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Technologies for career-long CPD: a literature review

David Noble, Scot-Ed Consultancy Ltd (scot-ed@hotmail.co.uk)

February 2011

Introduction

This paper examines teachers‟ professional development using Web technologies.

It draws on academic literature from the fields of continuing professional

development (CPD), teacher education, information and communication

technologies (ICT), and „communities of practice‟ (COP). The paper positions itself

partly as a response to recent international policy on lifelong learning, in particular

the Review of Teacher Education in Scotland; commonly referred to as The

Donaldson Report (Scottish Government, 2011). The literature was identified

through the use of search terms relating to the above fields. This approach was

supported by additional scoping from the Scottish Government Information

Management Unit.

The writer has held a professional and commercial interest in educational

technologies and teacher CPD since 2005. Within the Scottish education

community he is regarded as an expert in areas such as podcasting and teacher

„personal learning networks‟ (PLNs). His reflexive approach to studying

technologies and online CPD was initially developed through becoming a reflective

practitioner (Schön, 1983) during his Chartered Teacher studies, and continues to

develop through his work within an education doctorate (EdD).

The aim of this paper is to provide evidence-informed advice to the Scottish

Government that informs its „Technologies for Learning‟ strategy in the context of

„post-Donaldson Report‟ teacher education in Scotland. The writes believes that

his recommendations will directly assist improvements in career-long teacher

learning, and indirectly, the learning and teaching of young people moving through

compulsory schooling in Scotland. The paper begins with an identification of

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common issues around, and requirements of, teacher professional development,

before charting how Web technologies have been incorporated into recent

solutions. Through drawing out key themes across reflections-on-implementation,

research findings, theoretical stances and other reviews of literature, this paper

establishes relevant guidance for all educationists with a stake in career-long CPD

and professional learning.

There are several peer-reviewed journals which focus on teacher education and

professional development, with other educational titles regularly featuring papers

of interest. Articles from many of these journals feature in this paper, along with

reports and literature reviews from Non-Departmental Public Bodies (NDPBs).

Discourses on professional development and learning are also shaped through the

work of inspectorates, professional bodies, trades unions, research conferences,

and activity within informal or non-formal (Knight et al, 2006) practitioner

environments on- and off-line. The paper draws on experiences from Scotland,

England, Europe, Asia, and North and South America.

The Donaldson Report

Many of the fifty recommendations in the conclusion of The Donaldson Report

(Scottish Government, 2011) will form the basis of changes in career-long teacher

education in Scotland. The report clusters these recommendations around the

following ideas:

The two most important and achievable ways in which school education can

realise the high aspirations Scotland has for its young people are through

supporting and strengthening, firstly, the quality of teaching, and secondly,

the quality of leadership

teaching should be recognised as both complex and challenging, requiring

the highest standards of professional competence and commitment

leadership is based on fundamental values and habits of mind which must

be acquired and fostered from entry into the teaching profession

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the imperatives which gave rise to Curriculum for Excellence still remain

powerful and the future well being of Scotland is dependent in large

measure on its potential being realised. That has profound and, as yet, not

fully addressed implications for the teaching profession and its leadership

career-long teacher education, which is currently too fragmented and often

haphazard, should be at the heart of this process, with implications for its

philosophy, quality, coherence, efficiency and impact.

(Scottish Government, 2011:2)

There are several recommendations in The Donaldson Report that relate directly

to the provision and use of ICT. These are outlined below, along with key text.

Many are evident in the recommendations contained in the concluding section of

this paper.

The Donaldson Report states that:

Student teachers should have a broader experience of working with

professionals from other disciplines and they should undertake extra

supported study online (Recommendations 2, 11 and 21). Diagnostic

assessments and online resources should be available to all teachers and

prospective teachers who are below baseline competencies in, for example,

literacy and numeracy (Recommendations 4, 5 and 13). Newly qualified

teachers should have a “Masters account opened for them”

(Recommendation 44) and have access to a separate mentor and

supporter (Recommendation 29 and 39).

Teachers and schools should take responsibility for CPD within improved

PRD processes. Clear progression and impact on young people should be

planned and evident (Recommendations 34 and 37). An online CPD profile

(Recommendation 37) should record the outcome of PRD meetings and

agreed foci of CPD, with clear expectations around action and resulting

impact on teaching and learning. The PRD process and profile should link

to a new Standard for Active Registration (Recommendation 36),

accounting for the planning and recording of individuals‟ „learning cycles‟

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through integrating progress, targets and next steps (Recommendation 37).

ICT should be used to solve the “lack of conviction about (the) PRD

process” (Scottish Government, 2011:72), assisted by policy which will

ensure “the coordination and development of a more effective ICT

infrastructure.” (Scottish Government, 2011:105)

Professional learning communities (PLCs) could have a broader

membership than only teachers and they could focus on “knowledge

exchange” (Scottish Government, 2011:70). CPD should be facilitated

through blended, personalised models of delivery (Recommendation 40)

and often should be localised (Recommendation 33). “Combinations of high

quality blended learning and part-time provision (will build) on the positive

start made by a few universities and their partners.” (Scottish Government,

2011:88) CPD should be accredited, and be at Masters level where

possible (Recommendation 44). Teachers should use their CPD „journey‟ to

become accomplished teachers or extended professionals. This would

involve ongoing reflection, inquiry and improvement (Scottish Government,

2011).

There should be more extensive provision of online CPD which will be

accessed through a „one stop shop‟ (Recommendations 40 and 41). “Very

high quality (online) resources and easy access” (Scottish Government,

2011:98) would overcome resistance from some teachers. Supporting

online resources should be created, covering the fundamentals of theories

of pedagogy (Recommendation 12). “Online mechanisms” other the Glow

could be utilised (Scottish Government, 2011:96).

Additionally, part-time models of teacher education would be influenced by

the Open University (Recommendation 9) and a „teacher education

strategy‟ should be formulated to disseminate each new education policy to

practitioners; aiding implementation (Recommendation 38). Supply

teachers and unemployed teachers should continue to be supported

through an online community (Scottish Government, 2011:76) and an

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online-only school leadership college should be established

(Recommendation 50).

Issues within professional development

Presently, it appears that the terms „professional development‟ and „CPD‟ are

associated with all activities relating to the „journey‟ on which a teacher embarks

after their period of induction. Conlon (2004:116) states that CPD is “a broad term

that covers all forms of teachers‟ professional learning, whether formal or informal,

within school or out of school, self-directed or externally prescribed.” Harland and

Kinder (1997) outline up to nine outcomes, linked to changes in classroom

practice, which should arise from the provision of CPD experiences or from self-

directed teacher learning. These are: material and provisionary, informational, new

awareness, value congruence, affective, motivational and attitudinal, knowledge

and skills, institutional outcomes, and impact on practice. Throughout this paper,

the writer often distinguishes between CPD and „professional learning‟. He adopts

the distinction made by O‟Brien and Weiner (2007:387) that, unlike CPD,

professional learning “often diverges from management expectations; reflecting

individual and collective needs. (It) is characterised as a form of teacher agency.”

