contribute, build
supportive relationships with a variety of adults and peers,
and have a buffer against possible negative experiences
in one of the sports or in other areas of their lives.5 Since
teens benefitted the most from playing two or more sports,
it’s particularly alarming that only 37% of teens play more
than one sport, and many teens, 39% of girls and 25% of
boys, don’t even play one sport. Attrition rates also varied
by sport. Among the 20 sports, 16 sports lost participants
between eighth and 12th grades.
Each sport provides a unique impact on health.
Findings showed several sports to be particularly effective
in promoting healthy development across all key areas of
well-being. The most supportive sports include track and
field, cross-country, tennis, and soccer. Another set of
sports provided unique support in some, but not all, areas
of well-being. For example, the research linked basketball
with average levels of physical health and academic
achievement, but the sport also showed the highest ratings
for supporting psychological health. Similarly, lacrosse
athletes engaged in several healthy behaviors, including
healthy eating, and possessed a fairly strong profile of
psychological health, but the research showed them to
be at high risk for substance use and poor academic
achievement. Weightlifting had very positive profiles across
all areas of well-being except for substance use, because
it was linked with one of the highest risks for alcohol
binge drinking.
A few sports showed particularly low total ratings and can
benefit from improvements across almost all areas of
well-being. For example, the data linked wrestling to poor
health because of an increased risk of substance use, lower
academic achievement because of poor grades and higher
rates of skipping class, and a high risk of poor psychological
health due to lower self-esteem and lack of social support.
Along with wrestling, crew and ice hockey showed the
lowest total ratings across well-being outcomes among all
20 sports studied for this report. The low total rating score
was largely driven by the significantly higher risk of poor
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39885Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
psychological health and substance use.13 High-contact
sports, like wrestling, may facilitate a context that places
a premium on risky behaviors like fighting or engaging in
minor forms of delinquency like substance use.
Room for improvement exists in some areas, especially in certain sports.
Although sports yield mostly positive benefits, research
linked participation in sports with a higher risk for binge
drinking. Teens who participated in two or more sports
faced the greatest risk. Although sports participation can
protect against the use of some substances, such as
cigarettes, youth participation in multiple sports had no
impact on other unhealthy behaviors, such as marijuana
use or caffeine intake, and could be a risk factor for alcohol
binge drinking. Differences in the culture of particular sports
may be partially responsible for sports not consistently
preventing risky behaviors. For example, the amount of
physical contact in a sport seems to be a factor. Sports that
involve continual aggressive contact, such as football, may
influence risky behavior off the playing field by promoting
the notion that the body is a means to an end. On the
other hand, sports that involve minimal to no contact,
such as tennis, may promote the idea that the body is an
end in itself, motivating youth to sustain long-term health,
which minimizes the risk for substance use and other
risky behaviors.13
Diversity and disparities in sport depend on geographic region and type of sport.
Equitable access and opportunities in sport also remain a
challenge. In particular, girls and teens from low-income
families are still participating at significantly lower rates
than boys and teens from more affluent backgrounds, with
certain sports having greater gender and economic divides
than others. Although findings suggested that sports are
racially and ethnically diverse (with similar participation
rates found for white, black, and Hispanic youth), clear
differences in the racial and ethnic composition of each
type of sport suggests the need to improve equity and
diversity within certain sports.
The time for sport-by-sport evaluation has come.
The findings clearly demonstrated the importance of looking
at sports individually as well as collectively. Increased
access to “big data” and a growing number of databases
has made it possible to do program evaluation of specific
sports at varying levels of analysis, such as by county, state,
region, or nationally. Armed with better information, athletic
directors and coaches who work within specific sports
settings can assess the strengths and weaknesses of their
efforts, just as school administrators and teachers do.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39886Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
INTRODUCTIONTeen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters builds
on previous research and policy that view teen sports
as an educational tool and public health asset. Athletic
participation has been shown to influence academic
achievement,1-5 psychological well-being,6,7 and physical
health favorably.8,9 In contrast, some studies suggest
potential risks of sports participation, including higher
rates of substance use,2,13 consumption of fast food
and sweetened beverages,14,15 lack of sleep,16 and self-
derogation.17 However, little to no research has scrutinized
whether adolescent health and educational achievement
vary from sport to sport. Each sport has a distinct
subculture and provides a distinct experience that likely
influences youth behaviors and development in different
ways.12 For example, some sports may be more apt to foster
healthy eating or academic achievement than other sports.
Each sport likely has particular strengths and challenges
in supporting teen well-being. Young people’s experiences
can also differ depending on how many sports they play.
Moreover, most of the previous research has considered
only a limited number of well-being outcomes, which can
limit discovery and understanding of how sport contributes
to positive youth development.5
The Teen Sport in America research initiative is based on
an analysis of the Monitoring the Future (MTF)* nationwide
surveys, a federally funded longitudinal study of American
secondary education students.11 Approximately 50,000
students from the eighth, 10th, and 12th grades have
been surveyed annually since 1975 on a wide range of
topics concerning their health behaviors, substance use,
academic achievement, social/civic engagement, and
psychological health. Starting in 2006, the MTF began
collecting annual data on the specific types of sports
that students participated in during the last 12 months.
The list of 20 sports included in the survey were the 13
most popular sports in the United States, according to
the National Federation of State High School Association’s
(NFHS) 2016 participation survey (i.e., baseball/softball,
basketball, cheerleading**, cross-country, football, golf,
lacrosse, soccer, swimming/diving, tennis, track and field,
volleyball, and wrestling) and seven additional emerging
youth sports identified by the NFHS survey (i.e., crew,
* See the Measures index on page 45 for more detailed information on the study design, sample and data analysis. More details on the MTF can be found at http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/.
** Monitoring the Future asks respondents if they “competed in competitive cheerleading.” Many sideline cheer squads do have a culminating competitive cheer opportunity, which may have prompted respondents to respond favorably. However, it should be noted that a squad whose main focus is sideline cheer with limited competitive cheer opportunities would be unlikely to qualify as a ‘sport’ for Title IX purposes as defined by the Office of Civil Rights.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39887Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
equestrian, field hockey, gymnastics, ice hockey, water polo,
and weightlifting). An “other” response option also was
included for adolescents who participate in less-popular
sport opportunities. Therefore, the MTF survey data is
optimal for systematically examining critical variations
in adolescents’ education and health behaviors by a)
their overall participation in sports, b) the “breadth,” or
number of sports in which they participate, and c) the
type of sport in which they participate using a very large
representative sample of youth. The current report set out
to generate detailed demographic profiles on each of the
most popular 20 sports and to test hypothesized relations
between participation in each specific sport and various
measures of healthy development. All data analyses control
for key sociodemographic variables like sex, race, and
socioeconomic status. In this way, our report answers
questions about how each specific sport is related to
healthy development for all participating teens, regardless
of their sex, race, or socioeconomic background.
Several key research questions guided our analysis.
• Are sports accessible to both boys and girls and
diverse across youth from different racial/ethnic,
socioeconomic, and regional backgrounds? We were
interested in assessing both the diversity of sport
participation more broadly and by type of sport across
the 20 most popular youth sports in the country.
• Is sports participation related to positive teen well-
being, and does the number of sports in which teens
participate make a difference in the developmental
benefits acquired by sports? We were interested in
looking across a number of positive outcomes of well-
being to get a more informed profile of the influence
of sports participation on teens’ health, academic
achievement, and psychological well-being.
• What are the strengths and challenges of each of the
20 most popular teen sports in the United States for
promoting teen well-being? Examining a wide range
of important behaviors and outcomes within health,
academic achievement, and psychological well-
being, we used a rating system to compile a profile
of strengths and risks for each sport for supporting
teen well-being. This rating system approach is not
intended to compare and contrast the health and
risk profiles between sports, but rather, to identify
potential areas within each sport in need of attention
and improvement.
The approach and results of this report will provide an
evidence-based gateway for identifying and assessing
strengths and risks within each sport that can help inform
the future development of sport programming (e.g., coach
training), as well as familiarize the wider public and the
Women’s Sports Foundation and Laureus Sport for Good
Foundation USA leadership with some key research
findings. A basic summary of the research design and
methods is included below, followed by a detailed review
and discussion of our key findings.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.39888Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
The present study used cross-sectional data from the
2010 through 2015 Monitoring the Future (MTF) study
of 12th-grade students. The MTF has surveyed nationally
representative samples of approximately 15,000 U.S.
12th-graders each year since 1975. This study used a
partial sample of 12th-graders who were randomly selected
to answer questions on participation in 21 different types
of competitive sports (2010 was the first year to include
an expanded list of competitive sports). The response
rate for the 12th-grade sample between 2010 and 2015
ranged between 82% and 87%. More details on the MTF
can be found at the following website: http://www.
monitoringthefuture.org/. It should also be highlighted
that the MTF has also collected samples of eighth- and
10th-graders since 1991. While the inclusion of eighth- and
10th-graders would help complement the findings from
the 12th-grade sample, the form assessing participation in
different types of sports for eighth- and 10th-graders (Form
1) offered fewer health and psychological outcomes when
compared to the form provided to the 12th-graders (Form 5).
Accordingly, the majority of the report only discusses the
findings from the 12th-grade sample in order to provide the
widest number of outcomes for health behaviors, academic
achievement, and psychological health. However, the eighth-
and 10th-grade data was still useful to examine attrition
rates across different sports between the eighth, 10th, and
12th grades.
The sample used for this report consists of 14,049
12th-graders who were surveyed between 2010 and 2015
(roughly 2,500 respondents per year who were randomly
selected to fill out one of six possible forms). The sample
was 50.2% female (49.8% male), 55.3% white, 12.0% black,
14.8% Hispanic, and 17.9% “other race.” A little more than
half the sample was 18 at the time of the survey (57.7%)
and indicated having at least one parent with a college
degree or higher (50.7%). Roughly 36.6% of respondents
lived in the Southern region of the United States, while
22.8% lived in the Western region, 22.7% lived in the
Midwestern region, and 22.7% lived in the Northeastern
region. Roughly half of the respondents lived in suburban
areas (49.3%), followed by urban (30.7%) and rural
areas (19.9%).
For the analyses, descriptive statistics were provided
to examine the association between competitive sport
participation and the measures for health behaviors,
academic achievement, and psychological health (see
the Measures index for more detail on the items used
and coding procedures for the analyses). In order
to assess if differences across key outcomes were
statistically significant, chi-square (Tables 1-3), multiple
DESIGN, SAMPLE, AND DATA ANALYSIS
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logistic regression (Tables 4-10c), and ordinary least
squares regression (Tables 12-13c) were used to assess
associations between sport participation and each of the
key measures for health behaviors, academic achievement,
and psychological health. It should be noted that all multiple
logistic and ordinary least squares regressions controlled for
potentially confounding factors and included the following:
age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic
status), U.S. region, and urbanicity. Controlling for these
factors helps determine if participation in certain sports
has an impact on healthy development for all participants
regardless of these important background characteristics.
