TECHNOLOGIES FOR RURAL WOMEN - GHANA

Technical Manual No. 2

SOAP MANUFACTURING

Prepared under the joint auspices of the International Labour Off ice. The Royal Netherlands

Government and the National Council on Women and Development, Ghana.

September 1985

International Labour Office Geneva.

Council on Women and Development, Accra.

51084

Copyright © International Labour Organisation 1985

Publications of the International Labour Office enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorisation, on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation, applications should be made to the Public­ations Branch (Rights and Permissions), International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland. The International Labour Office welcomes such applica­tions.

ISBN 92-2-105017-3

First published in 1985

The designations employed in ILO publications, which are in conformity with Unit­ed Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not imply the ex­pression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Labour Office cencerning the legal status of any country or territory or of its authorities, or con­cerning the delimitation of its frontiers.

The responsibility for opinions expressed in signed articles, studies and other con­tributions rests solely with their authors, and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the International Labour Office of the opinions expressed in them.

Reference to names of firms and commercial products and processes does not imply their endorsement by the International Labour Office, and any failure to mention a particular firm, commercial product or process in connection with the technologies described in this volume is not a sign of disapproval.

ILO publications can be obtained through major booksellers or ILO local offices in many countries, or direct from ILO Publications, International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland. A catalogue or list of new publications will be sent free of charge from the above address.

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C O N T E N T S

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

PREFACE .,.. • • v

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1

i J Background *

X 1.2 Purpose • 1

• • •* 1.3 Conceptual and methodological approach 2

1.4 Design 3

CHAPTER TWO SOCIAL AND ORGANISATION ASPECTS OF TCC IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY 4

2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 Guideliness on Selection of project location 4

2.3 Assessing needs and conditions in the project area 6

2.4 Strengthening the group - . . . . . 1

2.5 Assessing the benefits 9

CHAPTER THREE TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SOAP MANUFACTURING . . 1 3

, 3.1 Introduction 13

3.2 Project Site and structures specifications 13

3.3 Equipment and accessories for soap manufacturing 13

3.4 PROCESS OF PALE SOAP MANUFACTURING 15 3.5 Advantages of TCC technology of

traditional method 25

3.6 Technical problems of the TCC technology k 28

3.7 Users problems . 2 8

CHAPTER FOUR ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF IMPROVED TCC TECHNOLOGY 29

4.1 Introduction 29

4.2 Assessment methodology 29

4.3 Economic assessment of improve technology 33

REFERENCES .... . 3 4

APPENDICES 3 5

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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

The publication of this manual on pale soap manufacturing in rural Ghanaian com­munities has been made possible by a grant from the Royal Netherlands Government through the International Labour Organisation (ILO) of the United Nations.

The ILO and the disseminating agency in Ghana, The National Council on Women and Development, acknowledge this generous support.

Many individuals and units in the ILO, Geneva and the project country, Ghana, made valuable contributions to the preparation of this manual. These contributors include personnel of the Technology Consultancy Centre (TCC), Kumasi, Ghana and the beneficiary rural communities of Ado-Nkwanta, Atua, Essam and Kibi-Odumasi, Eastern Region, Ghana.

Special thanks go to Professor J.W. Powell and Mr. Peter Donkor, both of the TCC, Kumasi for their guidance in the procurement of equipment for the pale soap manufacturing project.

Without the valuable support and personal interest taken by Mr. Alfred K.K. Mu-banda, the implementation of the project would not have been so effective and the skilful backstopping of the project by UNDP staff notably Miss Maria Ferreri has been most valuable.

NCWD Chairperson Prof. Florence Dolphyne and the Executive Secretary, Mrs. Grace P. Nartey have closely guided and reviewed the work of the project while valuable counterpart support from NCWD was provided by Mrs. Elizabeth Q. Akpa-lu (Deputy Executive Secretary), Ms. Frances Minnow, Mrs. Anson, Ms. Susanna deVeer and NCWD Regional Secretaries.

Thanks go to Miss Joyce Larbi who typed the original manuscript. Mr. D.A. Fianko-Torto, the project Administrative Assistant, played a critical role in the project's implementation under intricate and complex organisational arrangements.

Finally, we are grateful to the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Accra for the encouragement given, particularly by Mr. A.P.T. Bijlsma Charge d'Affaires, who closely monitored the progress and results of the project.

PREFACE

Within the framework of the I LO/Government of the Netherlands/Ghana National Council on Women and Development (NCWD) technical cooperation on Technolo­gies for Rural Women of Ghana, this manual on soap manufacturing is the second in a series of manuals on five processing activities undertaken by the rural women of Ghana.1 This field project is a follow-up to an ILO Africa Regional Project (finan­ced by Norway) on Technological Change, Basic Needs and the Condition of Rural Women. ILO work on technologies for rural women was launched at the beginning of the UN Decade for Women (1976-85) in response to various recommendations at international conferences for international agencies like the ILO to give greater emphasis to the impact of science and technology on the socio-economic conditions of women. For example, the resolution adopted by the UN Conference on Science and Technology for Development (UNCSTD) (1979) recommended that UN bodies like the ILO, dealing with science and technology, should continually review the impact of their programmes on women. Subsequently, the World Conference of the UN Decade for Women (Copenhagen, 1980) recommended that "the ILO in co­operation with pertinent (UN) bodies should develop studies to assess the working and employment conditions of rural women". The publication of this manual imme­diately following the Nairobi Conference on the Women's Decade is therefore sign­ificant.

The manual contains guidelines on specific preparatory work required at the grass root level to bring the women's groups into organisational readiness to receive im­proved technologies. Since the manual is based on direct observations and feed-backs obtained from monitoring of the social, technical and economic problems associated with technology used by rural women, the guidelines emerging from it are of concrete and practical significance. Another innovative feature of the manual is its exclusive concern with the control and management of improved technology by rural women individually and in groups.

The manual provides a methodology for a multi-disciplinary assessment of bene­fits of improved technologies to rural women. Finally, it demonstrates the import­ance and feasibility of linking national R & D and training institutions, local manu­facturers, extension agencies (including NCWD) and women's groups.