Continuing Professional Development (CPD), often contemporaneously referred to

as continuous or ongoing (Lock, 2006), is theorised widely within a deficit model of

provision. Lock (2006) summarises problems around: one-off events and periodic

activities; a transmission model of delivery with no differentiation; and a „just in

case‟ approach, remote from classroom practice. Riverin and Stacey (2008) found

that traditional teacher professional development opportunities are often

constrained by time, accessibility and relevance. Harris (2006) states that CPD is

often a solitary activity, remote from students, colleagues, and contextualised

curricula and pedagogies. Harris continues that it is often „delivered‟, is short in

duration, and does not effect a tangible change in either the practices of the

teacher and the nature of the curriculum, or the educational processes and

outcomes of young people. CPD is labelled as „resource wasteful‟ in terms of

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money and time, and there is often a misalignment of the priorities of the expert

(content), and the teacher (as learner).

Friesen and Clifford (2003:2) state that teachers are “under significant pressure to

create new and different learning environments for their students if they are to

realise the potential of a knowledge society … (These are) environments that they

themselves have not experienced”. It is claimed that teachers are not developing

21st century learning skills, that is, the “need to be able to collect, store, interpret,

and share information using advanced technologies.” (Kibrick et al, 2010:3158) It

is also suggested that teachers are not committing themselves to professional

development and learning within a cycle of school and pedagogical improvement,

despite previously accepting this responsibility as part of their national and local

„pay and conditions‟ (Scottish Government, 2011).

The literature illustrates several systemic problems with CPD across education

systems worldwide. There is iniquitous access to many forms of CPD. Teachers

who are unemployed, on a career break, or working shorter periods of supply

cover are unable to participate in situated learning and collaborative inquiry

(Hutchings et al, 2009).

In Scotland, teacher learning is formal in nature during initial teacher education

(ITE), „probation‟, and mid-career bursts of intensive professional learning such as

the Chartered Teacher Programme and the Scottish Qualification for Headship

(SQH). During periods of time outside of these blocks of study, CPD is primarily

managed through employers‟ performance review and development (PRD)

processes. Generally, PRD has been found to impose subjective arrangements for

individual teachers‟ CPD, resulting in ineffective „systems change‟ within Scottish

education. PRD processes often take place uninformed by the framework of

professional standards (Scottish Government, 2011).

Reeves et al (2005) argue that where professional development through

collaborative action is „enforced‟, it fails to establish genuine mutual, and shared

moral, purpose among teachers; seeking consensus instead. Similarly, Daly et al

(2009:34) found a “tension between promoting criticality and promoting normative

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standards of practice.” Criticality goes beyond „lay observations‟ (Furlong et al,

2000) and links with a cycle of practitioner inquiry and changing practice (Daly et

al, 2009). The Scottish Teachers for a New Era (STNE) project (Shanks, 2009) is

influencing moves to address part of the frequent career gap in deep, collaborative

and sustained CPD, by popularising Lave and Wenger‟s (1991) notion of change

within „communities of practice‟.

Recent neo-liberal discourse on CPD is noticeable for placing the responsibility for

lifelong (career-long) learning, and the subsequent evidencing of impact on

practice and outcomes for young people, onto the individual teacher. Teachers are

to be visible, reflective practitioners, engaged in collaborative professional action

in order to, primarily, improve the effectiveness of their work in their class, school,

local authority or system (Scottish Government, 2011). Although there is a

minimum entitlement to CPD in Scottish teachers‟ contracts (Scottish Negotiating

Committee for Teachers, 2011), the tone of many recent contributions to

discourses on CPD, including The Donaldson Report, appear to suggest that

teachers will increasingly be expected to invest their own resources in developing

their professional knowledge, skills and effectiveness.

There is likely to be an increasing demand for formal accreditation from teachers

and a concomitant search by „providers‟ and employers for valid and reliable

systems of assessing teachers‟ learning and development, and impact (see

Guskey‟s (2002) five-level evaluation framework, and the work of Lord et al, 2009).

This may lead to a greater incidence of teachers engaging in inquiry alongside

partner academics (Zhang and Hung, 2009).

A tension emerges where rhetoric is used to suggest that teachers are

autonomous professionals who are in control of their CPD. Firstly, this ignores the

requirement that teachers be accountable for, for example, visibly reflecting on

their CPD. Secondly, by „evidencing‟ parts of a relevant professional standard, the

teacher is acting alone, with the main purpose of ensuring that they achieve, for

example, „re-registration‟ (Scottish Government, 2010). This diverges from rhetoric

on community, collegiality, collaboration and mentoring, where teachers are said

to create new knowledge through sharing ideas, „good‟ or „extended‟ practice,

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discussion or talk, and inquiry (Drucker, 1999; Hargreaves, 1999; Fisher et al,

2006). Online, where many teachers work freely during their personal lives

(Warlick, 2009), individuals may engage in professional learning unrelated to their

workplace or students, yet claim such action as CPD despite an inherent

disconnect from outcomes, national and local education policy, and school

priorities (Noble, 2010). Hustler et al (2003) argue that school development needs

take precedence over individual learning needs.

„Communities of practice’ for CPD, constructing educational knowledge

At this stage it is important to recognise the epistemological basis of much of what

is claimed as educational knowledge. In parts of the USA, for example, teachers

are: trained, assigned instructional coaches, expected to „redesign‟ established

curricula (Nelson and Thomeczek, 2006), and encouraged to consume „good

practice‟ (Simons, 2006). Such an approach suggests that there is a body of

knowledge requiring dissemination, modelling by experts, and co-opting by

practitioners. It implies that teachers need not engage in problem solving, as

solutions are „out there‟ to be discovered, consumed and adopted.

Darling-Hammond (2005:4) states that one type of CPD, „in-servicing‟, is

“designed to ensure more exact implementation of prescribed teaching

procedures. There is no need and little use for professional knowledge and

judgment, or for collegial consultation and planning. Problems of practice do not

exist; the only problems are failures of implementation”. Lock (2006:666) adds that

such an approach “fails to provide opportunities for teachers to reflect on their

beliefs and practices.” However, dominant within current discourses on CPD (and

educational research) in Scotland is the notion that knowledge is constructed by

teachers and others, particularly through collegial and critical talk within school-

based, teacher, or professional learning communities.

Jonassen et al (1999:5) define this social construction of knowledge

(constructivism) as “meaning making (through) a process of negotiation among the

participants, (involving) dialogues or conversations.” Such knowledge is iterative,

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fluid, and may only relate to a specific context such as a class, subject, school, or

geographical area.

Before illustrating how recent developments in Web technologies have been

applied to earlier issues around CPD, it is important to recognise that within the

recent literature, solutions, through new approaches, have emerged. These can be

grouped around: learning opportunities that place the teacher at „the centre‟

(Schibeci et al, 2008); increasing ownership of CPD through programmes and

tutors utilising the experiences of teacher participants (Pickering, 2007); growing

practitioner self-awareness, leading to genuine collaboration and transformation in

practice (Daly et al, 2009); and exposure to content, with opportunities for „hands

on‟ activities which encourage alignment with the school context (Garet et al,

2001).

