team effectiveness

MODULE 5

TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

B S B 5 1 1 0 7

D I P L O M A O F M A N A G E M E N T

TRAINING DISCLAIMER

While every attempt has been made to ensure that the material contained in this manual is correct and complete, all comments, material and opinions contained within this manual are intended for training purposes only. No material contained in this manual is to be used or relied upon as information or advice, or as the basis for formulating business decisions, on any matter or in any circumstances, without first obtaining specific professional advice. Chifley Business School (CBS) have taken due care in the preparation and delivery of the course material, however CBS does not accept any responsibility for any actions and/or consequences of those actions as a result of relying on the information provided. For inquiries concerning the use of the material please contact CBS.

BSBWOR502B Ensure team effectiveness

Written by Melinda Denham, 2008

Published by Chifley Business School, January 2011

Copyright © 2011 Chifley Business School

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the Chifley Business School.

M O D U L E 5

TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

C O N T E N T S

In t roduct ion 1 Assessment 1 Resources 2

What is a team and why are teams used? 5

What is an e f fect i ve team? 7

Establ ish ing team purpose and goals 9

Establ ish ing job ro les and responsib i l i t ies 15

Deve lop ing per fo rmance p lans 17

Faci l i tat ing team member per fo rmance 19 Giving feedback 20 Empowering individuals 22 Coaching 23

Develop ing team cohes ion 25 Team roles 25 The Myers Briggs Type Indicator 27 Social events 28

Faci l i tat ing cooperat i ve work pract ices 29 Consultative communication 29 Collective problem solving and decision making processes 32 Managing conflict 33

Communicat ing wi th management and other stakeholders 37 Open communication 38 Resolving issues 39

Summary 41

References 41

Act i v i t ies 43

Suggested answers 57

Assessment Task

TEAM EFFECTIVENESS BSBWOR502B

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

In this Study Guide we will focus on a question that all managers ask themselves from time to time: how can I get my team working at its peak? The answer is not straightforward and you will need to develop a number of skills in order to manage your team to perform at its best. These skills include open communication, coaching, conflict resolution and performance planning.

As we discuss in the Learner's Guide, making the move from worker to manager means taking a 'bigger picture' view. Although you will have worked as a team member yourself at some stage, managing a team requires you to take on a new set of responsibilities. To ensure your team's effectiveness, you will learn techniques to get your team to work successfully towards a common goal, and you will come to appreciate the important part a manager plays in linking their team to the broader organisation.

At the end of this module you will be able to:

> plan to achieve team outcomes

> develop team cohesion

> participate in and facilitate team work

> liaise with management and other stakeholders.

A S S E S S M E N T

You will be assessed on how you have encouraged your team to perform at its peak, by facilitating team work and team cohesion, and liaising with management and other stakeholders.

Your facilitator will give you your Assessment Task which will be used to assess whether you are competent in BSBWOR502B Ensure team effectiveness. This is a unit of competency BSB51107 Diploma of Management.


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R E S O U R C E S

This Study Guide contains information and activities that you work through at your own pace. The activities are optional but are designed to enhance your learning and help you to develop the skills and knowledge you need to complete the required Assessment Task.

In addition to the Study Guide, you may like to use the following resources.

Your col leagues

The best resources are available in your workplace working alongside you. They are your colleagues who are familiar with your organisation and have participated in and faciliated team work. Their knowledge and advice are invaluable. Use them!

People who you should talk to when completing this module are:

> Senior managers—who can tell you about future organisational strategy, goals and targets.

> Other department managers—who can tell you about the strategies and initiatives they have used in their teams to promote team effectiveness.

> Human resource manager—who will know about planned changes to HR policy and procedures and how these might affect your team's motivation.

> Team members—who are your reality check, as they are the only people who can tell you if your team effectiveness strategies are working!

Websites

Basic Guide to Management and Supervision

www.mapnp.org/library/mgmnt/prsnlmnt.htm

A basic guide to new managers and supervisors, with links to websites that provide additional, advanced, free information.