For the analyses, STATA 14.0 software was used to estimate
the analyses outlined above (Version 14.0; StataCorp LP,
College Station, Texas). All analyses used the weights
provided by the MTF (public use files) to account for the
probability of selection into the sample.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398810Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
U.S. Teen Sports Participation RatesSport remains the most popular extracurricular activity
within the United States, with 68% of the national
representative sample of 12th-graders reporting participation
in at least one sport (see Figure 1). Among the 68% of youth
participating in sports, over half (37.4%) participated in
two or more sports (see Figure 2). Given over one-third of
youth participated in more than one sport, the researchers
looked at whether participation in two or more sports,
compared to a single sport, provides more benefit/risk for
teens’ well-being.
Rates of participation for each of the 20 sport types
considered indicated basketball (18.9%), football (14%),
baseball/softball (13.6%), soccer (13%), and track and
field (11.9%) were the five most popular sports. Among the
“emerging sports,” weightlifting (10.8%) was substantially
more popular than any of the other sports (all remaining
emerging sports had around a 1% participation rate).
Approximately 15% of athletes reported participating in
“other sports” that were not specified in the MTF’s list of 20
sport opportunities. See Figures 3 and 4 on the following
pages for participation percentages for all 20 sports.
RESULTS
Figure 1. Sports Participation in General
32.0%Does not
participate in sports
68.0%Participates in
sports
Figure 2. Number of Different Sports
32.0%Does not
participate in sports
37.4%Participates in 2 or
more sports
30.5%Participates in
1 sport
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398811Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
Figure 3. Popular Sports for Boys and Girls
13.6%
Base
ball/
Softb
all
Bask
etba
ll
Chee
rlead
ing
Cros
s Co
untry
Foot
ball
Golf
Lacr
osse
Socc
er
Swim
min
g &
Divin
g
Tenn
is
Trac
k &
Fiel
d
Volle
ybal
l
Wre
stlin
g
18.9%
5.3% 5.2%
14.2%
5.0%
2.6%
13.0%
6.6%5.8%
11.9%
8.1%
4.5%
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398812Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Demographic Profile of U.S. Youth SportsGirls, youth of minority status, and young people from
lower socioeconomic backgrounds historically have
been shortchanged when it comes to the provision of
opportunities to explore and participate in sports.9,22,23 The
researchers set out to assess the extent that participants
within each of the 20 most popular U.S. sports reflect
diversity and inclusion.
Gender and Race/Ethnicity
Approximately 75% of all boys in the national MTF sample
of 12th-graders participated in sports, with almost half
participating in at least two or more sports (46.6%). Among
girls, just over 60% participated in sports, with only about
29% participating in two or more sports. There were several
sports that were similarly popular for both girls and boys,
including basketball, baseball/softball, soccer, and track
and field. Football and weightlifting also were highly popular
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
Figure 4. Emerging Sports/Less Popular Sports for Boys and Girls
0.7%1.3% 1.0% 1.6%
10.8%
0.9%1.6%
15.4%
Crew Equestrian Field Hockey
Gymnastics Ice Hockey Water Polo Weight Lifting
Other Sports
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sports for boys, while cheerleading and volleyball were
uniquely popular sports for girls.
Overall, boys participated at significantly greater rates than
girls in all sports except cheerleading, volleyball, equestrian,
field hockey, and gymnastics—all of which had significantly
greater percentages of girls participating than boys.
Tennis was the only sport that had similar percentages of
participating boys and girls (see Table 1).
Research showed similar rates of sports participation
among white, black, and Hispanic youth (participation
ranged between 65-70% for youth from all racial/ethnic
backgrounds). However, consideration of the demographic
composition of each sport suggested substantial variation
in diversity by type of sport. In fact, the MTF data indicated
significant differences in participation rates by race/
ethnicity in almost all types of sports, with a few popular
sports having particularly large differences. Baseball/
softball and weightlifting had particularly high participation
rates among white youth compared to black or Hispanic
youth, while basketball, football, and track and field had
significantly higher participation rates among black youth
than among white and Hispanic youth. Participation rates
for soccer were significantly higher among Hispanic youth
than among either black or white youth. Among all sports,
only volleyball, crew, and gymnastics showed no significant
differences in the race/ethnicity composition of participating
youth (see Table 2 on following page).
Table 1: Examining Differences in Sport Participation by Sex
Overall Boys Girls
Does not Participate in Sport 25.1% 38.9% ***
Participates in at least one sport 74.9% 61.1% ***
Number of Sports
Does not participate in sport 25.1% 38.9% ***
Participates in one sport 28.3% 32.6% ***
Participates in 2+ sports 46.6% 28.6% ***
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 16.2% 11.0% ***
Basketball 27.0% 11.0% ***
Cheerleading 0.9% 9.8% ***
Cross Country 6.0% 4.3% ***
Football 26.0% 2.2% ***
Golf 8.3% 1.8% ***
Lacrosse 3.7% 1.5% ***
Soccer 15.6% 10.5% ***
Swimming and Diving 7.3% 6.0% **
Tennis 6.0% 5.5%
Track and Field 13.8% 10.1% ***
Volleyball 4.7% 11.4% ***
Wrestling 7.9% 1.0% ***
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 0.9% 0.6% *
Equestrian 0.5% 2.0% ***
Field Hockey 0.7% 1.3% ***
Gymnastics 0.9% 2.3% ***
Ice Hockey 2.9% 0.4% ***
Water Polo 1.3% 0.5% ***
Weightlifting 17.7% 3.9% ***
Other Sport 16.3% 14.7% *
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on Chi-Square tests of independence (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398814Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 2: Examining Differences in Sport Participation by Race
Overall White Black Hispanic Other
Does not Participate in Sport 30.7% 34.7% 34.9% 32.5% ***
Participates in at least one sport 69.3% 65.3% 65.1% 67.5% ***
Number of Sports
Does not participate in sport 30.7% 34.7% 34.9% 32.5% ***
Participates in one sport 30.0% 30.2% 33.4% 30.1% ***
Participates in 2+ sports 39.4% 35.1% 31.7% 37.3% ***
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 15.8% 8.3% 12.7% 10.1% ***
Basketball 17.4% 30.3% 15.8% 18.7% ***
Cheerleading 5.3% 8.2% 3.0% 5.5% ***
Cross Country 5.8% 2.8% 4.9% 4.9% ***
Football 13.8% 17.6% 11.9% 15.3% ***
Golf 6.8% 1.4% 1.6% 4.3% ***
Lacrosse 3.2% 1.1% 1.1% 2.8% ***
Soccer 12.4% 5.8% 22.9% 11.1% ***
Swimming and Diving 6.5% 5.1% 6.3% 8.3% **
Tennis 6.2% 2.9% 3.5% 8.5% ***
Track and Field 11.5% 17.0% 8.6% 12.7% ***
Volleyball 8.5% 7.4% 6.9% 8.4%
Wrestling 4.1% 3.4% 5.2% 5.7% **
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 0.7% 0.8% 0.5% 0.9%
Equestrian 1.8% 0.4% 0.2% 1.1% ***
Field Hockey 1.2% 0.4% 0.6% 1.0% **
Gymnastics 1.5% 1.3% 1.8% 1.9%
Ice Hockey 2.3% 0.5% 0.6% 1.0% ***
Water Polo 1.0% 0.2% 1.0% 1.0% *
Weightlifting 11.4% 9.2% 9.4% 11.2% *
Other Sport 15.8% 11.9% 14.6% 17.2% ***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on Chi-Square tests of independence (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398815Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Socioeconomic Level and Urbanicity
Access to sport opportunities is often influenced by
family-level and community-level resources. Youth from
economically disadvantaged families, neighborhoods,
and schools have fewer economic resources to invest in
athletic programs than their more affluent counterparts.22-26
Research has consistently shown that the higher the
concentration of poverty in a school, the fewer the number
of sport opportunities offered, and the fewer number of
youth who participate.24,25 Previous research also has
indicated that the ratio of students to sport opportunities
varies by urbanicity. Urban and suburban schools tend to
be larger than rural schools and offer a greater number
and variety of sport opportunities, but also tend to have
a larger body of students competing for the limited slots
on each team.23,26 In this report, the researchers followed
common social scientific practice and used parents’ level
of education as a proxy for socioeconomic status, and
urbanicity as a proxy for community/school-level resources
in order to examine how differences in family and school-
based resources influence participation in sport.
As expected, youth from families with more economic
resources (parents with a college education or higher)
demonstrated higher participation rates and were more
likely to participate in two or more sports than less-
affluent youth. Eight sports showed differentiation by
family resources: basketball, cross country, golf, lacrosse,
swimming/diving, tennis, track and field, and ice hockey
(see Table 3 on the following page).
Although no differences appeared in sport participation
rates by urbanicity (youth from urban, rural, and suburban
communities were all participating in at least one sport at
equal rates), consideration of the number of sports, and the
type of sport revealed some important differences. Rural
youth in the United States were more likely than their urban
and suburban counterparts to participate in two or more
sports, and they showed the highest participation rates
in the majority of sports considered. The only sports with
lower participation rates among rural youth were lacrosse,
soccer, and swimming and diving, which showed more
popularity among urban youth, and the emerging sports of
ice hockey and water polo, which were more popular among
suburban youth. Variations in participation rates reflected
differences in access to sport. Although rural schools
typically offered fewer sports opportunities than urban
and suburban schools, they also tended to have fewer
students, which resulted in less competition and, at times,
greater recruitment of the student body to fill the available
slots. Among the sports examined, cross country, football,
tennis, and wrestling, as well as the emerging sports of
crew, field hockey, and gymnastics, were similarly popular
across youth from rural, suburban, and urban regions
(see Table 3).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398816Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 3: Examining Differences in Sport Participation by Socioeconomic Status and Urbanicity
Socioeconomic Status Urbanicity
Overall Both parents have less than a college degree
At least one parent has a college degree
Rural Suburban Urban
Does not participate in sport 37.5% 27.0% *** 31.1% 32.2% 32.5%
Participates in at least one sport 62.5% 73.0% *** 68.9% 67.8% 67.5%
Number of Sports
Does not participate in sport 37.5% 27.0% *** 31.1% 32.2% 32.5% ***
Participates in one sport 30.1% 31.0% *** 25.9% 31.5% 32.0% ***
Participates in 2+ sports 32.4% 42.0% *** 43.0% 36.3% 35.4% ***
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 13.1% 14.0% 18.8% 12.2% 12.3% ***
Basketball 17.2% 20.3% *** 23.0% 17.6% 18.2% ***
Cheerleading 5.2% 5.4% 6.9% 5.1% 4.4% ***
Cross Country 3.6% 6.6% *** 6.0% 5.0% 4.9%
Football 14.3% 14.2% 15.0% 14.2% 13.8%
Golf 3.0% 7.0% *** 6.4% 4.9% 4.2% ***
Lacrosse 1.7% 3.4% *** 0.9% 2.6% 3.7% ***
Soccer 12.2% 13.7% * 11.1% 13.2% 13.8% **
Swimming and Diving 5.6% 7.5% *** 4.7% 6.8% 7.5% ***
Tennis 4.3% 7.1% *** 5.3% 5.9% 5.9%
Track and Field 9.9% 13.7% *** 14.7% 11.9% 9.9% ***
Volleyball 7.6% 8.6% 10.1% 7.2% 8.2% ***
Wrestling 4.9% 4.0% * 4.8% 4.7% 3.8%
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 0.5% 0.9% * 0.8% 0.8% 0.7%
Equestrian 1.0% 1.5% * 1.7% 1.4% 0.8% **
Field Hockey 0.8% 1.2% 1.0% 0.9% 1.2%
Gymnastics 1.6% 1.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.8%
Ice Hockey 1.1% 2.1% *** 0.7% 1.9% 1.8% ***
Water Polo 0.8% 1.1% 0.4% 1.1% 0.9% **
Weightlifting 10.2% 11.3% 12.5% 10.9% 9.4% ***
Other Sport 14.2% 16.6% *** 14.3% 15.6% 15.9%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on Chi-Square tests of independence (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398817Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
AttritionPronounced attrition among teen athletes across
elementary and secondary education occurs in the United
States and tends to be more noticeable among girls,
racial and ethnic minorities, and adolescents from low
socioeconomic backgrounds.22,23 According to a national
study of U.S. children and adolescents, roughly 8% of third-
through fifth-grade students indicated completely dropping
out of sport. However, this dropout rate nearly doubled to
16% among ninth- through 12th-grade students. A goal of
this report was to examine attrition rates from eighth to 12th
grade for each of the 20 most popular and emerging sports
in the United States.