Daly et al (2009) argue that CPD becomes more visible, with actions and

outcomes more likely to be shared with parts of the wider education community,

when there is a fluid and responsive „community of practice‟ (Lave and Wenger,

1991). Here, demands for change (including curriculum planning and review) are

self-generated and more likely to be acted upon, due to the absence of direct

imposition from government, NDPBs and employers. Hadjithoma and Karagiorgi

(2009:8) state that „communities of practice‟ “should not be regarded by leaders as

mechanical and rational … but rather as a retroactive process, encompassing

humanistic, organic and qualitative aspects”. Such a new approach appears to be

focused on localities, for example, the single school. Daly et al (2009:75) label

them as “highly collaborative”, and advocate that “external players” are present to

help facilitate a “flexible and differentiated approach”.

A learning community is unified by a “common cause of mutual support and

learning, and by shared values and experiences … within an atmosphere of trust,

support, common goals, and respect for diversity.” (Jonassen et al, 1998)

Similarly, a „community of practice‟ is a group of people who share an interest in

an area of human endeavour and engage in collective learning, creating bonds

between them (Wenger, 2001). Conrad (2005:2) defines community in the online

learning environment as a “general sense of connection, belonging, and comfort

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that develops over time among members of a group who share purpose or

commitment to a common goal.”

Professional actions within a community may include peer support (Reid and

Ostashewski, 2010) and the “explicit use of specialist expertise, applying and

refining new knowledge and skills, experimenting with ways of integrating them in

day-to-day practice, teachers observing one another; consultation with teachers

either about their own starting points, focus of CPD, or the pace and scope of

CPD; and involving specialists in observation and reflection.” (Cordingley et al,

2005:65-66)

A learning community is a “social process for turning information into knowledge”

(Hargreaves, 2003:170), where problems can be examined from multiple contexts

and viewpoints (Murphy and Laferrière, 2003). Social construction of knowledge is

a “process of negotiation among the participants through dialogues or

conversations” (Jonassen et al, 1999:5) that develops “critical thinkers and

analytical minds.” (Abas, 2009:98) One example would be where members of a

community experience a new model of pedagogy and then critically review it. Such

activity may lead to adapted or new models relating to a specific context, group of

learners or skill levels, avoiding surface adoption which often results from being

presented with a model (De Freitas et al, 2007). Each individual within a

community can be conceived of as a knowledge worker (Druker, 1999) and

knowledge creator, through auditing professional working knowledge from

practice, managing the process of creating new professional knowledge, and

validating and disseminating the professional knowledge created (Hargreaves,

1999).

A „community of inquiry‟ model (Garrison and Anderson, 2003) can be introduced.

This is intended to “help tutors ensure that deep learning is generated through …

three types of presence: social, teaching, and cognitive.” (Abas, 2009:101) „Inquiry

as stance‟ “opens (teachers) to questioning, exploring issues they identify as

important, making their work public, (and) gaining new ideas.” (Lock, 2006:669)

Web technologies enable new communities of practice or inquiry to emerge, and

existing ones to „look outwards‟ and attract new members or participants. Tutors

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within „communities of inquiry‟ are able to „talk‟ with learners between, or instead

of, face-to-face meetings.

How do online communities ‘fit’ with notions of ‘communities of practice’?

“Online learning communities” (Lock, 2006:664) for “network-based learning”

(Lock, 2006:663) tend to be designed and nurtured within a pedagogical

framework. This is done to “carefully and deliberately … foster a learning culture

… designing, building, and supporting a structure and a process that are

purposeful and fluid in nature … meeting the personal ongoing professional

development needs of teachers.” (Lock, 2006:663) Vaughan (2004:104) supports

this approach, stating that “without proper planning, technology (in an online

learning community) can become a disconnected add-on.” For example, “Where

members are not geographically dispersed and have opportunities to meet face to

face or access local knowledge resources, the online environment may not (add)

value to the real community.” (Karagiorgi and Lymbouridou, 2009:133)

To be collaborative, an online community needs to feature at least two teachers

working together on a planned and sustained basis (Cordingley et al, 2005; Kibrick

et al, 2010), with colleagues having access to technologies at home and work

(Daly et al, 2009). Within such a model, there is access to a range of Web tools to

facilitate „talk‟. Rochelle et al (2000) found that discussion boards could be used by

learners and instructors to construct new knowledge, although Becta (2008) found

that there remained a slow uptake of technologies such as discussion boards for

the purpose of collaborative peer learning.

There are structured environments, for example blogs, within online portals such

as Glow. Blogs enable teachers to post text and multimedia, and seek responses

and dialogue. A wiki is a collaborative space for the asynchronous process of

artefact creation (Russell et al, 2009), such as a „scheme of work‟. Hall (2006:13)

defines a wiki as “a collection of Web pages that can be easily viewed and

modified by anyone, providing a means for sharing learning and collaboration”.

Moreland (2009) examined the use of wikis for collaboration and shared teaching.

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Synchronous talk can take place across many designed and partially designed

environments on the Web, using text chat facilities, and web- and tele-

conferencing.

E-learning for CPD: moving from content to collaboration?

Online teacher professional development (oTPD) (Reid and Ostashewski, 2010),

or teacher e-learning, has been a distinct area of education systems and provision

for learning since the 1990s. E-learning has developed primarily within higher

education, though is now integrated with developments in pedagogy and teacher

education. E-learning has been concerned with the “online delivery of instructional

content as well as associated support services.” (Dela Pena-Bandalaria, 2009:65)

Mishra (2009) outlines the benefits of e-learning in terms of: access, flexibility,

learner control, content update, coverage and cost, and the notion of „anytime,

anywhere‟ learning (see also Bonk, 2009).

Despite e-learning being criticised for replicating a traditional model of learning

(Tan et al, 2009) and for not being used to develop pedagogies and andragogies

(theories of adult learning), Web courses proliferate around the world. Mishra

(2009) shows how the Government of India has always considered the use of ICT

as a means for the mass education of its people. Bonk et al (2009:9) write of the

“mass migration of training and education to the Web”. They continue, “There are

70 universities within Asia dedicated to open access to education … designing

unique blended programs which combine self study with online and face-to-face

experiences as needed by the learner or dictated by the content.” (Bonk et al,

2009:10)

E-learning is “promoted as a star industry in Taiwan to build a knowledge society

and support life-long learning.” (Zhang and Hung, 2009:50) E-learning courses

„deliver‟ content in a variety of forms within structured learning environments.

These may feature hypertext, audio and video, simulations, and quizzes. There

may be an area for the storage of course artefacts and facilitation of talk. The

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emphasis is on preparation for external assessment, meeting pre-defined

outcomes (Dela Pena-Bandalaria, 2009).

There are other activities increasingly featuring within e-learning. Teachers can

use a variety of publishing tools and spaces to “create an online portfolio to

showcase their academic, professional, and personal achievements. The portfolio

serves (as) a personal home Web-page to showcase individual work … It also

allows users to record their reflections” (Tan et al, 2009:88) and can be worked on

anytime, anywhere (Tan et al, 2009). Teachers can access digital libraries

containing, for example, academic papers, e-journals featuring practitioner inquiry,

and videos of „enhanced‟ practice (Recker et al, 2007; Dela Pena-Bandalaria,

2009). Providers of career-long teacher education opportunities have established

online and blended programmes, some up to doctoral level. These often utilise

„virtual‟ and „managed‟ learning environments‟, and „content management

systems‟.