Belbin Team Roles

www.belbin.info

Frequently asked questions about the Belbin Team Role model developed by Dr R. Meredith Belbin.

Conflict Resolution Network

www.crnhq.org

An Australian company, offering a wealth of free training material and descriptions of how conflict resolution skills are being put into practice.


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Free Management Library

www.managementhelp.org

Comprehensive free resources about a wide range of management topics, including interpersonal skills, leadership, supervision and more.

Keirsey Temperament Sorter

www.keirsey.com

An adaptation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator which synthesises the different aspects of personality into overall temperament descriptions.

Myers and Briggs Foundation

www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type

Information about Myers Briggs Type Indicator.

Personality Pathways

www.personalitypathways.com

Information, articles and links about the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, including a free cognitive style inventory test.

Books

[no author] (2006) Steps to Success: Manage Meetings Productively, Allen and Unwin.

Belbin, R. Meredith (2004) Management Teams: Why They Succeed or Fail, 2nd edn, Elsevier, Oxford.

Carlopio, J., Andrewartha, G., Armstrong, H., Whetten, D. & Cameron, K. (2004) Developing Management Skills: A Comprehensive Guide for Leaders, 3rd edn, Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest, NSW.

Cole, K. (2000) Crystal Clear Communication: Skills for Understanding and Being Understood, 2nd edn, Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest, NSW.

Cole, K. (2001) Supervision: The Theory and Practice of First-Line Management, 2nd edn, Prentice Hall, Frenchs Forest, NSW.

Cole, K. (2002) The Supervisor's Survival Guide: A Practical Guide to Successful Supervision, Pearson Education, Frenchs Forest, NSW.

Cottrell, S. (2003) The Study Skills Handbook, 2nd edn, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.

Ephross, P.H. & Vassil, T.V. (2005) Groups that Work: Structure and Process, 2nd edn, Columbia University Press, New York.

Fuller, G. (1994) The First Time Supervisor's Survival Guide, Prentice Hall, USA.

Leigh, A. & Maynard, M. (2002) Leading Your Team: How to Involve and Inspire Teams, 2nd edn, Nicholas Brealey, London.


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W H AT I S A T E A M A N D W H Y A R E T E A M S U S E D ?

Much writing about teams devotes a large amount of space to describing the difference between a group and a team. This is unnecessary, as the distinction is quite simple, as illustrated by the following figure.

Figure 1: Group vs. Team


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A group is a collection of individuals working together with a common purpose, but towards separate goals. These separate goals may be achieved without the common purpose being met.

A team is a collection of individuals working together with a common purpose, but towards an agreed common goal. The common goal cannot be achieved without cooperation and input from all team members.

Teams are a very popular way of organising workforces. Noted organisational behaviour expert, Stephen P. Robbins, claims that '[t]eams are increasingly becoming the primary means for organising work in contemporary business firms.' (Robbins, 2006, p279)

In a business context characterised by rapid change and innovation, teams provide management with the flexibility to respond to changing circumstances because they can be assembled, deployed and disbanded more quickly than more traditional work structures, such as departments. Teams can also increase employee motivation by providing a sense of commitment to a common goal, and they can democratise organisations by providing flatter hierarchical structures.

Whilst teams have traditionally been located together on the same worksite, the technological revolution has seen the development of virtual teams that are geographically dispersed across multiple locations and perhaps even time zones, but linked together via communications technology. However, whether a team is co-located or virtual, the principles of facilitating team effectiveness remain essentially the same.


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W H AT I S A N E F F E C T I V E T E A M ?

Put simply, an effective team is one that is achieving its objectives. The five characteristics used to measure this are:

1. common purpose and goals

2. team member performance

3. team cohesion

4. cooperative work practices

5. stakeholder satisfaction.

These five characteristics form the focus of this Study Guide.