Table 4 (on the following page) provides the participation
and attrition rates across the survey years for the 20 sports
examined. The sports with the highest participation rates at
the 12th grade—basketball, soccer, and football—maintained
high popularity in the eighth grade. Similarly, sports with
the lowest participation rates in eighth grade continued
to exhibit low participation rates in 12th grade (water polo,
crew, and equestrian). Among the 20 sports, 16 sports lost
participants between eighth and 12th grades. The average
attrition across the 20 sports between the eighth and
12th grades was roughly 15.8%, with gymnastics (64.4%),
volleyball (54.2%), basketball (49.1%), soccer (45.4%), and
track and field (36.4%) having the highest attrition rates
compared to all other sports. In contrast, golf, tennis, water
polo, and weightlifting gained participants between eighth
and 12th grades.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398818Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 4: Examining Attrition in Sport Participation between Eighth and 12th Grade
Overall Eighth Grade 10th Grade 12th Grade Attrition Rate(2) (eighth to 12th)
Does not participate in sport 19.2% 24.9% 32.0% *** na
Participates in at least one sport 80.8% 75.1% 68.0% *** 15.8%
Number of sports
Does not participate in sport 19.2% 24.9% 32.0% *** na
Participates in one sport 26.3% 33.4% 30.5% *** -16.0%
Participates in 2+ sports 54.5% 41.7% 37.4% *** 31.4%
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 19.4% 13.0% 13.6% *** 29.9%
Basketball 37.1% 20.2% 18.9% *** 49.1%
Cheerleading 7.2% 5.2% 5.3% *** 26.4%
Cross Country 5.9% 5.3% 5.2% 11.9%
Football 22.3% 15.2% 14.2% *** 36.3%
Golf 4.4% 4.6% 5.0% -13.6%
Lacrosse 3.8% 3.8% 2.6% 31.6%
Soccer 23.8% 14.5% 13.0% *** 45.4%
Swimming and Diving 8.7% 5.9% 6.6% *** 24.1%
Tennis 5.3% 5.4% 5.8% -9.4%
Track and Field 18.7% 14.0% 11.9% *** 36.4%
Volleyball 17.7% 10.5% 8.1% *** 54.2%
Wrestling 4.7% 3.7% 4.5% * 4.3%
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 1.0% .8% 0.7% 30.0%
Equestrian 1.4% 1.5% 1.3% 7.1%
Field Hockey 1.5% 1.4% 1.0% 33.3%
Gymnastics 4.5% 2.0% 1.6% *** 64.4%
Ice Hockey 1.7% 2.1% 1.6% 5.9%
Water Polo 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% -12.5%
Weightlifting 10.7% 12.1% 10.8% * -0.9%
Other Sport 15.7% 17.0% 15.4% 1.9%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on Chi-Square tests of independence (see methods section for more details).
(1) Eighth- and 10th-grade samples include respondents sampled between 2010 and 2015.
(2) Attrition rates were created with the following procedure:
Step 1: (12th-grade participation rate)/(eighth-grade participation rate) = Retention rate
Step 2: (1-retention rate)*100=(Attrition rate as a percentage)
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398819Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
The goal of this report was to look across a number of
positive outcomes of well-being to get a more informed
profile of the influence of sports participation on teens’
health, academic achievement, and psychological
well-being. Three research questions guided this goal.
First, is there evidence that sport participation is related
to health and well-being and/or risk behaviors? Second,
does the number of sports in which youth participate
make a difference in promoting health or risk? Third, are
there variations in the way each of the top 20 sports in
the United States promote health and risk behaviors? To
answer this third research question, we compiled a sport
rating system that represents a profile of each sport’s
strengths and limitations across the number of outcomes
measured for physical health, academic achievement, and
psychological well-being.
Sports and Teen Health BehaviorsSome research shows participation in sport linked to
health-promotive behaviors such as healthy eating, physical
activity, and adequate sleep,8,9,27,28 while other research
suggests participation is linked to health-risk behaviors,
such as caffeine consumption and alcohol and marijuana
use.13-16 However, to date, no research has examined
whether these relations are accurate across all sports,
or whether certain sports are more or less promotive of
healthy behaviors. The researchers examined three critical
aspects of health: diet and nutrition, active lifestyle, and
substance use.
Researchers examined six different eating behaviors to
determine the influence of sport on diet and nutrition.
These behaviors included whether youth reported that, on a
daily basis, they: 1) ate breakfast, 2) ate vegetables, 3) ate
fruit, 4) consumed at least one soft drink (regular or diet),
5) consumed at least one energy drink, and 6) consumed
at least one energy shot. Analysis of the large, nationally
representative MTF sample provided support for the
benefits of sports participation in promoting adolescents’
healthy diet. Sports participants were significantly more
likely to eat breakfast and fruits and vegetables daily than
non-participants. Moreover, the influence of sport on
healthy behaviors increased with the number of sports
youth participate in, so that youth who participated in two
or more sports more often engaged in these healthy eating
behaviors than youth who participated in one sport. For
the consumption of soft drinks, sport participation was
only linked with lower consumption among youth who
participated in at least two sports. Youth who participated
in one sport showed similar soft drink consumption to non-
athletes. Similarly, sport participation was not a protective
factor against the use of energy drinks or shots – research
indicated similar rates of consumption for both athletes and
SPORTS AND YOUTH DEvELOPMENT
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398820Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
non-athletes (see Tables 5a-5c below and on following page
for percentages).
Table 5a: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Diet and Nutrition (Any Participation)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Diet and Nutrition Eats Breakfast Everyday
Eats Green Vegetables Everyday
Eats Fruit Everyday
Has at least one soft drink per day
Has at least one energy drink
per day
Has at least one energy shot
per day
Does not participate in sport
33.0% 34.3% 40.2% 72.7% 25.7% 7.5%
Participates in at least one sport
41.2%*** 43.0%*** 52.9%*** 70.1%*** 28.6% 9.4%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details). Controlling for these factors helps determine if participation in certain sports have an impact on healthy development for all participants regardless of these important background characteristics.
Table 5b: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Diet and Nutrition (Participation in Multiple Sports)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Diet and Nutrition Eats Breakfast Everyday
Eats Green Vegetables Everyday
Eats Fruit Everyday
Has at least one soft drink per day
Has at least one energy drink
per day
Has at least one energy shot
per day
Does not participate in sport
33.0% 34.3% 40.2% 72.7% 25.7% 7.5%
Participates in one sport
38.0%** 40.0%*** 47.5%*** 70.7% 27.2% 8.3%
Participates in 2+ sports
43.8%*** 45.4%*** 57.3%*** 69.6%*** 29.8% 10.3%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398821Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 5c: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Diet and Nutrition (Participation in Specific Sports)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Diet and Nutrition Eats Breakfast Everyday
Eats Green Vegetables Everyday
Eats Fruit Everyday
Has at least one soft drink
per day
Has at least one energy drink
per day
Has at least one energy
shot per day
Overall
All Respondents 38.0% 39.3% 47.7% 71.2% 27.8% 8.9%
Does not Participate in Sports 33.0% 34.3% 40.2% 72.7% 25.7% 7.5%
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 39.5% 40.1% 53.2% 76.0%** 34.2%** 11.5%
Basketball 41.8% 39.7% 51.6% 72.5% 29.5% 11.1%
Cheerleading 42.2%* 41.9% 55.4%* 72.5%* 22.0% 5.3%
Cross Country 56.8%*** 51.2%* 63.9%*** 62.9%* 24.3% 6.4%*
Football 40.9% 41.1% 53.4%* 71.0% 36.5%* 15.1%*
Golf 44.8% 45.4% 53.8% 73.4% 35.1% 10.0%
Lacrosse 49.2% 50.3% 62.0%* 62.9% 31.9% 13.3%
Soccer 41.7% 46.5%*** 57.4%*** 70.1% 28.1% 9.1%
Swimming and Diving 42.8% 48.7% 59.2% 65.1% 29.8% 9.5%
Tennis 47.7%*** 51.1%* 62.0%*** 63.3%*** 27.0% 8.2%
Track and Field 48.6%*** 46.9%* 58.9%*** 64.5%*** 25.9% 8.9%
Volleyball 40.3% 46.8% 60.3%** 68.8% 25.0% 8.8%
Wrestling 40.1% 43.9% 56.0% 73.0% 40.7%** 17.5%**
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 39.2% 54.2% 63.9% 47.9%** 29.8% 12.5%
Equestrian 42.7% 55.6% 66.2%* 69.0% 28.4% 9.8%
Field Hockey 45.0% 48.9% 61.4% 62.9% 26.7% 9.8%
Gymnastics 34.0%* 47.4% 57.4% 61.3% 22.7% 11.7%*
Ice Hockey 39.7% 45.0% 55.8% 72.0% 38.9% 21.6%***
Water Polo 45.6% 53.2% 68.4% 56.8% 31.8% 10.9%
Weightlifting 47.2%*** 49.4%*** 58.6%*** 68.9%* 35.1% 14.0%
Other Sport 37.8% 44.9%* 53.2%* 70.5% 29.3% 8.3%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398822Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
To measure possible differences in active lifestyles, the
researchers examined youth reports of whether they
exercised seven days a week, and whether this exercise
included vigorous physical activity (activity that makes you
feel “out of breath” for at least 30 minutes) nearly every
day. Youth were also asked to report whether they got seven
hours of sleep nearly every day. Compared to non-athletes,
sport participants were significantly more likely to engage
in daily exercise, vigorous daily exercise, and acquire at
least seven hours of sleep every night. Across all active
lifestyle measures, the influence of sport increased with
the number of sports in which youth participated, so that
participation in one sport provided more benefits than no
sport participation, and participation in two or more sports
was healthier than participation in one sport (see Tables
6a-6c on this and following page for percentages).