Development of the above constructivist and didactic approaches to e-learning are

the product of various policies on adult learning. The Council of the European

Union (2004) promoted the need to develop an integrated, coherent and inclusive

lifelong learning strategy for the teacher population. The European Union (2005)

recognised that networked communities held the potential for contributing towards

continuing professional development, complying with the Lisbon objective to

increase adult participation in lifelong learning (Rodrigues, 2003). The Donaldson

Report (Scottish Government, 2011:75) states that, “Internationally, there is a

move towards teaching becoming a „Masters-level profession‟. The European

Union‟s „Bologna process‟ has been a powerful stimulus in this direction.”

As a result of the present focus on resourcing teacher CPD and systems

transformation through learning communities, some argue that systems of e-

learning need to “develop new images of … professional development, based on

(participants‟) needs within an online community of learners.” (Lock, 2006:663)

Fullan (2001:79) found that learning organisations invest “heavily in technology

and possibly training, but hardly at all in knowledge sharing and creation. And

when they attempt to use and share new knowledge, they find it enormously

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difficult.” There are moves within the fields of professional development and

educational technology to facilitate “human-centered, not technology-worshipped”

(Lee, 2009:19) e-learning opportunities. Tan et al (2009:84) write of “humaniZing”

e-learning through “high tech – high touch” delivery.

A critical analysis of ‘communities of practice’ and e-learning

In reflecting on the above challenge, it is important to critically examine the

assumptions underpinning theory and practice regarding constructivism and

learning communities. This paper now considers research indicating the

inclination, readiness, or otherwise of teachers in relation to CPD and e-learning

(in its broadest sense, encompassing constructivist and didactic approaches).

Zhang and Hung (2009) found that a significant number of learners are unfamiliar

with any form of e-learning, with one in five also stating that they would require

engagement to be modelled. Dela Pena-Bandalaria (2009) states that many are

dissuaded from engaging with e-learning due to perceived or actual „transactional

distance‟. Laohajaratsang (2009) found that there is reluctance among many tutors

and learners to use e-learning. Teachers may be resistant to change in

approaches to learning due to well-established beliefs that are not in line with

visions of reform (Forgasz and Leder, 2008). Daly et al (2009:29) add that, “There

can be limited tolerance of reduced levels of competence and control” experienced

through e-learning.

„Self-efficacy‟ is a learner‟s beliefs, confidence and expectations about their ability

to carry out a task. It has been identified as an important but under-researched

aspect of Web CPD (Kao and Tsai, 2009, in Daly et al, 2009:45). The challenge is

to “embed … Web CPD approaches with classroom teachers who are less

motivated (and) who are not „experts‟ or „enthusiasts‟.” (Daly et al, 2009:36)

There is an extensive body of research prolematising the notion of the designed

online learning community. Online learning communities “(are) still very

undeveloped in terms of evaluation of impact on transforming knowledge to

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change practice.” (Daly et al, 2009:37; see also Fisher et al (2006); Kao and Tsai

(2009)) Karagiorgi and Lymbouridou (2009) chart the difficulties around a notional

online community growing into a „community of practice‟. Wenger (1998:81, in

Daly et al, 2009) states that, “Being able to „do‟ something within a COP means

developing judgements and becoming discriminating in deciding how to practise …

When these become shared … this allows participants to negotiate appropriate

ways to carry out tasks and behave within the community”.

Daly et al (2009:47) note that “Wenger makes it clear that a community does not

necessarily imply a shared practice and that this must be forged over time …

Frequent, informal talk is essential to learning within a COP and cannot be

artificially engineered, but rather grows out of an ethos of regular consultation and

shared experiences.”

In terms of talk, Prestridge (2009) distinguishes between collegial discussion,

essential for developing a community and understanding, and critical discussion,

which has a role in transforming teachers‟ beliefs. Grunberg and Armellini (2005)

found than online communication among teachers in South America developed a

sense of collegiality but did not improve teaching and learning. They found a lack

of collaborative discussion and a predominance of „privatised‟ conversations that

did not appear to construct and share new knowledge.

Karagiorgi and Lymbouridou (2009) also show that there are issues around what

they term the „social infrastructure‟ of a community, namely difficulties around

enhancing participation, building identity and community, facing administration and

facilitation concerns, and addressing technical aspects. As a response to

members‟ wishes (for example, where there is a lack of „self efficacy‟), the

expectations of an online „community of practice‟ may be downplayed to that

associated with traditional e-learning. Such a shift would enable members to

“interact at a level they are comfortable with. This accepts participants to view the

oTPD material without feeling too pressured to share their thoughts with others.”

(Reid and Ostashewski, 2010:1120)

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Karagiorgi and Lymbouridou (2009) establish that the moderator of an online

community lacks the power of an instructor in an award-bearing course, as

participation can only be encouraged and not mandated. Within the online

community being researched, they found that “channels of interaction, information-

sharing and trust-building were missing … (and they) could not … define either

member roles or community goals.” (Karagiorgi and Lymbouridou, 2009:131)

„Social infrastructure‟ may be damaged by peripheral participation and „lurking‟

(Preece et al, 2004; Riverin and Stacey, 2008), and by „trolling‟ (Cuthell, 2004),

where unhappy participants with negative attitudes „hijack‟ online discussions.

Tensions can arise between members and moderators or tutors, where the need

to evidence competencies and professional standards are driving the contributions

of one or the other, but not both. Day (1999) claims that competencies and

standards are rooted in the need to control and monitor teachers. Tutors may

expect, and pursue, participants to respond to stimuli which they have made

available within a community (Abas, 2009). Abas recognises the damage done to

the sustainability of a community when tutors and moderators are frequently

absent. Berge and Collins (2000) claim that these are demanding roles. Tutors

and moderators have to be: technical troubleshooters, educators, hostesses,

chairpersons, facilitators, and community organisers. Schank et al (1999) highlight

the intense labour required to support a growing community, while maintaining

quality interactions.

Day (1999) argues that learning communities should include groups of schools

and university staff. Webb et al (2007:181) state that they should be “outward

looking ... actively find(ing) out about practice ... (avoiding being) closed cultures”.

Wider horizons will be necessary where activity in learning communities is to be

accredited by national or even international bodies for the purpose of academic

award or evidencing of professional standards.

Technologies can link disparate physical learning communities, however there is

little evidence of inter-community collaborative learning, through for example the

creation and action of expansive learning communities that bring together, say,

several 'teacher professional learning communities' (TPLCs) (Stoll and Louis,

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2007). Day et al (2009) emphasise the high expectations and intense activity

necessary to create change that is owned by the entire school community.

Refering to Lingard (2003), they state, “(He) emphasised the importance of

collaboration in the culture of staffrooms and adult communities throughout the

school – TPLCs include the entire school-based workforce of teachers, heads,

students, parents, teaching assistants, mid-day supervisors etc.” (in Daly et al,

2009:31; see also HMIE, 2010)

A further issue emerging from the literature concerns the attitudes and actions of

school managers towards the involvement of their staff in learning communities. Of

interest, Smith et al (2008) found that when prioritising technology in their schools,

headteachers tended to focus on using ICT in management and administration,

and then on using it in teaching and learning. When a community forms, there is a

tendency for management to attempt to control the design, as communities often

sit outside established hierarchies within education systems. Daly et al (2009)

found that when management participated, they tended to focus on coverage of

policy rather than learning. When a community is online, management‟s

remoteness from notions of knowledge construction and collaborative learning

may lead to an absence of investment in hardware and technical support, both of

which Lee (2009) found to be essential for success.