If you've read anything about teams and teamwork, you have probably come across some of the following 'motivational' sayings:

'There is no 'I' in TEAMWORK'

'TEAM: Together Everyone Achieves More'

'Teamwork halves the task and doubles the success'

Whilst they may not be useful for motivating staff, these sayings do contain some truth—that a team can achieve more than individuals working alone. The word that is often used to describe this benefit of teamwork is 'synergy'. As a manager, you will know that your team is achieving synergy when excellent results seem effortless. The type of team you are aiming for, then, is a 'high-performing' or 'self-managing' team.

Complete Activity 1: Rate your team's

effectiveness


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E S TA B L I S H I N G T E A M P U R P O S E A N D G O A L S

It is important that your team has a shared understanding of why it was established, how it fits into the broader organisational structure and what it is supposed to achieve.

When a team is initially created, these things are usually made clear to all its members. However, as time goes on, existing team members may leave or the team may expand. As new team members join, it is important that they are inducted into the team so that they are clear about not only their personal role, but also the broader role and purpose of the team and the roles of different team members. To ensure this happens, induction procedures and processes must be in place. These may include a formal meeting between you and the inductee, printed or electronic information about the team, and informal team activities such as a meeting or a morning tea to introduce the new member and help them feel welcome.

Having established a common team purpose, you need to help your team develop a set of goals that it is aiming to achieve. A goal is a specific and desirable outcome to be attained at some point in the future. Team goals are therefore the goals your team is collectively trying to achieve.

Team goals are important because they help focus the efforts of team members on achieving the same results. Without goals it is easy for team members to go off in different directions with a resulting loss of synergy.

It is important your team sets its goals together as this leads to greater ownership of the outcome. As a starting point, examine your organisation's key results areas and associated goals and identify those that relate to your team. Focus on these and develop a set of complementary team goals that are SMARTA (see Figure 2).

Team goals: The agreed common goal your team is trying to achieve.


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Figure 2: SMARTA objectives

We will discuss each of these criteria in turn.

Speci f ic

Each goal should be expressed in specific terms. For example: 'Increase sales' is not specific, and is open to interpretation. If the goal is not specific, it may be difficult to agree on whether it has been met satisfactorily when evaluating performance. A more specific goal in this instance might be 'Increase sales of electrical goods in the Asia-Pacific market'.

Measurable

There is a saying that 'what gets measured gets done', so each goal should be expressed in measurable terms that set out a specific quantitative target or performance indicator. This allows the result to be objectively assessed against the target. For example: 'Increase sales of electrical goods in the Asia-Pacific market by 5%'; 'Reduce marketing expenditure by $50,000'; 'Achieve a 20% increase in the number of individuals visiting the organisation's website'. Do not use terms such as 'some', 'to senior management's satisfaction' or 'a significant increase' as they are subjective and people can interpret them differently.


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Achievable

A goal that is not achievable is not worth having. It can be stressful and demotivating, and it sets the team up for failure. It is important to be realistic about team goals from the outset, and to avoid basing them on wishful thinking or the best possible outcome. It is rare that things will go exactly as planned, so you need to allow for this when you set team goals.

This does not mean that team goals should be excessively easy; they should always contain some degree of challenge that will stretch the team members and motivate them to strive continuously for improvement. However, the level of challenge should be based firmly on what is realistically possible within a given set of constraints.

It is also important that the team's goals relate to things that are entirely within the team's control to achieve. If a goal requires cooperation or input from people outside the team, it must be rewritten to limit its scope to what the team can control.

At some point in your working life you may be in a situation where senior management would like to impose goals on your team that you believe are unachievable. It is important to express your concerns in such cases and to try to engage in a constructive dialogue in which both sides reassess their position and negotiate a mutually acceptable outcome. This isn't necessarily easy, but it's preferable to agreeing for your team to be assessed against goals you are certain they cannot achieve.

Relevant

Team goals should be relevant to both the overall plans and goals of your organisation and the direct accountabilities and responsibilities of each team member. Without such a context, team goals become meaningless.