A team of three specialists—K. Ewusi (economist), Gracia Clark (social anthropo­logist) and S. Gyasi (Technologist) —with the assistance o f NCWD staff have been working on this joint ILO/Netherlands/NCWD project for the past two years under the guidance of Iftikhar Ahmed of the ILO Technology and Employment Branch. S. Gyasi assumed the principal responsibility for the production of the set of man­uals.

Grace P. Nartey A.S. BhaNa, Executive Secretary, Chief,

National Council on Women Technology and Employment Branch, and Development, Accra. Geneva.

September, 1985.

1. The other processing activities covered relate to palm oil. f ish,coconut oil and gari.

GOOD ADVERTISING IS ESSENTIAL IN DRAWING ATTENTION TO THE LOCATION OF A PROJECT IN A RURAL SETTING

J I K o r A T ^ M n ^ ^ v n , G ^ E S A G R 0 U P ° F V K I T 0 R S ™ A PROJECT SITE. I™ ^ P C A T I 0 N 0 F A VILLAGE PROJECT CLOSE TO DWELLING UNITS OFTEN FITS IN BETTER WITH THE SOCIAL SET UP AND REDUCES T B o S S J S

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before wil l more readily contribute for the new purpose of soap making. Established groups also find it easier to qualify for bank loans and other assistance.

The size of the new enterprise demands more widespread community support than the group may have needed before. It will involve both male and female cit i­zens in supplying oi l , helping with installation and maintenance, adjusting household duties and other responsibilities and marketing the soap. This level of support is found most easily in oil-producing villages, where a large proportion of the popula-

< tion can expect to benefit indirectly from the greater demand for oil and the increas­ed value added before it leaves the village. However, other villages can give consider­able support with the aim of improving local soap supply and family incomes.

In some villages, a few individuals run relatively large soap making operations with hired or family help using oil drums and otherless efficient methods. They may con­trol enough capital to use the equipment fairly ful ly on an individual or cartel basis. In such villages, these relatively wealthy individuals will probably control the new equipment, either directly or indirectly. They may have made special supply arrange­ments with most local farmers. Other producers may lack capital to buy substantial amounts of oil. Under these conditions, introducing the TCC tanks will primarily benefit these few. The wider cbrhrhunity will consequently show less interest and support for the project.

Agencies or organisations who form groups or visit villages regularly can provide names of villages with active, experienced women's groups and good oil supplies. Regional and field officers of NCWD, the Home Extension Unit of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Community Development work with groups in cottage industries. The Department of Social Welfare, the Ghana Education Service and the Women's Fellowships of popular local churches maintain regular contact with villages. They also suggest locations with many soap makers and strong community leadership. It is important to select groups who have expressed interest in expanding their soapmaking. Of course, information from such sources should be confirmed with personal visits to the women involved.

A short visit can indicate general problems in the local soap industry and the size, independence and financial experience of the women's group. The working group should include at least twenty women. The equipment requires much fewer at one time, but village women also farm, do other income-generating work and manage their families. They devote only part of their time to soap making. Travel, child­birth and family emergencies will also occupy some temporarily. Plans to expand the group in response to the new technology need confirmation from the soap makers expected to join the group. Inexperienced members can be trained in soap-making, as long as the experienced members are enough to maintain production and supervise the trainees.

The leadership of the group should be experienced and represent the women planning to use the equipment. Where educated or male leaders dominate the group* the majority of illiterate women often hesitate to join, since they feel they will lack effective control. Discussing the history and past projects of the groups with leaders, ordinary members, and non-members separately wil l reveai any serious

» distrust or disagreements about making decisions, handling money and recruiting members. Recording the leaders and members at this stage also helps to prevent outsiders from taking over later, when the prospect of new equipment makes control more attractive.

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2.3 ASSESSING NEEDS AND CONDITIONS IN THE PROJECT AREA

Before a village adopts the TCC technology, its specific needs and worKing envi­ronment should be assessed, for three reasons. First, this confirms that the TCC technology is actually appropriate for that particular village. Secondly, it enables the group to plan to use the technology in the way most suitable to them and to correct any weaknesses in their skills or organisation before adopting it. Thirdly, it records conditions before adopting the TCC technology, making it possible to see later whether it brought concrete benefits or created new problems.

The complete history of the group provides a good introduction to the people and important issues. This begins with the founders of the group, describes all its successful and unsuccessful activities, documents its membership and financial arran­gements. Discussion include the kind of people who join and become leaders, how money for past projects was collected and distributed, how decisions were taken and how meetings are presently conducted. Members, non-members and leaders all have their own perspective and special information on these matters. Even very inaccurate accounts help to pinpoint rumours and misunderstandings that could hamper group expansion. Past problems with members unwilling to con­tribute labour or money will also affect the new enterprise, so they need to be explored in detail. Attending a regular meeting gives information on who really conducts the meeting, decides what will be discussed and feels free to speak.

Good information on present soapmaking techniques and practices is essential, because many of them can be adapted to the new process. A complete account starts with the sources of oi l , caustic soda and fuel, the terms of payment, the kind and ownership of pots and other equipment, the number and source of helpers in production, who taught the skills and who buys the soap. Usually several differ­ent patterns exist in one village. Some women buy oil, while others make their own. Some sell their soap to outside traders, while others retail locally. Large-scale soap makers may hire assistants.

Women have several choices oh how to organise their work with the new equip­ment. Its form makes it diff icult to operate on a service center basis, processing batches owned by individuals. Due to the large batch size, only relatively few wealthy women could then participate. On the other hand, the risk of ruining large amounts of "oil through careless handling makes women hesitate to pool their capital in a group project. Women may prefer to participate in smaller work groups, sufficient to operate the equipment, with relatives or friends they trust well. Viable alternative sources of oil must also be evaluated to see which offers the greatest advantage to the soap maker and the greatest potential for expansion.

Information on women's other work also helps determine how to organise use of the TCC equipment. Village women often add soapmaking to their other work, such as farming, trading, gari making and cocoa drying, on a seasonal basis. If most of their income is from these other sources, they may hesitate to take from them to make more soap before the enterprise has lasted several years. Women must also allow adequate time for their household responsibilities. Although existing soap­making methods are also ..dangerous for children, women may need to make new childcare arrangements to work farther from home. These factors reduce the per­centage of work hours or working women available for soap making.