Agnostic or ambivalent school leadership may reduce the incidence of a learning

community “gain(ing) access to subject specialists.” (Daly et al, 2009:63) New

knowledge is potentially powerful and transformative. If it is not openly shared by

the community in a collegiate, outward looking (and at the same time school

improvement focused) manner, then there will be a loss of trust held by those

close to, but outside of, the community.

It may be difficult, however, to give new knowledge a useful form. Reeves et al

(2005) state that where there is criticality, challenge and change, there may not be

consensus and thus a neatly packaged artefact that others can understand and

make use of. Given that “teachers (may be) actively involved in each other‟s

development across schools” (Daly et al, 2009:63), collaboration and sharing of

knowledge may be an issue for school management where there is local

18

competition. Finally, with a small research-base and lack of evidence supporting

positive claims around the extent and nature of interactions and outcomes within

online communities, education managers may not invest time or resources for

online activities until they see teachers using it in the first instance (Schlager et al,

2002).

In briefly focusing on the individual, it is likely that teachers will be members of

several other online communities (personal, professional, and mixed) and will

make choices over the amount of time they spend interacting within each one

(Karagiorgi and Lymbouridou, 2009). There is a further issue around teachers‟

histories of ICT use. A history of positive personal use of technologies makes it

likely that an early career teacher will have an inclination to use ICT, or a

propensity to see ICT as having value for them within their ongoing professional

learning and CPD. Hammond et al‟s (2009) research indicates that possessing an

inclination is more important than a set of ICT skills.

Dela Pena-Bandalaria (2007) found that Filipinos‟ satisfaction with online learning

is a function of learner variables, including: length/number of years of using the

computer; length/number of years of using the Web; and the number of

hours/length of using the computer and the Internet per access. A direct

relationship was visible between each of these variables and the level of

satisfaction in an online learning environment.

Based upon their ICT histories, many teachers are demanding more flexibility

regarding time and place of learning (Lee, 2009). Many are capable of extended

periods of self-study using the Web and consider themselves as requiring only

minimum tutor or colleague input (Suzuki, 2009). Daly et al (2009) foresee that

online CPD will become increasingly „demand led‟. Suzuki believes that as

teachers‟ expectations rise within a milieu where more CPD equates with higher

academic qualifications and career development pathways, greater rigour and

toughness will be necessary around quality assurance of all forms of e-learning.

In perceiving problems around the early adoption of on- and off-line „communities

of practice‟, in particular the prevalence of designed environments, many

19

professionals are using free Web resources to create environments and networks

in an effort to realise the potential benefits of collaboration within a community.

Teachers’ professional learning via Web 2.0 and ‘personal learning

networks’

The uses of Web 2.0 technologies by teachers (as learners) and learning

organisations, that is those “supporting collaborative and participatory interactions”

(Arakji and Lang, 2010), has grown for three reasons: learners‟ dissatisfaction with

traditional e-learning, frustration with the inadequacies and contrived nature of

designed learning communities, and a realisation of the new possibilities around

learning on the „open‟ web. Preston et al (2009) note growth in informal, fluid

online learning communities, facilitated by Web 2.0 technologies. Teachers are

seeking out peers to help facilitate their own learning and development (Sherer et

al, 2003), although this has been, and remains, a feature of teacher professional

action in staffrooms and conferences, and is not unique to online activity.

Cuthell (2008) describes a model of voluntary collaborative online CPD, which

takes place via learning platforms across international contexts. Teachers can take

part in online sharing of project-based self-directed learning (see also Day, 1999

and the notion of „responsibilisation‟ (Peters, 2001)). Cuthell‟s model is “based on

the importance of „learning by doing‟ and usually attracts self-selecting ICT

enthusiasts” (in Daly et al, 2009:35). It has been termed „braided learning‟

(Haythornthwaite, 2007). Braided learning appears to satisfy Daly et al‟s (2009:54)

requirement for “a shift to a model of bottom-up or „backward-mapping‟ innovation

coming from practitioners themselves to ensure a sustainable culture of change

and development.”

Interestingly, as far back as 2002 the Inspectorate in Scotland (HMIE, 2002:21)

stated that “many (teachers) have not yet fully recognised the advantages of being

able to access their professional development flexibly and at their own pace

through self-directed on-line work.” JISC (2007:32) found that, “(Learners) … seek

to personalise the technologies they use, just as they control other aspects of their

20

learning environment. In response to a variety of pressures – including shortage of

time, lifestyle, personal preferences and course requirements – learners are now

selecting their own blend of technologies to make their learning experiences more

congenial, manageable and appropriate to their needs.” This, along with Cuthell‟s

model, is exemplified by the emergence of MOOCs (massive open online courses)

(Mackness et al, 2010).

MOOCs originate from the University of Manitoba, Canada, and are grounded in

connectivism (Siemens, 2006); labelled and contested as a “new learning theory

for a digital age” Mackness et al (2010:266). This writer previously stated (Noble,

2010:12) that “Siemens (2006) identifies the creation of currency, that is, accurate,

up-to-date knowledge, as the intent of connectivist learning activities.” MOOCs

offer “extensive diversity, connectivity and opportunities for sharing knowledge …

Learners are … exercising autonomy regarding where, when, how, what and with

whom to learn, (and by) select(ing) technologies.” (Mackness et al, 2010:266)

Learners are free to create their own learning environment, remote from the

course or institution (Beetham, 2008; Guldberg and Makness, 2009).

Facilitators of MOOCs provide open access to a “cluster of resources around a

subject area, rather than a linear set of materials that all students must follow.”

(Downes, 2009) MOOCs make use of “readings and presentations already freely

available on the Web … supplemented by course instructor and visiting speaker

presentations and materials.” (Mackness et al, 2010:268) The emergence of new

sites of learning, such as MOOCs, illustrate that it is becoming “harder to draw

boundaries around (national) „educational‟ technological innovations and … ignore

the impetus from the outside world to develop collaborative, learner-centred ways

of communicating and learning.” (Daly et al, 2009:16)

Activities such as reading and publishing to blogs, managing and reading RSS

feeds, posting multimedia to „followers‟ and „friends‟ via social networking

applications, and uploading elements of one‟s practice to Glow, exemplify

Warlick‟s notion of online collegiality (Warlick, 2009, in Noble, 2010). “„Personal

learning networks‟ (PLNs) consist of loose interactions (Wilson, 2008), and fluid

and weak spaces, sources of data, and relationships (Hawthornthwaite, 2000).” (in

21

Noble, 2010:1) The term PLN is referred to by many educators who are engaged

in professional learning across the open web (Noble, 2011). Collegial behaviour is

evident, where learners (that is, teachers working with or within their PLN)

“become amplifiers as they engage in knowledge-building activities, connect what

they learn, add value to existing knowledge and ideas, and re-issue them back into

the network to be captured by others through their PLNs.” (Warlick, 2009:15; see

also Tan et al, 2009).