Any attempt at developing team goals should therefore begin with a review of your organisation's goals and any specific goals or targets that may have already been set for your team. If these are not currently documented formally, it is important to spend some time discussing them with other relevant people in your organisation until you have a clear sense of the broader context in which your team's goals must be framed.

Since change is a constant in most workplaces, it is not uncommon for a few goals to be irrelevant by the time they are evaluated; for example, if an organisation is restructured, a project is cancelled or the external environment changes dramatically, it is likely that some team goals may be affected. Where this happens, simply remove, replace or rewrite the goal as appropriate.


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Time-based

Specify a timeframe in which each goal must be achieved. This avoids disagreements about differing perceptions and expectations. Do not use terms such as 'regularly', 'often', 'when appropriate' or 'over the next few months', as they are subjective and people can interpret them differently. Instead, use terms such as 'quarterly', 'in June and December', 'by March 31', 'in the first week of each month'. For example, 'Achieve a 20% increase in the number of individuals visiting the organisation's website by December'.

Build in as much flexibility as is appropriate: if a deadline is critical you should specify an exact date; if it is dependent on other things you should specify a dependent timeframe, for example, 'within three weeks of senior management agreeing to the project budget'; and if it has a higher degree of flexibility you can specify a broader timeframe.

Team goals may be short-term (1–3 months), medium-term (3–12 months) and longer-term (1–3 years). It is unlikely you would have team goals that extend beyond this timeframe because the pace of change today makes it difficult to reliably project more than several years into the future.

Agreed

It is important that all of your team members agree to the team's goals. This may require considerable discussion and negotiation, particularly when it comes to the timeframes and measures that are incorporated into each goal. However, without genuine consensus you may find that team members only make a half-hearted effort to pull together to achieve the team's goals. It is therefore critical that team goal-setting is done collectively and that you create an environment in which team members feel genuinely involved and able to air any concerns and influence the outcome.

Example 1: Team goals

Inari is the leader of an outbound calls team in the call centre of a major electricity supplier. Her organisation's goals for the next three years include the following: increase profits by 6% per annum; increase domestic household market share by 3% per annum; increase commercial market share by 2% per annum; and maintain its reputation for providing reliable electricity supply and prompt, friendly service.

Inari and her team develop the following team goals:

> Carry out a minimum of 6000 outbound calls per month to potential new domestic household customers, with a 7% conversion rate.

> Carry out a minimum of 1500 outbound calls per month to potential new commercial customers, with a 1% conversion rate.

> Carry out a minimum of 6000 outbound courtesy calls per month to existing domestic household customers.


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> Carry out a minimum of 500 outbound courtesy calls per month to existing commercial customers.

> Accurately identify the nature of all customer complaints or issues using the organisation's Level 1, 2 and 3 framework, and record all complaints or issues on the customer relationship management system (CRMS).

> Resolve all Level 1 customer complaints or issues immediately to the satisfaction of the customer.

> Resolve all Level 2 customer complaints or issues within two working days to the satisfaction of the customer.

> Pass on all Level 3 customer complaints or issues to an appropriate senior manager within a maximum of one hour.

Complete Activity 2: SMARTA team goals


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E S TA B L I S H I N G J O B R O L E S A N D R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S

As a manager, one of your responsibilities is to allocate work to team members and ensure they clearly understand their job roles, responsibilities and accountabilities. If you work in a large organisation, it is likely that you won't control the nature of the work your team is required to do, but what you can control is the way the work is divided up to make it as interesting as possible for team members, and to allocate work to the member with the best skills match.

When determining the job roles and responsibilities of team members, there are four main steps involved.

1. identify the tasks that the team needs to complete

2. identify the skills of each team member and determine who will do what

3. determine priorities and assign completion dates to tasks

4. set and agree upon expectations for each team member.

Teams operate most effectively when they make best use of the skills and resources available to them. To assist you in identifying which team member should be assigned to each task it is helpful to be aware of the different skills each of your team members have. For example:

> some members of your team may have more experience with particular software and be able to pass on their knowledge to other team members

> others may have training, presentation or writing skills

> some may be particularly adept at negotiating

> those who have been involved in a particular project for a longer time will have useful knowledge they can pass on to newer team members, even in areas outside of their role

> some people have creative pursuits that can be put to good use (for example, the painter in the group might be able to design the new product logo).