Individual interviews wil l identify the most common situations, but a survey shows-how widespread each problem is among the village as a whole. The most in-

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fluential women tend to step forward for interviews, and they usually have different problems from women with.weaker family positions or personalities. With a sample, twenty to thir ty interviews wil l include representatives from all age groups, stranger groups, neighbourhoods and income levels in the village.

The easiest accurate sample of a small village comes from a rough map showing each house in the town. Number the houses on the map, and interview all the women in every f i f th or tenth house, depending on its size.

Soapmakers will probably need stronger relations with oil suppliers to meet their increased demand for oil. They may need to gather supplies from a wider surroundr ing area, contacting new farmers or processors. Those who rely on their own produce may need to buy for the first time. At the same time, the group wil l need to develop its pricing and marketing skills. Since soap will be sold over a relatively wide con­suming area, this often-mvolves travelling to more distant markets than before, or contacting institutional buyers such as schools and employers.

Leading local men almost always try to force their way mto the women's group at some point, to control the profitable new equipment. They may threaten to for­bid their wives to participate, or to stop the supply of oil from their plantations. In palm oil or coconut oil producing areas, an effective tactic is to form them into an auxiliary group of planters, stressing the benefits from steady local demand for their crop. They can then share the local prestige of the soap group without sharing voting rights or profits. Such a group can also expand the local availability of oil crops by making farmers more eligible for credit to maintain and expand their farms.

The women's group usually needs to expand its capital position dramatically to cover the cost of the equipment, its installation and the oil. Possible sources include banks, development assistance projects and private credit from local suppliers. Private debts threaten the independence of the group when a few lenders dominate. However, public loans take time to process. Contributions from the members of a disadvantaged group rarely reach the sum required. A combination of sources offers the best compromise to maximise benefit and minimise the risk of dependence or collapse. Some groups realise large sums slowly by cultivating group farms of cassava or other marketable crops.

2.4 STRENGTHENING THE GROUP

The interviews and survey identify problems and weaknesses in the group which can -usually be strengthened before adopting the TCC technology. For example, many groups need better skills in accounting and money management to keep track of loan payments and fees collected and make purchasing and selling decisions. Officials of locals banks and the Department of Co-operatives can give training in skills related to running small business.

Another common need is to expand the base of community support, both by increasing the number of members and by getting more support from citizens out­side the group. The membership may be limited to a group of neighbours or friends, or leave out an important stranger group in the village. Leaders as well as members will have to be added to gain the confidence of excluded groups. In general, leaders should include both literate and illiterate women. The former offer skills in record­keeping and accounting, while the latter offer skills in avoiding internal disputes and mobilising community support. Several groups have had success with literate secret­aries and illiterate, older presidents.

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^m ' *"

fjz * .̂ JF

A LITERATE GROUP LEADER IS A GOOD ASSET TO A RURAL PROJECT. WO­MEN'S GROUP FEELS BETTER AT EASE WITH HER LEADERSHIP AND BOOK­

KEEPING

A FURTHER EXAMPLE OF THE VERSATILITY OF A LITERATE RURAL WOMEN'S GROUP LEADER. THE KNOTTY PROBLEM OF RELYING ON AN INTERPRETER

FOR COMMUNICATION IS OFTEN REDUCED TO THE BAREST MINIMUM

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Leadership skills also improve through the preparations for adopting the tech­nology. The increased frequency of decision making and contact with outsiders should involve a broad range of leaders, rather than a few. Assigning one exper­ienced and one inexperienced person to each task distributes skills more evenly and raises public confidence in the lack of irregular'or secret deals. The extra layer of leadership provides insurance for the absence of key individuals through illness or travel. It also allows the successful group to expand its operations easily in future. Even experienced leaders will improve their contact with government officials, ability to negotiate loans and sales, familiarity with machinery and administrative skills.

Those too old or young to work can be left out of a survey about work. If you begin with the leaders in your sample, they will feel less suspicious after hearing the questions asked. Private interviews help women feel less embarassed to give accurate answers in front of neighbours or elders. Other women may insist on being inter-. viewed. These extra interviews provide useful examples, but should not be used to calculate percentages.

The survey questions should cover the main economic activities in the village and the important issues about the local group. It is always worth asking women what they consider their most important problems in each activity, and why they joined or did not join the group. Information on age, family background and relatives sharing the house shows whether the group attracts more women from particular parts of the community. When you return to this sample after the village has adopt­ed the TCC technology, _you can see if certain kinds of women benefited more.

2.5 ASSESSING THE BENEFITS

Group Development

Responding to the challenge of adopting the new equipment, the group developed a more complex and stronger role structure. Leaders in particular took on new res­ponsibilities and learned new skills. Expansion of group activities into large-scale soap production created new leadership roles. Women elected as officers took charge of storage, supervised production, purchased supplies, handled retail sales, cared for the equipment and work areas and kept records and accounts. Most of these tasks involved learning new skills in maintaining discipline, negotiating with outsiders and handling larger amounts of money. The leaders had to develop p/ocedures to make quick decisions on production and installation while maintaining an acceptable level of consultation with the membership.

Leaders had extensive official contact with outsiders during the project, an area which men traditionally dominate. They frequently met with project and NCWD staff. The relevant officers negotiated with buyers of soap. They also had direct contact with fitters, carpenters and other artisans.

Group activities brought illiterate women to participate in activities usually limit­ed to educated women. Leaders took charge of instructing local primary school children in soap making. Leaders with a very low level of literacy began keeping group records. They could mark points and transactions in books laid out by more literate members, even when they could write low numbers and recognise mem­bers' names.

The heed for additional hardworking members motivated the group to accept new members from nearby villages. They had earned general respect by their* faithful

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attendance and energy at the scheduled work sessions. Due to distance, thev could not normally be included in formal evening or morning work sessions or in informal consultations.

Non-officers, both founder and recent members, attended group meetings regular­ly and were well-informed about the financial status and operation policies of the group.