Table 6a: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Physical Activity (Any Participation)
Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Physical Activity and Rest
Exercises Vigorously Every Day
Exercises 7 Days a Week
Gets 7 Hours of Sleep
Every Day
Does not participate in sport
15.0% 7.0% 26.4%
Participates in at least one sport
51.8%*** 21.6%*** 34.2%***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
Table 6b: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Physical Activity
(Participation in Multiple Sports)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red
refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Physical Activity and Rest
Exercises Vigorously Every Day
Exercises 7 Days a Week
Gets 7 Hours of Sleep
Every Day
Does not participate in sport
15.0% 7.0% 26.4%
Participates in one sport
39.4%*** 16.0%*** 31.5%***
Participates in 2+ sports
61.9%*** 26.2%*** 36.5%***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398823Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 6c: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Physical Activity (Participation in Specific Sports)
Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Physical Activity and Rest
Exercises Vigorously Every Day
Exercises 7 Days a Week
Gets 7 Hours of Sleep
Every Day
Overall
All Respondents 39.0% 16.8% 31.5%
Does not participate in sport
15.0% 7.0% 26.4%
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 62.8%*** 32.8%*** 38.4%***
Basketball 59.0%*** 27.6%** 34.6%
Cheerleading 41.7%*** 14.0% 32.9%
Cross Country 67.5%*** 26.1% 41.6%**
Football 65.9%*** 32.9%** 35.8%
Golf 56.2% 30.0% 40.3%
Lacrosse 72.3%*** 34.7%** 37.1%
Soccer 59.3%*** 25.8%*** 37.6%***
Swimming and Diving
53.4% 23.5% 32.7%
Tennis 48.3% 22.0% 32.1%
Track and Field 70.8%*** 26.5%*** 36.3%
Volleyball 48.9% 20.7% 33.9%
Wrestling 67.0%*** 29.5% 32.6%
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 56.9% 34.7% 38.6%
Equestrian 41.1% 27.4%** 45.5%**
Field Hockey 48.4% 22.3% 31.8%
Gymnastics 55.2% 22.1% 30.8%
Ice Hockey 55.9% 37.2% 39.0%
Water Polo 70.2%* 32.4% 38.5%
Weightlifting 72.1%*** 34.0%*** 39.4%**
Other Sport 43.5%* 18.5% 28.6%***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
As another critical component of physical health, the
researchers also looked at the link between sports
participation and the three most prevalent risky substance-
use behaviors among youth (i.e., cigarette use, alcohol
binge drinking, and marijuana use). Similar to previous
studies, findings of the influence of sport participation on
substance use in this report were mixed.*** For cigarette
smoking, sport participation provided protective benefits,
but only for youth who participated in multiple sports. Youth
who participated in at least two sports were less likely to
smoke cigarettes than youth who participated in one sport
or no sports. However, youth who participated in one sport
displayed similar rates of cigarette use as non-athletes. For
alcohol, overall sports participation was a risk factor, with
rates of binge drinking within the past two weeks highest
for youth who participated in multiple sports. For marijuana
use, sports participation was neither protective nor a risk
factor. The researchers found no differences between
athletes and non-athletes in the likelihood to use marijuana,
*** For a broader assessment of the impact of sports on substance use that includes substances beyond those reviewed in this report (e.g., prescription drugs, pain killers, etc.) please refer to the following articles:
Veliz P, Boyd CJ, McCabe SE. Playing through pain: Sports participation and nonmedical use of opioid medications among adolescents. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:e28-e30.
Veliz P, Boyd CJ, McCabe, SE. Nonmedical Prescription Opioid and Heroin Use Among Adolescents Who Engage in Sports and Exercise. Pediatrics. 2016;138(2).
Veliz P, Boyd CJ, McCabe, SE. Nonmedical Use of Prescription Opioids and Heroin Use Among Adolescents Involved in Competitive Sports. J Adolesc Health. 2017;60(3):346-349.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398824Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
even among athletes who participated in two or more sports
(see Tables 7a-7c for percentages).
Table 7a: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Substance Use (Any Participation)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red
refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Substance Use Past 30-day Cigarette Use
Past 2-week Binge
Drinking
Past 30-day Marijuana
Use
Does not participate in sport
16.2% 16.5% 21.5%
Participates in at least one sport
14.1%*** 23.1%*** 22.0%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
Table 7b: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Substance Use
(Participation in Multiple Sports)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red
refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Substance Use Past 30-day Cigarette Use
Past 2-week Binge
Drinking
Past 30-day Marijuana
Use
Does not participate in sport
16.2% 16.5% 21.5%
Participates in one sport
15.0% 20.9%*** 21.0%
Participates in 2+ sports
13.4%*** 24.9%*** 22.8%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
Table 7c: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Substance Use
(Participation in Specific Sports)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red
refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Substance Use Past 30-day Cigarette Use
Past 2-week Binge
Drinking
Past 30-day Marijuana
Use
Overall
All Respondents 15.2% 21.2% 22.3%
Does not participate in sport
16.2% 16.5% 21.5%
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 15.5% 25.6% 21.4%
Basketball 13.6% 24.1% 24.8%
Cheerleading 14.6% 20.5% 19.2%
Cross Country 10.1% 18.5% 15.8%*
Football 18.7% 31.4%*** 30.8%***
Golf 15.5% 31.6% 23.2%
Lacrosse 21.5%** 45.9%*** 38.7%***
Soccer 11.7%** 25.4% 21.6%
Swimming and Diving
13.7% 23.3% 24.0%
Tennis 11.8% 21.8% 19.6%*
Track and Field 9.5%*** 19.5%** 18.8%***
Volleyball 12.5% 21.6% 18.1%
Wrestling 22.1%* 33.8%*** 31.0%
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 15.5% 27.9% 36.0%*
Equestrian 11.3% 10.1%*** 16.2%
Field Hockey 10.8% 30.5% 33.3%
Gymnastics 12.6% 22.4% 22.2%
Ice Hockey 26.7%** 42.5%* 38.7%**
Water Polo 18.6% 23.3% 32.8%
Weightlifting 18.5% 31.2%** 28.5%
Other Sport 13.8% 19.7%* 20.3%*
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398825Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
What Sports Are Making the Cut? Each Sport’s Health Behavior Ratings
Overall, the MTF data indicated that sports participation
was “promotive” of multiple healthy behaviors, including
healthy eating, physical activity, and ample sleep.
Findings also showed that while sport participation can
be protective against the use of some substances when
youth participate in multiple sports (e.g., cigarettes), it
had no impact on other risky/unhealthy behaviors (e.g.,
marijuana use, caffeine intake) and can even be a clear risk
factor for the use of other substances (e.g., alcohol binge
drinking). As an important next step, the researchers set
out to identify which sports were doing well in promoting
healthy behaviors and preventing risk, and which critically
needed improvement.
For diet/nutrition, several sports displayed a similar profile
of positive health behaviors. Youth who participated in cross
country, tennis, track and field, or weightlifting all reported
daily consumption of breakfast, fruits and vegetables, and
lower consumption of soft drinks at higher percentages than
youth in all other sports and non-athletes. Data analyses
also linked cross country to significantly lower rates of
consuming energy drinks daily. In contrast, wrestling,
baseball/softball, football, gymnastics, and ice hockey were
linked to a less healthy diet, with youth in these sports being
more likely to consume energy drinks/shots and soft drinks
than those in all other sports and non-athletes. In addition
to overconsumption of energy drinks/caffeine, youth in
gymnastics also were less likely to eat breakfast daily than
all other youth (see Table 8 on the following page).
For active lifestyle and sleep, all sport types fared similarly
to or better than “other sports” and non-athletes. Baseball/
softball, soccer, and weightlifting stood out as particularly
healthy, linked with significantly higher percentages of youth
reporting daily physical activity and sleep than all other
youth in the sample. There were no sports that stood out as
needing improvement (see Table 9 on page 27).
Research found track and field to be a particularly protective
sport against substance use, with participating youth
significantly less likely than the rest of the sample to binge
drink, smoke cigarettes, or use marijuana. Cross country,
soccer, tennis, and equestrian were also protective, with
each having significantly lower percentages of participants
reporting use of at least one of the three substances.
In contrast, ice hockey, lacrosse, football, and wrestling
showed particularly high risk, with youth participating in
these sports having a greater likelihood to have used at
least two of the three substances in the past two weeks
than the rest of the national sample. Weightlifting and crew
also could benefit from improvement/intervention, with
each reporting higher risk for use of at least one of the three
substances when compared to other sports or non-athletes
(see Table 10 on page 27).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398826Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 8: Report Card: Diet and Nutrition(a)
Eats Breakfast Every Day
Eats Green Vegetables Every Day
Eats Fruit Every Day
Has At Least One Soft Drink
Per Day
Has At Least One Energy
Drink Per Day
Has At Least One Energy
Shot Per Day
Total Score
Participate in Sports + + + + avg. avg. 10
Cross Country + + + + avg. + 11
Tennis + + + + avg. avg. 10
Track and Field + + + + avg. avg. 10
Weightlifting + + + + avg. avg. 10
Soccer avg. + + avg. avg. avg. 8
Other Sport avg. + + avg. avg. avg. 8
Cheerleading + avg. + - avg. avg. 7
Lacrosse avg. avg. + avg. avg. avg. 7
Volleyball avg. avg. + avg. avg. avg. 7
Crew avg. avg. avg. + avg. avg. 7
Equestrian avg. avg. + avg. avg. avg. 7
Basketball avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Golf avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Swimming and Diving avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Field Hockey avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Water Polo avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Football avg. avg. + avg. - - 5
Ice Hockey avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. - 5
Baseball/Softball avg. avg. avg. - - avg. 4
Wrestling avg. avg. avg. avg. - - 4
Gymnastics - avg. avg. avg. avg. - 4
Key: ‘-’ = Below average [score = 0]; ‘avg.’ = Average [score = 1]; ‘+’ = Above average [score = 2]
Significance tests control for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398827Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 9: Report Card: Physical Activity and Rest(b)
Exercises Vigorously Every Day
Exercises 7 Days a
Week
Gets 7 Hours
of Sleep Every Day
Total Score
Participate in Sports + + + 6
Baseball/Softball + + + 6
Soccer + + + 6
Weightlifting + + + 6
Basketball + + avg. 5
Cross Country + avg. + 5
Football + + avg. 5
Lacrosse + + avg. 5
Track and Field + + avg. 5
Equestrian avg. + + 5
Cheerleading + avg. avg. 4
Wrestling + avg. avg. 4
Water Polo + avg. avg. 4
Golf avg. avg. avg. 3
Swimming and Diving avg. avg. avg. 3
Tennis avg. avg. avg. 3
Volleyball avg. avg. avg. 3
Crew avg. avg. avg. 3
Field Hockey avg. avg. avg. 3
Gymnastics avg. avg. avg. 3
Ice Hockey avg. avg. avg. 3
Other Sport + avg. - 3
Key: ‘-’ = Below average [score = 0]; ‘avg.’ = Average [score = 1]; ‘+’ = Above average [score = 2]
Significance tests control for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity.