PLNs are “customised, personal Web environments … that explicitly support one‟s

social, professional, (and) learning … activities via highly personalized windows to

the networked world.” (Johnson et al 2009:19) This writer continues (Noble,

2010:9), “Online, artefacts such as Twitter-mediated dialogue, blog posts and web

conference recordings are created by teachers worldwide. In addition to text and

other media, Tobin (1998) includes as artefacts, all conversations, people and

organisations within PLNs. Nowadays, artefacts can be shared freely and

efficiently between those in and around online PLNs.”

Couros (2006) developed the notion of the „networked teacher‟, illustrated by his

„total learning environment‟ diagram. The diagram features: Web 2.0 tools,

colleagues and members of the local community, other physical and virtual

artefacts, and a variety of methods of talk. „Networked teachers‟ use collaborative

practices, and informal and formal opportunities to deepen their knowledge and

skills. Couros‟s diagram places the professional teacher at the centre of their own

learning.

Considering emerging criticism of free professional action on the Web

However, a pervasive, evangelical mindset is said to exist among some teachers

(Holmes et al, 2007). This mindset appears to elevate the value and perceived

benefits of informal, free and open professional on action on the Web above that

of CPD which relates directly to the improvement of a school and the learning of its

students (Noble, 2010). The claims of Holmes et al (2007) and this writer,

however, are not supported by Devereux (2009:19-20), who characterises these

22

teachers as being within “pervasive groupings of professionals (networks), ready

to push themselves further in the search for new ways of learning – for themselves

and their students.”

Mayer (2004) writes of an excess of free discovery learning which can hamper the

development of shared understanding and collaborative learning. This writer

suggests that such a problem can occur within online PLNs and school

professional communities. Mackness et al (2010:266) warn that “ethical

considerations … may need to be taken into account when testing new theory and

practice.” This writer interprets their warning in relation to teachers bringing new

knowledge and skills gained through online professional learning into their school,

despite these not arising or being acquired as a result of collaboration with

members of the school community.

Others argue that work within PLNs mirror „21st century‟ approaches to learning.

“Being critically informed about informal learning via Web 2.0 social networking

needs to be part of teachers‟ professional knowledge. This involves being

proactively experimental rather than „victims of technological vision‟” (Convery,

2009, in Daly et al, 2009:18). It also entails engaging with “Web 2.0 technologies

such as podcasts, wikis, blogs, and social networking tools such as Facebook …

(presently) being employed for elearning” (Bonk et al, 2009:12).

In relating PLNs to their work setting and notions of new expertise and leadership,

“Teachers need to be the main agents of change … rather than as managers in

reaction to external or internal policy making. This is where an emphasis on

increasing the „demand‟ side of professional development activities is relevant ...

(Teacher leadership) involves teachers leading other teachers by: coaching,

mentoring, leading wider groups, leading developmental tasks that underpin

learning and teaching, and crucially, leading pedagogy by developing and

modelling effective teaching.” (Harris and Muijs, 2005, in Daly et al, 2009:30)

In considering the possible interest from Scottish teachers in this form of online

CPD or professional learning, it is useful to consider Rogers‟ (1995) „theory of

diffusion of innovation‟. “The adoption of an innovation is a process which occurs

23

over time among the members of a social system. There are four main elements

which influence the adoption process: the innovation itself, the social system within

which the innovation is diffused among its members, the communication channels

through which messages about the innovation are communicated between the

members; and the awareness, persuasion, decision making and adoption that

takes place over time. The members involved in the innovation diffusion process

can be categorized into different types of adopters: innovators, early adopters,

early majority, late majority and laggards.” (Rogers, 1995, in Barton et al,

2009:132)

Januszewski and Molenda (2008) show that concepts of educational technology

continue to evolve. Every year there are significant changes in students‟ digital

studying environments (Anzai, 2009). Barton et al (2009) suggest that early

adopters become the change agents, at the same time helping with the iterative

development (Dela Pena-Bandalaria, 2009) of online CPD for teachers. Barton et

al (2009) researched influential early adopters, considered as change agents in

tertiary education in Turkey. They inspired the e-learning of small networks of their

peers (Henderson, 2009) by building on established social networks and

connections. However, Spector (2001) warns of teachers feeling intimidated by the

„technification‟ of education. He criticises the arrogance of new experts who

dominate discourse on pedagogies and new technologies. Convery (2009) argues

that teachers have become victims of policy-makers‟ rhetoric about technological

benefits and are encouraged to believe that serial adoption is a moral imperative.

Ways forward for online CPD, drawn from the literature

Shortly, this paper will make recommendations around online CPD for Scotland‟s

teachers, within the context of those aspects of The Donaldson Report which

relate to ICT. Firstly, it is important to draw on some broad themes around which

many of the writers above, and others, base their own recommendations.

Coombs and Denning (2006) argue that there needs to be recognition that

although there are multiple notions of „communities of practice‟, online teacher

24

communities can become redundant and ineffective without a considered basis

and strategy, backed by policy (Suzuki, 2009). Attention needs to be given to

social, cultural and organisational issues, rather than technological features

(Wenger, 2001). Conrad (2005:2) states that “the creation of community (ought to)

simulate for online learners the comforts of home, providing a safe climate, an

atmosphere of trust and respect, an invitation for intellectual exchange, and a

gathering place for like-minded individuals who are sharing a journey that includes

similar activities, purposes and goals.” Daly et al (2009:47) add that,

“Communication is core to establishing shared understanding among participants

about the nature of their work, and enables them to take future actions.”

Approaches to online discussion within teachers‟ own individual or networked

learning environments, or environments that have been designed for teachers,

need to promote critical thinking (Dela Pena-Bandalaria, 2009) in order for learning

to lead to changes in the circumstances of students. Daly et al (2009:47) also

suggest that “within a „community of practice‟, CPD should be socially binding

between teachers. A genuine COP is established by „a way of talking‟ among

members.”

Karagiorgi and Lymbouridou (2009:129) argue that “communities should emerge

rather than be created”. The participation of new teachers in these communities is

essential as they aide the process of teacher socialisation. Communities are

“environment(s) which encourages some activities and discourages others.” (Daly

et al, 2009:43) Online communities should be regarded as part of a „larger entity‟

(Schlager et al, 2002), rather than as artefacts to be built in the context of some

education policy intervention (Schlager and Fucso, 2004).

With Internet use “expected to grow even more with the proliferation of mobile

technologies coupled with the availability of increasingly affordable broadband

Internet access” (Abas, 2009:98), Abas (2009:102) identifies four ways of

improving e-learning:

25

Enhance learner access to learning materials

improve education efficiency by increasing opportunities for collaborative

learning and by making course materials available in a timely manner, 24

hours a day, seven days a week

improve learning effectiveness by encouraging learner interaction with

tutors and classmates (colleagues) to support and promote collaborative

learning.