Acceptability of Technology

Soap Boiling Tank

The women primarily complained of increased drudgery using the larger tank. Its large capacity made stirring heavier work, which was already the most strenuous i task. The heavy metal paddle supplied with the tank added to the weight of the soap. The tank cover was also quite heavy, and dangerous to handle when hot. Women mentioned the intense radiant heat from the hot tank., and the danger of burns from brushing against it. Compared to the cold method, the hot method called for stirring for four to six hours, standingup, rather than for one hour, sitting down. Since the group had not yet distributed any profits./members were perhaps less conscious of the advantage of a higher yield.

The longer hours of continuous stirring made a greater impact on the overall work schedule of the women. Because of conflicts with domestic work discussed later, it.was diff icult for the women to arrange a continuous work period of longer than four hours. With mixing, stirring and pouring, the hot method took six to eight hours. Stirring, the most delicate operation, had to be maintained at a steady pace without interruption to guarantee high quality soap. Although members could alter­nate in stirring, the time would inevitably arrive when all of them should be cook­ing meals, especially the younger women more capable of this heavy work. This factor had placed an upper limit on soap production in a single session. They deve­loped a compromise technique of boiling up cold-processed soap to incorporate more water, which required only two to three hours of stirring.

The large capacity of the soap tank also required more palm oil than the group

could consistently provide, given its labour supply and capital level. The normal batch size is two drums. With less than one drum the soap does not hold sufficient heat to flow out properly and coagulates inside the tank.

Labour Competition

The most direct competition for the labour time used in group processing work came from domestic work, specifically cooking. Cultural attitudes about meals and cooking made this task more diff icult to reconcile than cleaning and child-care. The meals had to be cooked at certain times, and the association of cooking with marital relations made it complicated to delegate. Marital tensions frequently found expressions Hi quarrels about cooking.

Besides family cooking, women had to provide meals for the farm labourers who worked on their husbands' farms. The wife usually had to miss an entire work ses­sion to Gook in bulk and take the meal to the farm. This did not disrupt the work point system, so it created fewer problems for the grqup.

Members did not perceive their group work as conflicting strongly with their farming commitments, although the peak session for both coincided. Women work­ed on both their own and their husbands' farms. Even those who considered them- .

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selves serious farmers claimed that they could easily take adequate care!of their farms on the remaining days of the week.

Distribution of Benefits

Members have enjoyed three malin types of benefits: skill expansion, prestige enhancement and income. In all thrde, the benefits produced u p t b this point have been concentrated in the hands of the core members, mainly the officers. This concentration might be considered equitable, since the same core members also did a high proportion of the actual work. Other members' statements, however, indicated they wanted to contribute more work in order to benefit more, and especially to improve their soap-making skills more quickly.

The tendency to make soap frequently in short, informal sessions reduced train­ing opportunites for newer members. Officers did not need to inform all the mem­bers to gather enough helpers to make soap. They could call a session at short notice with only a few friends or neighbours. Attendance was not obligatory, as with the formal Wednesday and Friday sessions, but they did earn work points. It was not convenient for the neighbouring hamlet members, due to lack of notice and travel time. Soap-making also took place on formal days, from time to time. New members sought extra experience by helping older members on their private soap production. This naturally did not earn them work points.

Other skills acquired by members carried prestige but were less transferable out­side the group. Members learned cement block-making and some construction techniques during the shelter building phase. Most of the officers became,involved in recordkeeping, which stimulated them to prove their literacy and numeracy. General skills in leadership and financial management also proved useful in private life.

The expansion of group activities has definitely had an impact on social status of women in the village. The increased prestige and control over decision primarily affects officers and members, but also provides as example for other village women. The leaders gained considerable prestige from 'their contact with outsiders. They negotiated directly with project staff and official suppliers instead of working through the meditation of male community leaders. They also enjoyed meeting other women's group to exchange experience and display their success.

The high level of public-spiritedness also gave high prestige to members for con­tributing to the development of the town. Visits from government officials and newsmen showed they had brought recognition through the success of the enter­prise. Members were surprisingly patient with the delay in receiving income, be­cause of these long-term goals. They mentioned the desire to improve their com­munity as a major reason for joining the group. Of course, they expected eventual economic benefit from their connection -with a thriving enterprise. They were willing to delay immediate income during an extended investment phase devoted to acquiring equipment'and building, up capital. Several illiterate officers gained extra prestige by joining the school system. They taught primary school children soap making techniques.

The work point system was carefully conceived to ensure an equitable distribu­tion of economic benefits among members. It--rewards regular attendance and contribution of inputs, ana has been successful in stimulating'those.

It favours soap making over palm oil production due to the organisation of work sessions. To some extent this compensates for the higher skill of soapmakers, but

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the same session pattern inhibits new members from acquiring this skill. The ano­maly whereby members earned no points for helping with private production which earned fees for the group has been corrected. The majority of the soap produced was sold directly to institutions. The rpmgjnd-

er was allocated to the members in rotation for resale. Those with more capital and lighter commitments could raise their profit margins by retailing in nearby villages.

The gross profit shown on soap production was completely absorbed by the large expenses associated with installing the machinery and building shelter for it. Smaller

drains on income were sales of soap at reduced prices to the government palm plan­tations to ensure palm fruit supplies, and provision of soap and foodstuffs to visiting dignitaries. Market and political factors prevent the group from substantially raising the price of soap to cover these factors.

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CHAPTER 3

TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PALE SOAP MANUFACTURING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The preparation of this manual was based on pilot programme of pale soap man­ufacturing in four rural locations at Addo-Nkwanta, Atua, Essam and Kibi Odumasi,

» all in the Eastern Region of Ghana Pale soap manufacturing has been described as a tootloose industry in the sense

that it can be made viable in any normal environment in Ghana, provided one can ( procure the basic inputs of palm oil and caustic soda.

It was ideal to concentrate the pilot programmes in the Eastern Region where a lot of palm fruit is grown which gives rise to abundant supply of palm oil. Caustic soda is an imported ingredient. Hence the basis for the selection of the project sites was more flexible, compared to the criteria for the selection ot project sites for palm oil, fish and gari; as examples.

The processes described in this technical section are the most basic and wide­spread in the areas in Ghana where pale soap is manufactured by small hold enter-preneurs and private individuals.