Table 10: Report Card: Substance Use(c)
Past 30-day
Cigarette Use
Past 2-week Binge
Drinking
Past 30-day
Marijuana Use
Total Score
Participate in Sports + + avg. 5
Track and Field + + + 6
Other Sport avg. + + 5
Cross Country avg. avg. + 4
Soccer + avg. avg. 4
Tennis avg. avg. + 4
Equestrian avg. + avg. 4
Baseball/Softball avg. avg. avg. 3
Basketball avg. avg. avg. 3
Cheerleading avg. avg. avg. 3
Golf avg. avg. avg. 3
Swimming and Diving avg. avg. avg. 3
Volleyball avg. avg. avg. 3
Field Hockey avg. avg. avg. 3
Gymnastics avg. avg. avg. 3
Water Polo avg. avg. avg. 3
Crew avg. avg. - 2
Weightlifting avg. - avg. 2
Football avg. - - 1
Wrestling - - avg. 1
Lacrosse - - - 0
Ice Hockey - - - 0
Key: ‘-’ = Below average [score = 0]; ‘avg.’ = Average [score = 1]; ‘+’ = Above average [score = 2]
Significance tests control for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398828Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Sports and Academic AchievementSubstantial evidence from previous research has shown
that participation in sports to be associated with more
positive academic self-concepts, greater expectations
and aspirations, and higher academic achievement
and educational attainment.1-6 The researchers found
similar associations in the current report. Compared to
non-athletes, a larger percentage of sport participants
reported earning an average grade of “A” in school and
rated themselves as “above average” on school ability and
intelligence. Sport participants also were more likely than
non-athletes to endorse high educational and occupational
aspirations and expectations, with significantly higher
percentages reporting that they aspired to and “definitely
will” graduate from a four-year college, and aspired to and
“definitely will” attend professional or graduate school
after college. For all indicators of academic achievement
and attainment, the likelihood of benefitting from sports
participation increased with the number of sports in which
youth participated. For measures of truancy, skipping
class, and absence due to illness, researchers identified
no differences between athletes and non-athletes (see
Tables 11a-11c, below and on the following pages,
for percentages).
Table 11a: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Academic Achievement (Any Participation)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Academic Achievement
Self-Rated School Ability Above Average
Self-Rated Intelligence
Above Average
Past Month Cut Class (full-day)
Past Month Missed Class Due to Illness
Past Month Skipped
Class (partial)
Average Grade in School A or A-
Will Graduate from a Four-year College
Will Attend Graduate or Professional
School
Does not participate in sport
27.9% 31.9% 29.8% 43.3% 27.1% 32.7% 52.3% 21.3%
Participates in at least one sport
37.0%*** 38.6%** 28.9% 39.3% 27.9% 38.2%*** 64.8%*** 26.0%***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details). Controlling for these factors helps determine if participation in certain sports have an impact on healthy development for all participants regardless of these important background characteristics.
Please note that the percentages for “would want to graduate from a four-year college” and “would want to attend graduate or professional school” were omitted due to redundancy.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398829Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 11b: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Academic Achievement (Participation in Multiple Sports)
Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Academic Achievement
Self-Rated School Ability Above Average
Self-Rated Intelligence
Above Average
Past Month Cut Class (full-day)
Past Month Missed Class Due to Illness
Past Month Skipped
Class (partial)
Average Grade in School A or A-
Will Graduate from a Four-year College
Will Attend Graduate or Professional
School
Does not participate in sport
27.9% 31.9% 29.8% 43.3% 27.1% 32.7% 52.3% 21.3%
Participates in one sport
33.5%*** 36.0% 29.6% 40.2% 27.5% 36.7%** 64.0%** 25.8%***
Participates in 2+ sports
39.8%*** 40.8%*** 28.3% 38.5% 28.2% 39.4%*** 65.4%*** 26.1%***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details). Controlling for these factors helps determine if participation in certain sports have an impact on healthy development for all participants regardless of these important background characteristics.
Please note that the percentages for “would want to graduate from a four-year college” and “would want to attend graduate or professional school” were omitted due to redundancy.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398830Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 11c: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Academic Achievement (Participation in Specific Sports)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Academic Achievement
Self-Rated School
Ability Above Average
Self-Rated Intelligence
Above Average
Past Month Cut Class (full-day)
Past Month Missed Class Due to Illness
Past Month Skipped
Class (partial)
Average Grade in School A or A-
Will Graduate from a Four-year College
Will Attend Graduate or Professional
School
Overall
All Respondents 33.2% 35.9% 29.4% 40.6% 27.9% 35.5% 59.9% 24.2%
Does not participate in sport
27.9% 31.9% 29.8% 43.3% 27.1% 32.7% 52.3% 21.3%
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 36.7% 36.7% 28.1% 38.6% 26.7% 39.6% 64.2%** 23.9%
Basketball 38.1% 40.7% 28.7% 37.5% 29.6% 37.1% 60.9% 23.8%
Cheerleading 32.0% 30.8% 28.8% 50.3%* 28.4% 42.9% 73.5%*** 36.8%***
Cross Country 47.3%** 49.4%*** 23.1% 32.8% 24.7% 50.6%*** 70.0%* 27.0%
Football 34.8%*** 39.8%* 33.1%** 38.1% 32.6% 28.5%*** 55.2% 19.6%
Golf 42.0% 43.5% 27.6% 36.4% 26.8% 43.4% 68.4%* 26.4%
Lacrosse 41.6% 47.1% 36.0%* 40.9% 37.2%*** 35.2% 68.6% 23.6%
Soccer 38.1% 38.3% 28.2% 37.3% 31.3% 39.9%* 67.1%*** 26.4%
Swimming and Diving 40.1% 42.3% 28.0% 42.1% 32.2% 40.6% 63.9% 29.1%
Tennis 50.0%*** 49.1%*** 25.5% 41.9% 24.9% 52.0%*** 78.4%*** 33.1%***
Track and Field 41.9%*** 40.0% 24.2%*** 35.0%** 25.4%** 41.1%* 67.1%*** 27.6%*
Volleyball 39.4% 38.4% 27.3% 43.5% 26.4% 45.7% 70.2% 31.4%
Wrestling 32.7% 39.3% 35.4% 40.0% 40.8%** 25.4%** 50.7% 20.5%
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 39.0% 40.2% 24.4% 51.8% 38.0% 42.2% 71.4% 40.5%
Equestrian 38.8% 41.0% 23.0% 44.1% 19.6%* 49.6% 66.6% 27.6%
Field Hockey 35.8% 29.1% 30.9% 50.7% 33.5% 45.6% 69.4% 28.9%
Gymnastics 39.2% 39.6% 27.8% 46.0% 29.9% 37.7% 64.4% 35.2%
Ice Hockey 38.4% 49.3% 33.1% 40.6% 36.4% 33.8% 59.0% 23.6%
Water Polo 47.8% 47.2% 36.7% 46.9% 46.7%** 42.2% 61.8% 32.8%
Weightlifting 41.0%** 43.9%* 31.0% 37.8% 35.0%*** 34.7% 58.2% 24.7%*
Other Sport 37.1% 41.6%** 27.5% 42.5% 25.6%* 37.3% 62.0% 26.8%
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on logistic regression analyses controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details). Controlling for these factors helps determine if participation in certain sports have an impact on healthy development for all participants regardless of these important background characteristics.
Please note that the percentages for “would want to graduate from a four-year college” and “would want to attend graduate or professional school” were omitted due to redundancy.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398831Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
What Sports Are Making the Cut? Each Sport’s Academic Achievement Ratings
Among all 20 sports, track and field stood out as having the
highest percentages of youth who excelled academically.
Track and field youth more often reported high academic
achievement, positive academic self-concepts (believe
they were above average in school ability), high aspirations
and expectations of graduating from a four-year college
and attaining additional education post-graduation than
all other youth. Lower percentages of track and field youth
skipped class, skipped school, or experienced absences
due to illness. A greater percentage of youth participants
from tennis, cross country, and soccer also excelled
academically; they were more likely to report having an
average grade of an “A” in school and expectations to
graduate from a four-year college.
In contrast, football, wrestling, lacrosse, and water polo
showed the lowest percentages of youth who were excelling
across the multiple indicators of academic achievement.