Other writers focus on a range of requirements for effective and useful e-learning:

Efficiency and cost effectiveness (Lee, 2009)

policies supporting the implementation (Lee, 2009)

technical and administrative support from institutions (Lee, 2009; Karagiorgi

and Lymbouridou, 2009)

effective instructional design (Lee, 2009; Zhang and Hung, 2009; Mishra,

2009)

appropriate digital technologies (Lee, 2009)

peer evaluation tools (Lee, 2009). Tan et al (2009:87) suggest that, “as a

reviewer, the (learner) will feel responsible for (their colleague‟s) learning

and will be motivated to give well-informed and constructive feedback on

(his or her) peer‟s work.”

sufficient budget (Zhang and Hung, 2009)

tutors who have knowledge and skills in new technologies (Dela Pena-

Bandalaria, 2009)

needs-based and contextual (Mishra, 2009).

In the (re)design of e-learning, Zhang and Hung (2009:61) call for the

establishment of “collaborative partnerships with business, government, and non-

profit sectors to share resources and expertise in the design, development, and

delivery”. Dela Pena-Bandalaria (2009) suggests that this will reduce costs and

enrich quality assurance (Coombs and Denning, 2006), which Zhang and Hung

(2009) found is necessary to raise the „acceptance rate‟ of e-learning. However,

26

Tan et al (2009:82) warn that providers and managers should measure success in

“mile-stones of achievements rather than page views”.

Dela Pena-Bandalaria (2009:75) later promotes the idea of the „quality circle‟,

which “consists of the writer who is an expert on the subject matter as well as a

subject matter specialist who will review the soundness of the content. In addition,

there is an instructional designer who determines if the chunking of lessons is

proper and appropriate. Such a person must also make decisions related to the

alignment of the program or course goals, content, and assessments. There is a

media specialist who will give recommendations related to the appropriate medium

of course and module delivery as well as multimedia supplements.” Abas

(2009:104) adds that, “Staffing (should) include … programmers, graphic

designers, animators, instructional designers, and Web developers to design and

develop online learning materials.”

However, excellent content does not equate to meaningful learning (Mishra, 2009).

Zhang and Hung (2006) found that assessment of e-learning is a major concern

among instructors. Some providers of accredited professional learning award a

small percentage of course marks for online collaboration, despite concerns

regarding validity and plagiarism (Tan et al, 2009). Suzuki (2009) states that

professional competencies (standards) covered by successful engagement and

completion of accredited online CPD must be communicated clearly and form the

basis of tutors‟ and learners‟ expectations.

Mishra (2009:128) argues that a statutory body for e-learning should exist to:

“(Develop) a nationally distributed repository of learning objects, maintain quality

standards for online learning, coordinate and promote online learning, (and)

accredit online learning courses … It could develop and maintain online learning

portals for lifelong learning … (containing) small learning objects (developed) by

teachers that they can use, share, and discuss.”

Laohajaratsang (2009:115) states that, “(The Thailand Cyber University) has

attempted to implement high quality and standard e-learning to expand

educational opportunities … without the limit of time and place … It provides 430

27

self-learning courses.” Linked to this, there has been a proliferation of „skillettes‟;

short modules of not more than thirty minutes which cover one specific unit of

learning and is considered to be facilitative of just-in-time education (Mitra, 2003;

2009). The RSC in the UK (RSC, 2011) runs an online web conferencing service,

RSC TV, which allows educators to similarly „snack‟ on learning (McIntosh, 2007).

Developing this idea, „courselets‟ are practitioner-led sequences of activities (Reid

and Ostashewski, 2010). They include “reflective professional practice, participant

feedback, requests from external bodies, directions from governing bod(ies),

reviews of the literature and formative evaluations. Courselets were originally

designed to be mini versions of university courses (Dodge and Molebash, 2005),

intended to “simulate a semester long learning experience in four weeks.” (Reid

and Ostashewski, 2010:1119-1121)

Eaton and Carbonne (2008) argue that schools need to invest in releasing

teachers to spend time on critical and reflective activities, either through group

facilitation during staff training time, or by allowing teachers to attend programmes

off-site. Daly et al (2009:83) add that “CPD (will) take place in increasingly

distributed locations as market forces continue to privatise the whole operation …

in multiple locations: government sponsored centres, cluster schools, classrooms,

(and) teachers‟ homes.”

Changing CPD in Scotland: learning from the NOF

The New Opportunities Fund (NOF) was a significant development in the

discrediting of „delivery‟ models of CPD. Reflecting on this policy creates helpful

guidance for implementing new approaches to teacher education, professional

learning and CPD, such as those proposed in The Donaldson Report. Based on

this literature review, the writer assumes that there are still significant numbers of

teachers deficient in ICT knowledge and skills relating to a number of areas of

teacher education identified for improvement or implementation in the report.

The NOF “ran from 1999 to 2003 and aimed to make every United Kingdom

teacher competent in the classroom uses of information technology.” (Conlon,

28

2004:116) Conlon (2004:122) states that the Teacher Training Agency in England

stipulated that NOF training must:

Be delivered by an accredited training provider, to be chosen by each

school from a centrally maintained list of providers

operate within a level of funding equal to £450 per teacher on average

deliver the prescribed training outcomes

on using ICT in the classroom

ion of training needs

-line support where appropriate

ascertain that teachers had good access to computers during their period of

training

be open to inspection.

The findings of Ofsted (2002) relating to the „delivery‟ model, and not the

technological content of the CPD, are of note. Teachers referred to: lack of

professional support, insufficient relevance to subject specialists, learning

materials that were not engaging, and failure to „up skill‟ and build on levels of prior

knowledge. There was also criticism of ICT support for self-directed study.

Teachers did not benefit from learning at a computer by themselves in their own

time. Online mentoring was of poor quality due to the ratio of learners to mentors.

These factors contributed to a high number of teachers not completing their

training.

“The assumption ... that teachers would welcome online training as a way of fitting

professional updating into busy working schedules seems to have been in

advance of practice and resources, in advance of what many school systems

could provide ... (and) incompatible with the … preferred learning styles of many

teachers.” (Ofsted, 2002:30) CPD providers were found to have made

assumptions regarding teachers‟ motivation and time management skills (HMIE,

2002). This one-size-fits-all approach to CPD was found to effect little change on

practice (Conlon, 2004).

29

Oblinger and Oblinger (2005) state that, “There are considerable differences

among teachers in their levels and needs … broadly categorised as:

1. Teachers who are increasingly products of the „Net Generation‟, who are

confident and familiar with Web 2.0 and other technologies. For these

teachers, the gap between their immersion in technologies and what and

how they are enabled to learn in school is part of an anomaly and likely to

become an increasing source of frustration and lost opportunities as time

goes by. They do not necessarily possess advanced pedagogical expertise,

however, and their development needs are important.

2. Teachers who have the skills and the access to technologies, but are not

motivated or not convinced of the benefits (Empirica, 2006) or who, for

„unspecified reasons‟, do not engage with technologies.

3. Teachers who are lacking skills and confidence.”

(in Daly et al, 2009:81)

Parihar (2004) identified four bottlenecks in the introduction of ICT in school

settings. First, teachers have to make a move to „new education‟, but lack time.

Second, teachers fear that ICT will dislocate them. Third, teachers are unsure of

the security provisions for their study materials. And, fourth, there is perceived

unreliability of networking and local computing services. Lawson and Comber

(1999) state that senior management can be effective in encouraging the use of

ICT, and Comber (2007) argues that management must go further and foster

inclusive, collaborative and teacher-led CPD. Holmes (2007) believes that

convergence should take place between management, teachers and technologies,

before new CPD and required online professional activities are introduced.