3.2 PROJECT SITE AND STRUCTURES SPECIFICATIONS

A 20 meter x 10 meter sheltered area is ideal for a one-boiling-tank soap project. There is the usual minimum clearance of about 2 meters wide around the sheltered space.

The basic design of the sheltered space is consistent with other structures for the ILO projects in rural Ghana. The consistency of design helps to reduce construction costs.

The basic infrastructure comprises a number of wooden columns at the periphery of the shelter. The wooden columns constitute the outline for a low concrete wall, less than 2 meters high, topped with expanded metal for good natural ventilation.

The shelter is topped with aluminium roofing sheets (or asbestos sheets if avail­able) instead of locally available thatch;which constitutes a Tire hazard in such an operation where a lot of heat is generated during the soap boiling process.

The floor of the sheltered area is of concrete, to provide durability, good drainage and to facilitate frequent scrubbing which is necessary in any such cottage industry in which a lot of liquid materials are handled.

The functional units within the sheltered space comprise a processing area, store room and a multi-purpose room that serves as an office, first aid station and relaxa­tion area.

• 3.3 EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES FOR PALE SOAP MANUFACTURING

For the production of 500 bars (approximately % tonne) of pale soap one soap boiling tank plus several accessories, as listed below, are needed: a typical equipment list reads as follows:

1 soap boiling tank 10 moulding boxes

1 roll polythene sheet

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5 budkets 2 stirring rods 1 weighing scale 1 cutting table 1 stampingpad

3.3.1 Soap Boiling Tank

The soap boiling tank has an upper cylindrical portion, 1.2m dia x 90cm deep welded on to a lower conical part 1.2m top dia x 61cm lower dia x 30cm deep.

The tank is constructed from 16 gauge galvanised sheet metal. It has a total capa­city of 1220 litres for the production of about 500 bars of pale spap per day. This is about V2 tonne of soap per day.

At the bottom of the tank is a 3cm hole fitted with a discharge pipe of galvanised iron, 3cm diameter. At the end of the pipe is a gate valve through which the boiled soap is discharged into moulding boxes.

The tank is supported on a 2cm iron rod circular cage; 1m high. A mud brick platform is built around the iron rod support. There is a fire-place on the side of the platform where the discharge pipe is located.

The boiling tank has a removable cover at the top. It is operated by 4 people on the average.

3.3.2 Accessories to Boiling tank

Moulding Boxes—Each moulding box measures 80cm x 38cm x16cm deep. It yields 52 bars of soap when cut. The material of construction is light coloured wood, Vv'AWA, to prevent extraneous colours of the wood leaching into the pale soap.

AboutIO of such boxes are required for the production of 500 bars (14 tonne) of soap per day. Each box, loaded with molten soap, is heavy enough to require 2 peo­ple for its safe handling.

Cutting table — A standard cutting table of TCC design is of the wire suspension type. It measures 1.5m x 1.1 m x 76cm high. It is preferably made from non-coloured wood., for example vVAWA, to prevent the wood colour from leaching into the soap.

A typical soap bar measures 37cm x 6cm x 3.7cm and the distances between the two suspension wires of the table are spaced to give the dimensions of the bar.

Other Accessories — The remaining accessories not described above are detailed in later sections of this chapter. In brief the polythene sheet is used to line the mould­ing boxes. The buckets are used for holding water, oil or caustic soda solution. The stirring rods are used to achievea uniform mix of the soap solution and in the prepa­ration of solutions from basic solid ingredients. The weighing scale is useful in ensur­ing good proportions of the various ingredients required in the soap making.

The stamping pad is designed to emboss the manufacturer's name or symbol on the cut soap, in the bar or cake form.

3.4 PROCESS OF PALE SOAP MANUFACTURING

Ingredients — Soap is an alkaline substance used in washing and cleaning. It refers to the reaction of caustic alkali nes with fatty acids which on treatment with water liberate alkaline useful in cleaning garments.

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The raw materials for making pale soap cover a range of substances which may be classified under the following headings. Some specific examples are shown in pare-theses:

(a) fat and oils (palm, coconut, palm kernel oils and cocoa butter) (b) alkalies (caustic soda, caustic potash) (c) fil l ing agents (sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, kaolin) (d) water (e) common salt (NaCI) (f) perfumes (lemon grass oi l , citronella oi l , oil of lavender).

3.4.1 Traditional Method of Pale Soap Manufacturing

The word 'tradit ion' in the tit le above is used to contrast existing method with the TCC technique of pale soap manufacturing I t is not meant to suppress the age old method of producing indigenous soaps, locally called AMONKYE, KOKRODO-MAor ALATASAMINA.

There are two traditional methods, COLD and HOT, of paje soap production. The two methods involve practically the same inputs but differ in the modeof ingredient combination, particularly the application or non-application of heat and the pro­portions of water used.

Traditional Cold Method (100 -150 bars of soap)

Oil Bleaching — The cold method of soap making begins with the bleaching of the palm oil used in the manufacturing process. A 3-kerosine tin capacity cooking pot (54 litres) is used for the oil bleaching. The pot size may vary.

The palm oil is heated in the cooking pot, on a traditional three support fireplace, or other suitable design for up to 2 hours. To check for suitable degree of bleaching, a white piece of paper is dipped into the hot oil and removed. If the paper is colour­ed, pale straw, the bleaching process is complete. The objective of the bleaching is to avoid discoloration of the final soap product.

Ingredients — The next stage in the cold method soap making involves the dissolu­tion of 12kg of caustic soda in 45 litres of water.

The bleached palm oil is warmed and blended with 18 litres of palm kernel oil in a large basin. The caustic soda solution is run into the blended oils. The caustic soda is added one schnapps bottle (750ml.) at a time and the mixture stirred in one circular direction for about three minutes. This procedure is repeated until all the caustic soda is exhausted.

Stick. Test - A 'stick test' is next carried out to check if the proportion of caustic soda used is satisfactory. The stick is dipped into the mixture of oils and caustic soda and removed. The stick is held bver the contents of the basin and the mode of dripping of the liquid from the stick back into the basin is watched.