Football and wrestling had significantly lower percentages
of youth who excelled in academic performance (had an
average grade of “A” in school) and, along with lacrosse,
water polo, and weightlifting, displayed the highest
percentages of youth who either skipped classes (wrestling,
water polo, weightlifting), engaged in truancy (football), or
both (lacrosse). Compared to non-athletes and other sports,
football youth were less likely to have positive academic self-
concepts, and water polo and equestrian youth indicated
significantly lower aspirations to graduate from a four-year
college. Although gymnasts fared well academically, with
significantly higher percentages having positive educational
expectations and aspirations, it is important to note that a
greater percentage of youth in this sport reported missing
school due to illness (see Table 12 on the following page).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398832Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 12: Report Card: Academic Achievement
Self-Rated School Ability Above
Average
Self-Rated Intelligence
Above Average
Past Month
Cut Class (full-day)
Past Month Missed Class Due to Illness
Past Month
Skipped Class
(partial)
Average Grade
in School A or A-
Will Graduate
from a Four-year College
Will Attend Graduate or Professional
School
Would Want to
Graduate from a
Four-year College
Would Want to Attend
Graduate or Professional
School
Total Score
Participate in Sports
+ + avg. avg. avg. + + + + + 17
Track and Field
+ avg. + + + + + + + + 19
Tennis + avg. avg. avg. avg. + + + + + 16
Cross Country
+ + avg. avg. avg. + + avg. avg. + 15
Soccer avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. + + avg. + avg. 13
Other Sport avg. + avg. avg. + avg. avg. avg. avg. + 13
Baseball/Softball
avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. + avg. + avg. 12
Cheerleading avg. avg. avg. - avg. avg. + + + avg. 12
Weightlifting + + avg. avg. - avg. avg. + avg. avg. 12
Golf avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. + avg. avg. avg. 11
Volleyball avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. + avg. 11
Basketball avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 10
Swim/Diving avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 10
Crew avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 10
Equestrian avg. avg. avg. avg. + avg. avg. avg. - avg. 10
Field Hockey avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 10
Gymnastics avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 10
Ice Hockey avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 10
Lacrosse avg. avg. - avg. - avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 8
Wrestling avg. avg. avg. avg. - - avg. avg. avg. avg. 8
Water Polo avg. avg. avg. avg. - avg. avg. avg. - avg. 8
Football - - - avg. avg. - avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Key: ‘-’ = Below average [score = 0]; ‘avg.’ = Average [score = 1]; ‘+’ = Above average [score = 2]
Significance tests control for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398833Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Sports and Psychological HealthThe majority of previous studies have shown a highly
positive influence of sport on various facets of psychological
health, including improved self-esteem, self-efficacy, social
support, and peer acceptance.7,29 However, another set of
studies suggested that for some athletes the high pressure
of many high school sports, including an overemphasis on
winning and impractical performance expectations, as well
as other adolescent challenges—such as time management
across academics, sports, and social life—leads to
heightened stress and anxiety, and reduced confidence
and self-esteem.17,18 In the nationally representative MTF
study, sports participation showed positive links to multiple
areas of psychological health, including participants being
more likely to report high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and
social support and less likely to report fatalistic attitudes,
self-derogation, and loneliness. Similar to physical health
and academic achievement, the likelihood of psychologically
benefitting from sports participation increased with the
number of sports in which youth participated (see Tables
13a-13c for percentages below and on the following pages).
Table 13a: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Psychological Health (Any Participation)Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Psychological Health Self-Esteem (high score = high self-
esteem)
Fatalism (high score = high fatalism)
Self-Efficacy (high score = high self-efficacy)
Loneliness (high score =
high Loneliness)
Self-Derogation (high score = high self-derogation)
Social Support (high score
= high social support)
Does not participate in sport 3.92 2.36 3.65 2.91 2.28 4.02
Participates in at least one sport
4.15*** 2.22*** 3.77*** 2.65*** 2.03*** 4.17***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on ordinary least squares regression (see methods section for more details) controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity. Controlling for these factors helps determine if participation in certain sports have an impact on healthy development for all participants regardless of these important background characteristics.
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398834Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 13b: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Psychological Health (Participation in Multiple Sports)
Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Psychological Health Self-Esteem (high score = high self-
esteem)
Fatalism (high score = high fatalism)
Self-Efficacy (high score = high self-efficacy)
Loneliness (high score =
high Loneliness)
Self-Derogation (high score = high self-derogation)
Social Support (high score
= high social support)
Does not participate in sport 3.92 2.36 3.65 2.91 2.28 4.02
Participates in one sport 4.08*** 2.26*** 3.73*** 2.73*** 2.10*** 4.13***
Participates in 2+ sports 4.21*** 2.18*** 3.80*** 2.58*** 1.97*** 4.21***
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on ordinary least squares regression controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398835Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
Table 13c: Examining the Influence of Sport Participation on Psychological Health (Participation in Specific Sports)
Green indicates a significant positive impact on the outcome; Red refers to a significant negative impact on the outcome.
Psychological Health Self-Esteem (high score = high self-
esteem)
Fatalism (high score = high fatalism)
Self-Efficacy (high score = high self-efficacy)
Loneliness (high score =
high Loneliness)
Self-Derogation (high score = high self-derogation)
Social Support (high score
= high social support)
Overall
All Respondents 4.07 2.27 3.72 2.73 2.12 4.12
Does not participate in sport 3.92 2.36 3.65 2.91 2.28 4.02
Most popular sports
Baseball/Softball 4.20*** 2.22 3.77 2.50*** 1.95*** 4.22**
Basketball 4.24*** 2.21** 3.80*** 2.50*** 1.95*** 4.19*
Cheerleading 4.17** 2.27 3.83 2.82 2.05 4.20
Cross Country 4.16 2.11* 3.85** 2.70 2.01 4.18
Football 4.24*** 2.27 3.73 2.47** 1.97** 4.12
Golf 4.18 2.26 3.73 2.50 1.91 4.18
Lacrosse 4.23 2.23 3.71 2.47* 1.96 4.14
Soccer 4.18*** 2.22 3.76 2.57** 2.00* 4.23***
Swimming and Diving 4.18 2.27 3.83 2.69 2.07 4.21
Tennis 4.18** 2.11* 3.83* 2.62 1.99 4.19
Track and Field 4.18* 2.18 3.79 2.60** 1.99* 4.17
Volleyball 4.19* 2.16 3.85* 2.69 2.01 4.23
Wrestling 4.06* 2.38 3.68 2.65 2.21** 3.99*
Emerging sports/less popular
Crew 4.18 2.78*** 3.55* 2.93* 2.51*** 3.95
Equestrian 4.18* 2.27 3.80 2.68 2.01 4.27
Field Hockey 4.06 2.20 3.70 2.50 2.10 4.10
Gymnastics 4.16 2.30 3.79 2.84 2.17 4.07
Ice Hockey 4.21 2.45* 3.58* 2.55 2.12 4.02
Water Polo 3.99 2.27 3.74 2.54 2.15 3.95
Weightlifting 4.23* 2.24 3.80* 2.55 2.01 4.16
Other Sport 4.13 2.29 3.76 2.75 2.12 4.15
p<.05*; p<.01**; p<.001***
Significance tests were based on ordinary least squares regression controlling for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity (see methods section for more details).
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What Sports Are Making the Cut? Each Sport’s Psychological Health Ratings
Youth who participated in the most popular sports
(basketball, baseball/softball, soccer, football, tennis, and
track and field) appeared to fare best in psychological
health compared to all other youth in the sample. Basketball
youth were particularly noteworthy for being more likely
than the rest of the sample to perform well on all the
measures of psychological well-being in the study. Baseball/
softball, soccer, football, and track and field youth displayed
a similar profile of high self-esteem and low rates of
loneliness and self-derogation, with baseball/softball and
soccer youth also reporting high social support. Tennis
participants more often reported high self-esteem and
self-efficacy, but did not differentiate from the rest of youth
in the sample on social components of well-being, such as
loneliness and support.
In contrast, crew, wrestling, and ice hockey fared worse
overall in psychological well-being compared to the national
sample. Wrestlers were more likely to struggle with self-
esteem and had high rates of self-derogation and low
rates of social support, while ice hockey athletes more
often struggled with self-efficacy and fatalistic attitudes
(e.g., people like me don’t have much chance to be
successful in life). Crew athletes performed particularly
poorly across psychological outcomes, with significantly
greater percentages of youth in crew struggling with
low self-efficacy, fatalistic attitudes, self-derogation, and
loneliness (see Table 14 on the following page).
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Table 14 Report Card: Psychological Health
Psychological Health Self-Esteem (high score =
high self-esteem)
Fatalism (high score = high fatalism)
Self-Efficacy (high score =
high self-efficacy)
Loneliness (high score
= high Loneliness)
Self-Derogation
(high score = high self-
derogation)
Social Support (high score
= high social support)
Total Score
Participate in Sports + + + + + + 12
Basketball + + + + + + 12
Baseball/Softball + avg. avg. + + + 10
Soccer + avg. avg. + + + 10
Football + avg. avg. + + avg. 9
Tennis + + + avg. avg. avg. 9
Track and Field + avg. avg. + + avg. 9
Cross Country avg. + + avg. avg. avg. 8
Volleyball + avg. + avg. avg. avg. 8
Weightlifting + avg. + avg. avg. avg. 8
Cheerleading + avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 7
Lacrosse avg. avg. avg. + avg. avg. 7
Equestrian + avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 7
Golf avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Swimming and Diving avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Field Hockey avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Gymnastics avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Water Polo avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Other Sport avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. avg. 6
Ice Hockey avg. - - avg. avg. avg. 4
Wrestling - avg. avg. avg. - - 3
Crew avg. - - - - avg. 2
Key: ‘-’ = Below average [score = 0]; ‘avg.’ = Average [score = 1]; ‘+’ = Above average [score = 2]
Significance tests control for age, sex, race, parental education (i.e., socioeconomic status), U.S. region, and urbanicity.
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The findings indicated that sport is a widely accessible
activity for teens and that participants reap important
benefits in health and education. Although sports remain
the most popular extracurricular activity within the United
States, with 68% of the national representative sample of
12th-graders reporting participation in at least one sport,
equitable access and opportunities in sport remains a
challenge. In particular, girls and teens from low-income
families are still participating at significantly lower rates
than boys and teens from more affluent backgrounds, with
certain sports having greater gender and economic divides
than others. Although findings suggested sports are racially
and ethnically diverse (with similar participation rates found
for white, black, and Hispanic youth), clear differences in
the racial/ethnic composition of each sport type suggest
the need for further attention towards improving equity and
diversity within certain sports.
Findings pointed to sports as being a critical asset to
American teens, having a highly positive influence on their
academic achievement, physical health, and psychological
well-being. Specifically, sports participation is linked to the
increased likelihood of having a healthy diet, ample daily
physical activity, and sufficient sleep, all of which have
been identified as important factors in preventing obesity
and related diseases and supporting long-term health,19
achievement,20 and well-being.21 Sport participation
is also directly related to teens having more positive
academic self-concepts, higher academic performance
(higher grades), and higher aspirations and expectations
for acquiring a college degree and continued education
specialization post-college. Previous research showed
that these academic factors are important predictors of
future educational attainment and occupational success.1-6
Findings also indicated that sport participants fare better
than non-athletes on multiple markers of psychological
health, including having more positive views of self (e.g.,
high self-esteem, positive self-concept) and stronger social
connections (e.g., higher levels of social support and fewer
feelings of loneliness).
In considering the benefits of sports participation, it is
also important to highlight that the number of sports
in which youth participate matters. In almost all the
outcomes considered here, teens who participated in two
or more sports benefitted the most by their participation.
In two cases, cigarette smoking and the consumption
of soft drinks, sport participation was linked with lower
consumption only among youth who participate in at least
two sports. One potential reason for the greater benefits
of participation in multiple sports is the cumulative effect
of being exposed to multiple developmental contexts,
whereby development that occurs in one context (sport 1)
both reinforces and is reinforced by development in another
CONCLUSION
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context (sport 2). In terms of sport types, where each can
be considered its own developmental context, participation
in multiple sports is believed to expose youth to a fuller
range of growth-related opportunities and to help reinforce
important skills for positive development (e.g., teamwork,
task commitment, or balancing multiple demands on
one’s time). These opportunities give youth more chances
to contribute, build supportive relationships with a variety
of adults and peers, and have a buffer against possible
negative experiences in one of the sports and/or in other
important contexts of their lives.8
The one exception to our findings of the benefits of sports
participation involved teen substance use. Although findings
demonstrated that sport participation can be protective
against the use of some substances when youth participate
in multiple sports (e.g., cigarettes), it was surprising that
it had no impact on other risky/unhealthy behaviors,
such as marijuana use or caffeine intake, and can be a
risk factor for alcohol binge drinking. Clear differences in
the cultures of particular sports have been identified as
responsible, at least in part, for sports not consistently
acting as a protective factor for these risky behaviors.