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Create job roles for your different team members that are complementary rather than conflicting, but ensure that you have enough overlap between your team members' skill-sets that they can cover for one another if necessary. Document each job role in a clear job description that is discussed with the team member to ensure you have shared expectations about their role and responsibilities.

When allocating specific tasks to individuals, explain how the task contributes to the team's overall work and success so that the team member understands that the task is valued. You should also make sure you provide the team member with a degree of autonomy regarding how to carry out the task.

Managers who are aware, willing and able to change tasks and roles of team members to suit different circumstances and needs will have the most success in leading their team. This also sets a good example for team members who have leadership potential.

Complete Activity 3: Job roles and

responsibilities


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D E V E L O P I N G P E R F O R M A N C E P L A N S

Once you have developed team goals, roles and responsibilities, these can be compiled into a team performance plan.

There is no single best way to set out a performance plan; different organisations use different formats. As a guide, a team performance plan will generally include the following:

> a brief statement of the team's purpose

> headings for key result areas

> goals

> outcomes.


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Example 2: Team performance plan

Outbound Cal ls Team

Team Purpose: To increase the organisation's total number of customers

Key Result Area: Sales

Goals Outcomes

1.1 Carry out a minimum of 6000 outbound calls per month to potential new domestic household customers, with a 7% conversion rate.

Minimum of 400 new domestic household customers per month.

1.2 Carry out a minimum of 1500 outbound calls per month to potential new commercial customers, with a 1% conversion rate.

Minimum of 15 new commercial customers per month.

Key Result Area: Customer service

Goals Outcomes

2.1 Carry out a minimum of 6000 outbound courtesy calls per month to existing domestic household customers.

Decrease in domestic household customer losses by 2% per month.

Identification of any unresolved domestic customer complaints or issues.

2.2 Carry out a minimum of 500 outbound courtesy calls per month to existing commercial customers.

Decrease in commercial customer losses by 1% per month.

Identification of any unresolved commercial customer complaints or issues.

2.3 Resolve all Level 1 customer complaints or issues immediately to the satisfaction of the customer.

No escalation of Level 1 customer complaints or issues.

2.4 Resolve all Level 2 customer complaints or issues within two working days to the satisfaction of the customer.

No escalation of Level 2 customer complaints or issues.

2.5 Pass on all Level 3 customer complaints or issues to an appropriate senior manager within a maximum of one hour.

No Level 3 customer complaints or issues directed to an inappropriate person.

Key Result Area: Record keeping

Goals Outcomes

3.1 Accurately identify the nature of all customer complaints or issues using the organisation's Level 1, 2 and 3 framework, and record all complaints or issues on the customer relationship management system (CRMS).

Less than 1% of customer complaints resolved at an inappropriate level.

Level of detail recorded on CRMS is adequate for internal audit purposes.

A team performance plan can also be used to develop a performance plan for an individual team member; however, this is not discussed in this Study Guide.

Complete Activity 4: Devlop a team

performance plan


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FA C I L I TAT I N G T E A M M E M B E R P E R F O R M A N C E

As a manager, one of your functions is to support and encourage your team members to achieve their work goals and responsibilities. There are three key techniques you can use to do this:

1. giving feedback

2. empowering individuals

3. coaching.

Figure 3: Support team members


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G I V I N G F E E D B A C K

Giving good feedback can maintain and improve team performance and the overall performance of the organisation. Your team members need feedback to help them learn about themselves and their performance.

You can give your team members three types of feedback—positive, negative and none at all. Any manager who has a policy of no feedback is in the wrong job. Neglecting to give any feedback makes people think that they and their performance do not matter.