Jf the liquid drips from the end of the stick in a continuous stream before break­ing into a droplet into the basin then the proportion of caustic soda is satisfactory If the liquid falls from the dip stick in quick drops then the proportion of caustic soda is excessive and needs to be reduced. The reduction is achieved bv the addition of % bottle (375 ml.) of water .to the liquid mass in the basin

16

TRADITIONAL METHOD OF PRODUCING PALM KERNEL OIL, AN INGREDIENT IN PALE SOAP MANUFACTURING

BLENDING OF INCREDIENTS IN TRADITIONAL COLD METHOD OF SOAP PRODUCTION

17

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Excess Oil Test — One should also watch for excessive oil (palm andlsernel) proport­ion. If there is excessive oil on the surface of the liquid mass, about Y2 bottle of water is added to the mixture.

Final Ingredients — The next stage is the addition of sodium carbonate, as a filler, to the mixture. The last ingredient to be added is perfume, to prevent premature evaporation of the same.

Moulding and Cutting — The moulding frames (shallow rectangular open boxes) are next lined with polythene sheets on a concrete floor or other suitable level surface. The liquid mass is poured into the moulding frames and left to stand for 24 hours.

After the first 12 hours, the frames are removed, leaving the soap to harden on the polythene sheets for the remaining 12 hours.

The sheets are then removed and the soap placed on a cutting table. The soap blocks are then Cut to the desired sizes.

Stamping blocks are next used to impress a trade name on the cut bars or cakes of soap.

The final product is placed on a bare cool cement floor for 2 weeks in order to feach out the excess caustic soda. The soap is then ready for use.

Traditional Hot Method

Ingredients --The traditional hot method of pale soap production involves inputs and procedures similar to those required for the cold method.

The palm oil is bleached in a 200 litre oil drum. While the bleached oil is/stirred on a fire, half the dissolveo caustic soda is run into the oil, 3 bottles (2.25/litres) at a time at intervals of 5 minutes. An important point to note is that the quantity of water used in dissolving the caustic- soda is twice the quantity used in the cold method (90 litres instead of 45 litres for 12 kg of caustic soda, or in other corres­ponding proportions). An unhealthy practice is for some manufacturers to use as much as 6 times the quantity of water recommended, to beef up the final volume of the product.

Brisk stirring in one circular direction of the liquid mass in the drum is very important in the hot method and should be taken seriously.

Half the quantity (9 litres) of palm kernel oil required is next added to the hot, stirred mixture. The remaining half of the caustic soda is added followed by the other half of the palm kernel oil.

It is ensured that the liquid mass boils all this time, while being briskly stirred in a consistent circular direction.

Table Salt — The next stage is the addition of a solution of 1 kg table salt in 2 cups of water. The objective of this step is to grain out the soap from the liquid mixture in the drum.

Filler — A filler is then added. It may- be sodium carbonate only or a quantity of kaoline, followed with a corresponding quantity of sodium carbonate. Because of the larger quantity of water used in the hoj method, a correspondingly larger proportion of filler is used at this stage.

19

CONSULTANT AIDS WOMAN IN PROPER METHOD OF STIRRING.A CRITICAL STEP IN TRADITIONAL HOT METHOD OF SOAP PRODUCTION

SOAP MOULDING IN HOT METHOD OF SOAP MAKING. NOTE CONTINUOUS STIRR­ING OF LIQUID SOAP IN MOULDING'TEAY LINED WITH POLYTHENE SHEET.

Stick Test — A stick test, *&s described for the cold method, is carried out to as­certain the excess or deficiency of caustic soda in the mixture. One person keeps on stirring the mixture while another carries out the stick test.

Final Ingredients — The final ingredients to be added to the hot mixture are colour­ing material if desired and perfume. The colour is prepared in warm water or warm bleached oi l , so as not to reduce the temperature of the liquid mixture excessively.

Moulding and Storage — The fire beneath the drum is reduced. The liquid contents are emptied into polythene-lined moulding frames. It is important to keep on stirring the contents of both the drum and moulding frames.

When all the moulding frames have been fil led, their contents are left to stand and cool for 24 hours.

Final Stages — The final stages -in the hot method soap making are the soap cutting and stamping of the trade name, as in the cold method.

The product is normally sold quickly instead of being 'cured' for 2 weeks as des­cribed in the old process. The reason (shrinkage) for the quick disposal will be discussed in a later section.

3.4.2 TECHNOLOGY CONSULTANCY CENTER (TCC) PALE SOAP TECHNOLOGY

The TCC technology of pale soap production follows principles that are essential ly the same as those employed in the traditional hot method of pale soap production

The main difference between the TCC and traditional approaches, which are highlighted in other sections of this report, involve the following: equipment, volume of production, safety and other technical advantages.

Ingredients —The following proportions (where appropriate) of ingredients are' required for the TCC hot method production of about 500 bars (1/2 tonne) of pale soap: palm oi l , palm kernel oil or coconut oil (315 litres), caustic soda (315 litres of 10% solution), filler in the form of sodium.carbonate (18 kg for palm kernel and coconut oils), and kaolin for palm oil, table salt (12%-bv weight of oil used), water and perfume.

TCC Boiling Process

Oil Clarification and Bleaching — If sludge, non-edible oi l , is used (a) the oil needs to be clarified first to remove dirt and unpleasant odour. The clarification is achieved by adding water to the sludge oil and heating for a day and then draining the water out.

If edible ptHs used, no clarification is required. Unlike palm kernel oil or coconut oi l , palm oil needs to be bleached (to remove

the red colour) before the mixing of ingredients. The bleaching process is the same as described above under Traditional Method.

Saponification —315 litres of the treated oif'is measured into the soap boiling tank. 18 kg of the filler, kaolin powder, is added. The mixture is then stirred until i t be­comes homogeneous.

21

RURALWOMETTSEWOUSLY ATTENDING TO A TCC SOAP BOILING TANK. NOTE THE DISCHARGE PIPE IN THE STOKE AREA TO ENSURE THAT LIQUID SOAP TRAPPED IN THE PIPE DOES NOT SOLIDIFY' AND HINDER PASSAGE OF LIQUID MASS FROM THE TANK. THE WOMAN ON THE EXTREME RIGHT STIRS THE CON­

TENTS OF THE TANK TO ENSURE A GOOD MIX.