Recent studies have shown that categorizing sport by the
amount of physical contact endured by participants may
help to understand how cultural differences in sport types
may lead to either being protective or promotive of health
risk behaviors. In particular, sports that involve continual
aggressive contact (e.g., football) may create a mentality
and social norm among players that influences risky
behavior off the playing field (i.e., the body is a means
to an end). Conversely, sports that involve minimal (e.g.,
cross country) to no contact (e.g., tennis) may cultivate
a normative orientation that values moderation and self-
control in order to sustain long-term health (i.e., the body is
an end in itself), minimizing the risk for substance use and
other risky behaviors among players.13
As a primary goal of this report we evaluated the 20
sports most commonly accessible to American teens in
their communities and schools to identify which sports
were doing well in promoting health and preventing
risk, and which were in critical need of improvement.
Although sports have been acknowledged as the most
popular extracurricular for youth and celebrated for the
developmental benefits they facilitate in youth, this study is
the first to provide a sport-by-sport analysis and assessment
that determines how different sports support youth well-
being. Using a sports rating system, this report provides
a profile of each sport’s strengths and limitations across
a number of important factors of health and academic
achievement. Findings showed that several sports are
particularly effective in promoting healthy development
across all three areas of well-being. These particularly
supportive sports include track and field, cross country,
tennis, and soccer. Another set of sports provide unique
support in some but not all areas of well-being and are
linked with little to no risks. For example, basketball is
linked with average levels of physical health and academic
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achievement, but stands out as having the highest ratings
for supporting psychological health.
Findings also identified a set of sports that contribute
positively to at least one facet of well-being, but can benefit
from improvement in some areas. For example, football
has one of the highest ratings for psychological health, but
particularly low ratings for academic achievement, and
substance use (alcohol, marijuana, and caffeine). Similarly,
lacrosse athletes engage in several healthy behaviors
(physical activity, healthy eating) and have a fairly strong
profile of psychological health, but are at particularly high
risk for substance use (cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana)
and poor academic achievement. Weightlifting has very
positive profiles across all areas of well-being, except for
substance use, where it is linked with one of the highest
risks for alcohol binge drinking.
Lastly, findings identified a few sports that have particularly
low total ratings and can benefit from improvements/
intervention across almost all areas of well-being. For
example, wrestling rates poorly on physical health because
of higher risks for substance use (including excessive
caffeine), has lower academic achievement because of
poor grades and higher rates of skipping class, and has
the highest risk of poor psychological health with risk for
lower self-esteem, higher self-derogation, and lack of social
support. Along with wrestling, crew and ice hockey also
are among the lowest in total ratings across well-being
outcomes. For these sports, the low total rating score
is largely driven by the significantly higher risk of poor
psychological health and substance use (marijuana use for
crew; cigarette, alcohol, marijuana, and caffeine use for ice
hockey) linked with participation.
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EvIDENCE-BASED POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe goal of this study was to produce useful insights into
the diversity, health, and education, of the 20 major teen
sports in the United States. The findings and interpretations
can be used as a catalyst for evidence-based policy
development within the sports assessed here, as well as
other school and community sports. The findings and
assessments provide new and reliable information for sport
governing bodies.
The findings and interpretations of this study provide
new and reliable information for sport governing bodies,
coaches, schools, and parents, among others. They can
also be a catalyst for evidence-based policy development,
including these recommendations.
Increase Youth Participation in SportsRationale: Sports remain the primary way youth can get
the recommended physical activity of 60 minutes per
day and has other potential benefits. But the data from
this study showed that almost one-third of teens do not
participate in sports at all.
Recommendation 1: Prioritize increasing youth
participation in sports and physical activity, with significant
input from youth about developing and implementing
solutions. Ways to do this include:
• Establish national, state, and local government efforts
to monitor and promote sports participation.
• Fund, support, and implement research to identify the
barriers to sports participation and physical activity
across different communities and populations and how
to overcome them.
• Once barriers and solutions are identified, establish
programs to execute strategic solutions. This should
include research that looks at multiple factors
impacting sports participation and uses advanced
research methods and data to better understand the
systems involved.
Improve Girls’ Participation in SportsRationale: Girls are less likely than boys to participate in
sports. According to the data, 38.6% percent of girls do not
participate in sports, compared to 25.1% of boys.
Recommendation 2: Involve girls as a priority population
in all aspects of Recommendation 1, including having girls
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participate in the research and decision-making process. It
will be important to determine which barriers are specific
to girls and which ones are more common in particular
socioeconomic groups or exist across all youth in order to
create strategies needed to overcome them.
Recommendation 3: Ensure gender equity in opportunities
to participate in sports. This may be done in a number
of ways.
• Offer the same sports, programs, and facilities to
both genders.
• Create a comparable culture for sports participation
for girls, which includes changing social norms so it’s
more accepted and encouraged for girls to play sports.
• Provide mentorship, peer support, and awareness
programs; establish female coaches and role models;
educate parents and school officials; and increase
the presence and images of women playing sports in
various types of media.
• Identify ways to adjust the culture, composition, and
operations of sports to make them more accepting
of girls. Examples include making the leadership and
coaching of different sports more diverse; removing
rituals and behaviors that consciously or unconsciously
exclude girls, such as hazing; adjusting schedules,
equipment, uniforms, and rules that may be barriers;
and editing promotional and instructional materials to
reflect diversity.
Encourage Participation in Multiple SportsRationale: Participating in more than one sport increases
protective health benefits, but only 37.4% of teens
participate in more than one sport. Involvement in multiple,
diverse sports can help broaden skill sets and, as a result,
improve achievement in sports and other areas of life.
Recommendation 4: Educate youth, parents, schools, and
coaches on the benefits of playing multiple sports as well
as the hazards of focusing on one sport too early, which
includes higher risk of injury. There are a number of ways to
do this:
• Fund, support, and implement research to determine
the barriers to multi-sport participation in different
communities, school types and sizes, and populations,
and design and develop strategies to overcome
these barriers.
• Increase availability of equipment, facilities, and
coaches for a wider variety of sports.
• Place limits on the lengths of seasons and practice
times for a given sport. Longer and overlapping
seasons and practice sessions make it more difficult
for youth to participate in multiple sports.
• Limit early scouting and programs that track youth into
a single sport at an early age.
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Decrease Attrition from SportsRationale: The study found an attrition rate of 15.8% in
sports participation from eighth grade to 12th grade.
Recommendation 5: Fund, support, and implement
research to determine the causes of athletic attrition in
different communities and populations. This should include
evaluating multiple contributing factors, such as cost of
sports involvement, injuries, lack of family or social support,
lack of mentorship or opportunities, and sports becoming
less fun or enjoyable as they become more competitive.
Special attention should be paid to injury prevention.
Recommendation 6: Make it easier for youth to play
sports and stick with it. Strategies for doing this include:
• Increase the number and size of varsity teams.
• Enhance opportunities for youth to play sports at the
non-varsity level, such as junior varsity, club, and
recreational sports.
• Improve the quality of physical education (PE) classes
so they not only serve as feeders to competitive
sports teams but provide opportunities, training, and
education for those who remain recreational athletes.
• Require schools to provide PE classes, ensure that
schools adhere to mandated PE requirements, and
advocate for mandating more hours of PE.
• Conduct more multi-faceted research to further
establish the link between PE, academic performance,
and other current and future success.
• Coordinate sports schedules with other competing
demands so teens don’t have to choose between
playing sports and other activities such as academics,
music, drama, or work, and don’t experience burnout.
Also establish recommendations or regulations for
practice and training time for sports.
• Make fields, courts, and other locations available to
recreational sports, in addition to formal team activities.
• Expand the number of available sports to include
those not traditionally offered, including emerging
sports and non-competitive activities such as yoga and
hiking. This will give teens more options to engage in
physical activity.
Prevent Unhealthy Behaviors Associated with Certain SportsRationale: While sports participation is associated with a
number of healthy behaviors, certain unhealthy behaviors,
such as alcohol use and binge drinking, are also linked to
sports participation, especially with certain sports.
Recommendation 7: Fund, support, and implement
research to determine the causes of links between
participation in different types of sports and unhealthy
behaviors, academic performance issues, and psychological
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issues, and develop potential sport-specific strategies
to reduce those risks. The research should address not
only sports, but also other issues that may contribute to
unhealthy behaviors, such as surrounding community
structure and influence, economic hardship, bullying,
stress, and discrimination. Related steps include:
• Establish education, surveillance, and early intervention
programs to identify and help youth who may be at risk
for these unhealthy behaviors.
• Make fundamental changes in the structure and culture
of particular sports to reduce the risk of unhealthy
behaviors. For example, a critical point of intervention
would target youth in high-contact sports — such as
football, wrestling, ice hockey, and lacrosse — given
their higher likelihood of engaging in substance
use, along with some of the other academic and
psychological challenges associated with participation.
Develop More Tailored Approaches to Increasing Sports Participation Rationale: The study found significant variation in results
for different sports and various populations. Although the
study looked at different demographic groups, it did not
closely examine groups such as Asian Americans and
Native Americans.
Recommendation 8: Consider all of the recommendations
in this report on a sport-by-sport basis. Some general
principles may apply across all sports, but different sports
have their unique strengths and challenges, so treating all
sports as a single entity may overlook these variations.
Recommendation 9: For all of the above
recommendations, explore, evaluate, and address
populations and demographics that have been overlooked,
including races and ethnicities that have not been well-
studied and other emerging demographics. Fund, support,
and implement research to do this work.
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MEASURES INDEXMeasures for Sport ParticipationQuestion: In which competitive sports (if any) did you
participate during the LAST 12 MONTHS? Include
school, community, and other organized sports. (Mark all
that apply.)
(1) Baseball/Softball
(2) Basketball
(3) Cheerleading
(4) Cross Country
(5) Football
(6) Golf
(7) Lacrosse
(8) Soccer
(9) Swimming and Diving
(10) Tennis
(11) Track and Field
(12) Volleyball
(13) Wrestling
(14) Crew
(15) Equestrian
(16) Field Hockey
(17) Gymnastics
(18) Ice Hockey
(19) Water Polo
(20) Weightlifting
(21) Other Sport
Participates in at least one sport: if a respondent
marked at least 1 of the 2 sports listed.