Positive and negative feedback can be general or specific. Positive general feedback is just like it sounds, general. An example would be giving praise to an individual for putting in a good effort over the busy Christmas period. Positive specific feedback is when something in particular has been done well. For example, if a team member kept an important customer updated on a late delivery and you praised them for it, this would be classed as specific feedback.

Figure 4: Giving feedback

Positive feedback can be both general and specific.

Negative feedback should only be specific.


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General negative feedback is poor work practice. This is when someone is made to feel that whatever they do is inadequate. This makes people feel unimportant and lowers the morale of the team, even if the feedback was only directed at one person. If you have to give negative feedback at work, it is best to make it specific. That is, you should tie it in with an actual incident or event that was related to poor performance. The best specific negative feedback is constructive feedback, which is when a manager states precisely what went wrong and suggests a practical solution. This strengthens the work relationship and boosts morale.

When giving feedback, positive or negative, consider these guidelines:

1. Provide ongoing feedback. Ongoing feedback is essential to good management, regardless of whether it is informal comments or formal performance reviews.

2. Provide immediate feedback whenever possible. Feedback can only be truly effective if it is given immediately. Postpone giving feedback only if giving it immediately would embarrass the team member or if further information is required.

3. Be specific and descriptive. For greatest impact, feedback, whether positive or negative, must be specific. For example, telling your team member, 'Your attitude leaves a lot to be desired' is too vague to be constructive. However, if you say, 'I was upset at this morning's committee meeting because you kept talking while I was speaking', then they would be able to take action to address this behaviour.

4. Provide feedback only on those things that the team member controls. There will be some things that fall outside a team member's accountabilities. Since they are not responsible for these areas, there is little point to providing feedback about them.

5. Adjust feedback to individual needs. Individual team members differ in their reaction to receiving feedback. While most people appreciate positive feedback and cope less well with negative feedback, some people simply reject all feedback on the assumption that it will be negative. Bear individual preferences in mind, especially when you deliver negative feedback.

6. Focus on achievements, rather than errors. If you comment often on the positive aspects of your team members' behaviour, you will influence their performance more than if you only provide negative feedback.

7. Don't mix positive and negative feedback. When you do have to give negative feedback, try to avoid mixing it with positive introductory comments. This can confuse your team member.

8. Don't repeat hearsay. Make sure feedback is factual and impersonal. Don't pass on any information until you have confirmed that the source is reliable.

9. Keep records of your feedback. No matter how good your memory is, over time you will forget things. It's like that old saying, 'If there's three witnesses to a car accident, there will be four versions of events'. If the feedback is documented and signed off by you and your team member, you can be sure that an accurate version of events is recorded.


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E M P O W E R I N G I N D I V I D U A L S

Managers can empower their team members by creating a nurturing environment in which staff are given goals, information and decision making responsibilities and are supported in their work with feedback and positive reinforcement.

Unfortunately, many organisations have mechanisms in place that create a culture of control and effectively disempower staff. This leads to staff who:

> rely on others (usually management) to make decisions

> are rarely happy with decisions made

> accept no responsibility for the outcomes (e.g. 'I could have told them that idea would never work').

To create an environment that is conducive to the empowerment of team members, you have to give up control, use less hands-on management and use more supportive management styles. You must nurture and reward good ideas and know what kind of challenges to give your staff.

The best way to empower your team members is to do it gradually and systematically. Begin with responsibilities that are limited in scope, such as having the team work out the roster, plan their annual leave, choose uniforms, and select the software they have to use. Always make sure you clearly explain the parameters they must work within. For example, the minimum number of staff required at certain times of the year, legislative requirements, budget restrictions, how often they should report back to you.

The next step is to give your team members control of the information and resources needed to make improvements to their jobs. Some situations will require you to provide written policies and guidelines along with appropriate training so that team members can make most decisions themselves. Only unusual or difficult cases would then be referred to you.

When you and your team members have devised ways to improve their jobs, you need to encourage them to measure the improvements. For instance, if a team member finds a method they believe will reduce waste from a particular process, the whole team needs to know if the anticipated reductions are being achieved.