22

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THE USE OF HAND GLOVES IN HANDLING CAUSTIC SODA IS VERY IMPORTANT IN SOAP MAKING. IN THE TOP PICTURE, THE PARTICI­PANTS ON THE LEFT AEE HANDLING A CAUSTIC SODA MIX WHILE THE WOMAN ON THE EIGHT STIRS A BOWL OF PALM KERNEL OIL DURING TRADITIONAL COLD METHOD OF SOAP MAKING.

IN THE LOWER PICTURE THE WOMAN ADDING THE CAUSTIC MIX­TURE TO THE TCC TANK WEARS PROTECTIVE HAND GLOVES. SHE AND HER COLLEAGUES ARE IN A SMART OUT FIT FOR SAFETY ON THE TCC PLATFORM.

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A MEMBER STAMPS THE TRADE NAME OF THE GROUP, WITH SIMPLE TOOLS, ONTO THE FINAL SOAP PRODUCT. WATCHING WITH KEEN INTEREST ARE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE WOMEN'S GROUP AND THE ILO PROJECT COORDINATOR

(EXTREME LEFT)

THE RURAL WOMEN'S GROUP LEADER PROUDLY DISPLAYS CAKES OF SOAP READY FOR MARKET, TO A MEMBER OF THE PROJECT EVALUATION T E A M !

»

27

Only one fireplace is required in the TCC method, compared with 5 (for 5 drums) in the traditional method, for Vz tonne of soap produced.

(3) The TCC technolog is safer than the traditional method in two aspects, no foaming over during boiling and discharge into moulding boxes.

The TCC boiling tank is large enough (1,220 litres capacity) to allow for more space in the tank above the boiling mass. The capacity is more than 6 times that for a 200 litre oil drum used on a traditional fireplace.

The liquid soap mass is safely emptied from the tank through the drain pipe into the moulding boxes, compared with the use of buckets to empty the oil drums in the traditional method.

It should be emphasised though that the excessive use of water in the hot met­hod (in general) leads to softer soap which tends to shrink with storage.

Furthermore, excess use of a filler leads to poorer lathering quality. This poorer lathering quality is improved in the traditional method by the addition of palm kernel oil to the palm oil.

3.6 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS OF THE TCC TECHNOLOGY

(1) The TCC boiling tank is large and located on an elevated fireplace. Hence it requires about 4 people to operate it. For a women's group the manpower require­ment may be up to 5 (for fire stoking, stirring, tank loading/unloading, soap mon­itoring etc.)

(2) The drain pipe of the boiling tank is also filled with some of the contents of the tank at any one time. Hence during oil clarification or bleaching and soap boil­ing, some residual mass is trapped in the drain pipe and is not adequately heated, despite its proximity to the fireplace.

Hence intermittent draining of the pipe, is called for so that the not-well-heated mass is transferred to the tank for recycling. This is particularly important during oil clarification or bleaching since one may not like to lose up to 0:7 litre of oi l.

(3) The TCC tank is fixed to a platform-cum-fireplace. Hence its maintenance requires an on-the-site inspection and repair. This may be an inconvenience and lead to extra repair cost.

3.7 USERS PROBLEMS

(1) The 4 or more women needed to operate the TCC boiling tank may present logistic problems. All the women will like to lend a hand in the soap boiling process, in groups of 4 or so. Those who carry babies on their backs, or wear traditional head gear may create safety problems. A social education on the division of labour is therefore called for

(2) The fireplace is built into the platform on which the women stand during the boiling process. Inadequate insulation provided by the brick structure may create problems for bare footed or scantily shod women.

(3) Periodic cleaning of the boiling tank requires climbing into the tank itself. This may cre?t* a real problem for the women and be a loophole for men to infilt­rate their ranks.

28

CHAPTER 4

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Several economic benefits were envisaged under the pale soap manufacturing project. These included the creation of employment opportunities, raising the productivity of rural Ghanaian women, increasing their income earning capacities, and equalising incomes between-marginal and core groups within the rural com­munity.

The attainment of these targets were measured by ex-ante and ex-post analysis of the economic situation of women in the selected communities^for the soap project. Of direct and immediate concern was the economic viability of the pro­ject shown by cost benefit measures. Subsequent sections illustrate the method for the cost assessment for soap manufacturing according to the^traditional and improv­ed technologies. - ^

4.2 ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY

The estimates of production costs may be made by assessing those costs which are fixed each year and those which are variable according to the level of soap out-. put.

In order to estimate fixed costs on an annual basis, investment costs of items such as land, traditional processing equipment, the TCC soap boiling tank, moulding trays, cutting table and other accessories should first be calculated as Illustrated in the following table.

Table 4.1 Investment costs for traditional soa^ manufacturing process

Item

4 Oil drums

6 Wooden stirrers

Cooking pot

Cutting table

6 Stamping boxes

8 Stamping pads

Knife

6 Moulding frames

4 Wooden hammers

9 Polythene sheets

2 Plastic containers

Contingency

Total

Cost (C)

16,000.00

120.00

2.500.00

2,000.00

360.00

1,200.00

75.00

2,100.00

400.00

810.00

1,600.00

2,717.00

29,882.00

29

Table 4.2 Investment costs for improved technology of soap,manufacturing

Item

Boiling tank

Installation of tank

Oil drum

6 Wooden stirrers

Cooking pot

2 Cutting tables

12 Stamping.boxes

3 Knives

10 Moulding frames

16 Wooden hammers

36 Polythene sheets

3 Plastic Containers

Contingency

Total

Cost «2) .

15,000.00

15,000.00

4,000.00

120.00

2,500.00

4,000.00

720.00

225.00

3,500.00.

1,600.00

3,240.00

2,400.00

5,470.00

60,175.00

It is apparent that the improved soap making technology does not require exces sive capital outlay. The total investment costs of C60,175.00 can easiry be provided by a co-operative with a membership of 20. The investment costs of the traditional technology is almost 50 per cent of that of the improved technology. The annual fixed costs of the two technologies yield similar results.