Conclusion - Recommendations in the context of The Donaldson Report

This paper has drawn on international research and discourse on professional

development and „technologies for learning‟. It has outlined the recommendations

of The Donaldson Report (Scottish Government, 2011), which itself was a

response to some of the issues regarding CPD detailed in this literature review.

30

Constructivist and traditional e-learning were examined in the context of teachers‟

CPD, and comparisons were made with the „free learning‟ of teachers who are

professionally active on the open Web. Finally, this paper highlighted useful

reflections, demands-on-policy, and „good practice‟. The purpose of the conclusion

is to make recommendations to educationists throughout Scotland. To aid focus,

they are separated into three sections; however each recommendation should be

considered by the reader.

Recommendations (particularly for The Scottish Government)

1. The work of professional learning communities should be available online and

be easy to search and locate. A resource could be developed by those

universities who are in coalition with local authorities and schools.

2. There should be a national database of subject experts (For example, on

curriculum, pedagogies, learning, and inter-professional working). Experts

would be able to move between communities as „critical friends‟ (Stenhouse,

1975) and may come from, for example, national education agencies, social

organisations, business, academia or the local community. They may also be

classroom practitioners.

3. There needs to be recognition that teachers‟ histories of using ICT personally

and professionally will greatly impact on the likelihood of perseverance and

success during their required use of online tools. „Anytime, anywhere‟ support

in using these tools should be available through the open Web and Glow, and

be available via mobile devices. Support should be provided in multimedia and

text format, with a regularly updated „frequently asked questions‟ section. The

tools outlined in The Donaldson Report should not be launched until they have

been tested by a sample of teachers and have a zero „error rate‟. The needs of

the least confident teachers should be considered throughout (Daly et al,

2009).

4. In reflecting on the NOF CPD policy and its high rate of non-completion,

consideration will need to be given as to how to ensure that provision is made

for all possible circumstances arising when teachers begin to use the online

tools. National CPD leaders must ensure that the potential for widespread

31

anxiety and stress is not realised. Hardy (2008) warns of rising pressure when

teachers have to deal with multiple, complex changes. The structure and

content of the online environments will need to be mindful of different teacher

contexts. The online tools should be used to help support teachers in their

roles, rather than exist as an administrative account.

5. There should be recognition that the existence of a designed online community

is not significant in itself. The depth and criticality of talk, construction of

knowledge that can be shared, and influence on practice and policy are

significant.

6. There is a need for common standards to be agreed and maintained across the

work of providers of CPD. This should be achieved through the formulation of a

national CPD design policy (Suzuki, 2009). Such an approach should lead to,

for example, all teachers being clear as to which parts of the relevant

professional standard are being addressed through participation in each CPD

opportunity.

7. National CPD leaders should ensure that international online CPD

opportunities are identified and communicated to teachers in Scotland, with

support provided to ensure ease of access. Such opportunities may be short or

long in duration, passive or interactive, and could be engaged with through a

language other than English. Opportunities will also exist in the business world

or academic schools other than Schools of Education.

8. Teachers should be surveyed every year regarding favoured technologies and

environments for professional learning and CPD (Anzai, 2009).

9. Research should be commissioned into how online „communities of practice‟

around the world and in other professions foster criticality. Such research

would contribute knowledge to an emerging field of CPD that is presently

under-researched (Kirschner and Lei, 2007). Identified approaches could be

shared across Scotland, enabling criticality and reflection, even where teachers

are unable to physically meet.

32

Recommendations (particularly for Local Authorities and other employers)

10. There should be critical engagement with the assumptions underlying

constructivist learning environments such as professional learning communities

and online communities (both designed and practitioner-led), particularly when

considering the current absence of substantial, systems-wide evidence that

such environments are effective.

11. Capacity-building should partly focus on „ways of talking‟ online and within

communities. This may be informed by the growing literature on „learning

conversations‟ (Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2007).

Grossman et al (2001:973) advises that “learning from colleagues requires

both a shift in perspective and the ability to listen hard to other adults”.

12. Teachers who perceive of themselves as „change agents‟ and/or are

committed to new iterations of CPD should be encouraged and provided with

resources to take forward their ideas. They should ensure that plans are

evidence-informed and that the errors of earlier designed online communities

and experiences are not repeated. Projects should be small and based around

the change agents‟ existing networks, and place an emphasis on respect,

relationships and regular communication.

13. Assuming that PRD processes will be improved and that CPD and „teacher

reaccreditation‟ will be linked to this process, uptake of several of the online

tools outlined in The Donaldson Report will need to reach almost 100%. To

attain this coverage, each school will need to have at least one dedicated

desktop computer or notebook to support those teachers whose personal

circumstances mean that their online tasks may not be completed to either

party‟s satisfaction. Similarly, teachers‟ „working weeks‟ should have time built-

in for engaging with regular, required online CPD and PRD tasks.

14. Hub teaching schools should consider the introduction of recordings and online

broadcasts to share excellent practice beyond just pupils‟ lessons. Brunvand

(2010) illustrates design strategies, including prompts, commentary, reflective

tools and multiple perspectives, to produce effective live and archived video

content.

15. Teachers who are confident and competent in using Web 2.0 and other

technologies should not be constrained by unnecessary limits on their self-

33

study and their autonomous procurement and creation of CPD opportunities.

Whether they wish to, for example, engage with their PLN or take part in a

worldwide MOOC or conference in another continent, they should not be

blocked by systems administrators. Management may consider permitting, or

professional associations even licensing, such teachers to use their own

devices within school, disconnected from the network but connected wirelessly

to the open Web.

34

Recommendations (particularly for providers and facilitators of CPD and

professional learning)

16. There is continuing emphasis within career-long teacher education on: self-

evaluation, teacher reflection, collegiality, collaboration, construction and

sharing of new knowledge, and visible improvement. Online experiences will

need to cover, but ensure that they go beyond: modelling of good practice,

information on just-in-case scenarios, and one-way talks on policy

implementation.

17. In planning for any online CPD experience for teachers, emphasis should be

placed on: selecting the correct technologies, considering learner readiness

and cultures, quality assurance and quality circles, and stating the benefits to

participants in terms of teaching and learning, contractual and professional

obligations, and accreditation (Schlager et al, 2002).

18. CPD providers should be part of ongoing „quality circles‟. These may produce

economies of scale through the sharing of certain tasks and costs associated

with the creation of multimedia content and effective learning environments.

19. Providers of e-learning, and those with recognised expertise in terms of content

and (new) approaches to learning, should be partners in CPD design

processes.

20. Masters qualifications relating to career-long CPD should be offered as online-

only courses in addition to blended models, as there will be significant

expectation and uptake among teachers with a long history of ICT use and high

levels of „self efficacy‟ in learning online.

21. Collaborative and other online professional learning activities should be

embedded in Masters level CPD. Consideration should be given to assessment

rubrics and allocation of marks for group participation and co-creation of a

sharable artefact.

22. To ensure that online and face-to-face learning communities are outward-

looking, members should have a level of access to academic journals similar to

those of matriculated students in those universities with whom their employers

are in coalition. Cordingley (2008) argues that this is essential for practitioner

inquiry to take place.

35

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