Number of sports: if a respondent only marked one of
the sports (participates in only one sport); if a respondent
marked two or more of the sports (participates in two or
more sports).
Measures for Diet and Nutrition Question: How often do you …
(1) Eat breakfast?
(2) Eat at least some green vegetables?
(3) Eat at least some fruit?
Response options: Never, Seldom, Most Days, Nearly
Every Day, Every Day – RECODED [Never, Seldom, Most
Days = 0; Nearly Every Day, Every Day = 1]
Question: Regular (non-diet) soft drinks include Coke,
Pepsi, Mountain Dew, Dr. Pepper, etc. How many (if any)
12-ounce cans or bottles (or the equivalent) of regular (non-
diet) soft drinks do you drink PER DAY, on average?
Response options: 0=“None” 1=“Less than 1” 2=“One”
3=“Two” 4=“Three” 5=“Four” 6=“Five or six” 7=“7 or
more” – RECODED [None = 0; Less than 1, One, Two,
Three, Four, Five or six, 7 or more = 1]
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Question: “Energy drinks” are non-alcoholic beverages that
usually contain high amounts of caffeine, including such
drinks as Red Bull, Full Throttle, Monster, and Rockstar.
They are usually sold in 8- or 16-ounce cans or bottles.
About how many (if any) energy drinks do you drink PER
DAY, on average?
Response options: 0=“None” 1=“Less than 1” 2=“One”
3=“Two” 4=“Three” 5=“Four” 6=“Five or six” 7=“7 or
more” – RECODED [None = 0; Less than 1, One, Two,
Three, Four, Five or six, 7 or more = 1]
Question: Energy drinks are also sold as small “shots”,
that usually contain just 2 or 3 ounces. How many (if any)
energy drink shots do you drink PER DAY, on average?
Response options: 0=“None” 1=“Less than 1” 2=“One”
3=“Two” 4=“Three” 5=“Four” 6=“Five or six” 7=“7 or
more” – RECODED [None = 0; Less than 1, One, Two,
Three, Four, Five or six, 7 or more = 1]
Measures for Physical Activity and Rest Question: How often do you…
(1) Exercise vigorously (jogging, swimming, calisthenics, or
any other active sports)?
(2) Get at least seven hours of sleep?
Response options: Never, Seldom, Most Days, Nearly
Every Day, Every Day – RECODED [Never, Seldom, Most
Days = 0; Nearly Every Day, Every Day = 1]
Question: During the LAST 7 DAYS, on how many days
were you physically active for a total of at least 60 minutes
per day? (Add up all the time you spent in any kind of
physical activity that increased your heart rate and made
you get out of breath some of the time.)
Response options: 0=“0 days” 1=“1 day” 2=“2 days”
3=“3 days” 4=“4 days” 5=“5 days” 6=“6 days” 7=“7
days” - RECODED [0 days = 0; 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4
days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days = 1]
Measures for Substance UseQuestion: How frequently have you smoked cigarettes
during the past 30 days?
Response options: 1=“Not at all” 2=“Less than one
cigarette per day” 3=“One to five cigarettes per day”
4=“About one-half pack per day” 5=“About one pack per
day” 6=“About one and one-half packs per day” 7=“Two
packs or more per day” – RECODED [Not at all = 0; Less
than one cigarette per day, One to five cigarettes per day,
About one-half pack per day, About one pack per day, About
one and one-half packs per day, Two packs or more per
day = 1]
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Question: Think back over the LAST TWO WEEKS. How
many times have you had five or more drinks in a row? (A
“drink” is a glass of wine, a bottle of beer, a shot glass of
liquor, a mixed drink, etc.)
Response options: 1=”None” 2=“Once” 3=“Twice” 4=“3
to 5 times” 5=“6 to 9 times” 6=“10 or more times” –
RECODED [None = 0; Once, Twice, 3 to 5 times, 6 to 9
times, 10 or more times = 1]
Question: On how many occasions (if any) have you used
marijuana (weed, pot) or hashish (hash, hash oil)…
Response options: 1=“0 Occasions” 2=“1-2 Occasions”
3=“3-5 Occasions” 4=“6-9 Occasions” 5=“10-19
Occasions” 6=“20-39 Occasions” 7=“40 or More” –
RECODED [0 Occasions = 0; 1-2 Occasions, 3-5 Occasions,
6-9 Occasions, 10-19 Occasions, 20-39 Occasions, 40 or
More = 1]
Measures for Academic AchievementQuestion: Compared with others your age throughout the
country, how do you rate yourself on school ability?
Response options: 1=“Far Below Average” 2=“Below
Average” 3=“Slightly Below Average” 4=“Average”
5=“Slightly Above Average” 6=“Above Average” 7=“Far
Above Average” – RECODED [Far Below Average, Below
Average, Slightly Below Average, Average, Slightly Above
Average = 0; Above Average, Far Above Average = 1]
Question: How intelligent do you think you are compared
with others your age?
Response options: 1=“Far Below Average” 2=“Below
Average” 3=“Slightly Below Average” 4=“Average”
5=“Slightly Above Average” 6=“Above Average” 7=“Far
Above Average” – RECODED [Far Below Average, Below
Average, Slightly Below Average, Average, Slightly Above
Average = 0; Above Average, Far Above Average = 1]
Question: During the LAST FOUR WEEKS, how many whole
days of school have you missed…
(1) . . . Because you skipped or “cut”?
(2) . . . Because of illness?
Response options: 1=”None” 2=“1 Day” 3=“2 Days”
4=“3 Days” 5=“4-5 Days” 6=“6-10 Days” 7=“11 or More”
– RECODED [None = 0; 1 Day, 2 Days, 3 Days, 4-5 Days,
6-10 Days, 11 or More = 1]
Question: During the LAST FOUR WEEKS, how often have
you gone to school, but skipped a class when you weren’t
supposed to?
Response options: 1=“Not at all” 2=“1 or 2 times” 3=“3-5
times” 4=“6-10 times” 5=“11-20 times” 6=“More than 20
times” – RECODED [Not at all = 0; 1 or 2 times, 3-5 times,
6-10 times, 11-20 times, More than 20 times = 1 ]
Question: Which of the following best describes your
average grade so far in high school?
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Response options: 9=“A (93-100)” 8=“A- (90-92)” 7=“B+
(87-89)” 6=“B (83-86)” 5=“B- (80-82)” 4=“C+ (77-79)”
3=“C (73-76)” 2=“C- (70-72)” 1=“D (69 or below)” –
RECODED [Not at all, B+ (87-89), B (83-86), B- (80-82),
C+ (77-79) , C (73-76), C- (70-72), D (69 or below) = 0; A
(93-100), A- (90-92) = 1]
Question: How likely is it that you will do each of the
following things after high school?
(1) Graduate from college (four-year program)
(2) Attend graduate or professional school after college
Response options: 1=“Definitely Won’t” 2=“Probably
Won’t” 3=“Probably Will” 4=“Definitely Will” – RECODED
[Definitely Won’t, Probably Won’t, Probably Will = 0;
Definitely Will = 1]
Question: Suppose you could do just what you’d like and
nothing stood in your way. How many of the following things
would you WANT to do? (Mark all that apply.)
(1) Graduate from college (four-year program)
(2) Attend graduate or professional school after college
Response options: 0=“Unmarked” 1=“Marked” –
RECODED [Unmarked = 0; Marked = 1 ]
Measures for Psychological HealthSELF-ESTEEM Question: Do you agree or disagree with
each of the following? [NOTE: the combined construct of the
four items for has an alpha of .831]
(1) On the whole, I’m satisfied with myself
(2) I take a positive attitude toward myself
(3) I feel I am a person of worth, on an equal plane
with others
(4) I am able to do things as well as most other people
Response options: 1=“Disagree” 2=“Mostly Disagree”
3=“Neither” 4=“Mostly Agree” 5=“Agree” – RECODED
[Disagree, Mostly Disagree, Neither = 0; Mostly Agree,
Agree = 1]
FATALISM Question: Do you agree or disagree with each
of the following? [NOTE: the combined construct of the two
items has an alpha of .571]
(1) Every time I try to get ahead, something or somebody
stops me
(2) People like me don’t have much of a chance to be
successful in life
Response options: 1=“Disagree” 2=“Mostly Disagree”
3=“Neither” 4=“Mostly Agree” 5=“Agree” – RECODED
[Disagree, Mostly Disagree, Neither = 0; Mostly Agree,
Agree = 1]
SELF-EFFICACY Question: Do you agree or disagree with
each of the following? [NOTE: the combined construct of the
three items has an alpha of .566]
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398849Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
(1) Planning only makes a person unhappy since plans
hardly ever work out anyway
(2) When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make
them work
(3) Planning ahead makes things turn out better
Response options: 1=“Disagree” 2=“Mostly Disagree”
3=“Neither” 4=“Mostly Agree” 5=“Agree” – RECODED
[Disagree, Mostly Disagree, Neither = 0; Mostly Agree,
Agree = 1]
LONELINESS Question: Do you agree or disagree with
each of the following? [NOTE: the combined construct of the
three items has an alpha of .748]
(1) A lot of times I feel lonely
(2) I often feel left out of things
(3) I often wish I had more good friends
Response options: 1=“Disagree” 2=“Mostly Disagree”
3=“Neither” 4=“Mostly Agree” 5=“Agree” – RECODED
[Disagree, Mostly Disagree, Neither = 0; Mostly Agree,
Agree = 1]
SELF-DEROGATION Question: Do you agree or disagree
with each of the following? [NOTE: the combined construct
of the four items has an alpha of .871]
(1) Sometimes I think that I am no good at all
(2) I feel I do not have much to be proud of
(3) I feel that I can’t do anything right
(4) I feel that my life is not very useful
Response options: 1=“Disagree” 2=“Mostly Disagree”
3=“Neither” 4=“Mostly Agree” 5=“Agree” – RECODED
[Disagree, Mostly Disagree, Neither = 0; Mostly Agree,
Agree = 1]
SOCIAL SUPPORT Question: Do you agree or disagree
with each of the following? [NOTE: the combined construct
of the three items has an alpha of .759]
(1) There is always someone I can turn to if I need help
(2) There is usually someone I can talk to if I need to
(3) I usually have a few friends around that I can get
together with
Response options: 1=“Disagree” 2=“Mostly Disagree”
3=“Neither” 4=“Mostly Agree” 5=“Agree” – RECODED
[Disagree, Mostly Disagree, Neither = 0; Mostly Agree,
Agree = 1]
www.WomensSportsFoundation.org • 800.227.398850Teen Sport in America: Why Participation Matters
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Women’s Sports Foundationfounded by Billie Jean KingNew York City 247 West 30th Street, 5th Floor New York, NY 10001
Eisenhower Park 1899 Hempstead Turnpike, Suite 400 East Meadow, NY 11554
800.227.3988 [email protected] www.WomensSportsFoundation.org
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