Table 4.3 Annual fixed costs for the traditional and improved methods of soap manufacturing

Item

Depreciation

Interest on fixed capital

Maintenance and repair costs

Permanent labour

Interest on working capital

Total

Traditional technology (G)

24,415.00

4,482.00

1,494.00

20,000.00

7,718.00

58,109.00

Improved (TCC) technology (G)

31,925.00

9,026.00

3,008.00

20,000.00

48,975.00

112,934.00

30

.Variable costs were estimated on a daily basis and aggregated according to the number-of days worked in a year. Table 4.4. below shows how the various cost items were estimated in order to obtain the total annual variable costs.

Table 4.4 Annual variable costs for the traditional and improved soap manufacturing

Item

Caustic Soda 12 kg. at £200.00 (b) 40kg at #200

Palm Oil 12 gals, at #500 (b) 40 gals, at 500

Palm Kernel Oil 4 gals. at #600 (b) 10kg at #40

Kaoline 6kg at #40 (b) 10kg at # 4 0

Table Salt 1kg (b) 4kg. at #5

Labour 9 man hours at #20 per hour

(b) 6 man days at #160 per day

Perfume Vi bottle at #1,000 per bottle (b) 2 bottles at #100

Colour 1 bottle at #100 (b) 5 bottles at #100

Total Variable Cost

Cost of product­

ion

1

2,400

6,000

2,400

240

5

180

500

100

Traditiona

No. of product-'

ion in a Year

2

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

50

Total Annual

Cost

•3

120,000

300,000

120,000

12,000

250

9,000

25,000

5,000

591,250

Cost of product­

ion

4

8,000

20,000

7,800

400

20

960

2,000

500

Improved

No. of product­

ion in a Year

5

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

Total Annual

Cost

6

800,000

2,000,000

780,000

40,000

2,000

96,000

200,000

50,000

3,968,000

Annual production costs are computed from Tables 4.3 and 4.4. The annual pale soap production in tonnes and direct labour input for the year are also used in com­puting the statistics in the following table.

31

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f

Table 4.5 Summarised production costs for pale soap

Item

(a) Total annual variable costs

(b) Total annual fixed costs

(c) Total annual production costs (a) + (b)

(d) Total annual production

(e) Cost per tonne

(f) Cost per bar soap of 1 kg wt.

(g) Direct labour input (man-days)

(h) Output per woman in kg.

P R O C E S S

Traditional

591,250.00

58,109.00

649,359.00

7.5 tonnes

86,581.20

86.58

50

150

Improved

3,968,000.00

112,934.00

4,080,934.00

50 tonnes

81,618.68

81.62

600

833

4.3 ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY

(a) The unit cost of production should decline as the scale of operation increases with the improved technology. With soap, however, the difference in the unit cost of production is slight: only 5.7 percent.

(b) Labour productivity increases more than five-fold,from 150 kg per man-day for the traditional technology to 833 kg per man-day for the TCC improved techno­logy.

(c) The initial outlay of C60,175 can easily be met by a co-operative of IO mem­bers with each member contributing G6,000. However, the running costs of the TCC process is rather high, with total variable costs running as high as 03,968, 000, It is thus apparent that unless such a co-operative can get access to a credit facility, the equipment will be severely under utilised.

33

REFERENCES

Ahmed, I Technology and Rural Women: Empirical and Conceptual Issues. ILO, Geneva 1983.

Boserup, E. Women's Role in Economic Development. 1970.

Christensen, E.H. Man at Work—Studies on the Application of Physiology to Work­ing Conditions in a Subtropical Country. 1976.

Bate-Ban, E., Y. Stevens. Rural Women in Africa and Technological Change, Some Issues in Labour and Society: 1981.

Donkor, P. The Development and Transfer of an Intermediate Technology for the Small Scale Soap Industry for Ghana. TCC Report, 1978.

ILO. Improved Village Technology for Women's Activities. A Manual for West Africa. 1984.

Stevens, Y. Technologies for Rural Women. Problems and Prospects in Sierra Leone. 1981.

U.N. Research Series. Women Workers in Ghana, Kenya, Zambia. 1979.

34

APPENDIX I

WEIGHTED INPUTS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF 100 BARS OF SOAP

PRODUCTION RANGE: 30 - 150 BARS OF SOAP

SIZE OF BAR: 3/7 x 6 x 37cm AVERAGE WEIGHT: 0.9kg

Session No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

T

8

9

10

1L

Average

Caustic Soda (kg)

13.3

12.5

12.7

13.3

11.7

12.7

12.5

13.3

11.7

12.5

12.9

12.6

Water (litres)

166.7

180.0

170.5

166.7

166.0

171.4

180.0

166.7

166.7

180.0

166.7

171.0

Palm oil (litres)

60.0

56.3

59.0

60.0

60.0

57.1

56.9

60.0

60.0

57.5

60.0

58.8

Palm Kernel Oil (litres)

20.0

20.0

18.9

20.0

20.0

19.0

20.0

20.0

20.0

18.9

20.0

19.7

III

17.1

19.2

34.1

51.2

85.3

34.1

17.1

51.2

85.3

21.3

34.1

40.9

Perfume (litres)

3.0

4.0

6.0

9.0

15.0

6.5

4.0

9.0

15.0

4.0

6.0

7.4

Colour (litres)

12

16

24

36

60

24

16

36

60

16

24

29.5

Note: The volume of water should be reduced by the corresponding volume of perfume if the latter is included in the ingredients, otherwise the final soap produced will be of a softer grade.

35

APPENDIX II

A Beginner's List of Ingredients for the Traditional Cold Method of Soap Production

Bars of Soap Expected: 24

" Input

Palm Oil

Palm Kernel Oil

Caustic Soda (NaOH)

Water*

Filler (Sodium Carbonate, 1x182^3)

Perfume

a. dettol

b. lemon grass

Quantity

16 bottles

5 bottles

2.5 kg.

16 "cups"

0.5 kg

1/2 bottle

6 bottles

Remarks

12 litres (1 bottle = 750ml)

4.55 litres (1 "cup" = 284.3 ml)

reduce water by 375 ml .

suppress volume of water entirely

* 77ie quantity of water should be reduced by the corresponding volume of perfume if the latter is added. A soft grade of soap will

be otherwise produced.

36