Finally, make sure you provide your team members with ongoing feedback and positive reinforcement, including public recognition of their good work. Remember, a culture of empowerment results from ongoing efforts on your part: it is not a one-off thing.


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C O A C H I N G

If one of your team members is having difficulties meeting their goals, you may need to provide them with some coaching to help them improve their performance or achieve a specific task or skill.

Coaching is not the same as performance management; it is about helping your team members find ways to improve, rather than disciplining them or issuing warnings. Good coaching involves establishing a positive working relationship with the team member and providing appropriate learning and development opportunities, constructive feedback, and assistance in developing self-awareness and the ability to self-assess.

The basic steps of coaching are:

> Put the team member at ease and make it clear that your objective is not to criticise but to help them achieve their goals.

> Discuss the problem area and identify reasons why they may be having difficulties achieving their goals.

> Discuss possible solutions. Encourage the team member to make suggestions and identify steps to solve the problem to provide them with a sense of ownership.

> Provide any help they need. This may include one-to-one training, regular meetings or external training courses.

> Provide regular feedback, offer suggestions to improve performance and praise positive outcomes.

Complete Activity 5: Facilitate team member

performance


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D E V E L O P I N G T E A M C O H E S I O N

Team cohesion describes how well the team members get along with each other. It is difficult to measure this objectively, and it is something you can usually only get a sense of if you watch the team in action, as this quote demonstrates:

Signs of a jelled team include a strong sense of identity—use of in-jokes, catch phrases etc.; a sense of [being an elite]; obvious enjoyment of the work; energy and enthusiasm (DeMarco & Lister 1987, p127).

Other behaviours that accompany strong team cohesion are things like team members 'pitching in' when there is additional work to be done, and understanding how their tasks fit in with those of other members.

You can enhance team cohesion in a variety of ways, including by having clear team goals and an organisational culture with a high level of trust and motivation. However, two of the best ways of facilitating team cohesion are ensuring that the team contains a mix of people with different team role preferences and understanding their personality types. We will discuss each of these concepts now.

T E A M R O L E S

There is an important distinction between the jobs or positions employees have (sometimes called 'job roles'), and the roles that they take on within a team.

Job roles are defined by the organisation and formalised through documents such as position descriptions and employment contracts. They specify the work that is to be done by the person in that job, and the skills they will require.

In contrast, the roles that people perform in a team (sometimes called 'team roles') emerge in an informal way. Where job roles describe the tasks to be done, team roles describe the way in which a person prefers to do those tasks.


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The most widely-used description of team roles is from Dr Meredith Belbin's book Management Teams—Why They Succeed or Fail. According to Belbin, everyone has a natural preference for one or more informal 'team roles', and will consistently take on such roles in a team situation. The team roles identified by Belbin and the characteristics of each are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Belbin team roles

Team role Characteristics

Coordinator Mature, confident, balanced

Strong two-way communicator

Coordinates team efforts by clarifying goals, delegating, facilitating decision making

Implementer Disciplined, reliable, conservative and efficient

Organiser, focuses on systems, structures and schedules

Turns ideas and decisions into practical actions

Monitor–Evaluator Dedicated, strategic, dispassionate and discerning

Sees all options, assimilates and analyses complex information and displays accurate judgment

Stops the team from pursuing misguided actions

Plant Creative, imaginative, unorthodox

Introverted, independent

Focuses more on the big picture than the details

Provides original approaches and solutions to difficult problems

Resource Investigator Extroverted, sociable, enthusiastic, communicative

Explores opportunities, develops contacts and networks, brings the group information from external sources

Can quickly become bored with the mundane

Shaper Leader with influence and competitive drive

Challenging, dynamic, enjoys pressure

Task-focused, seeks to push projects forward to achieve decisions, action and results

Teamworker Cooperative, likeable, easy-going, perceptive, diplomatic

Listens, builds relationships, picks up on individual needs, promotes team harmony, averts friction

Loyal to team, invaluable when team is under pressure

Completer–Finisher Painstaking, good eye for detail, conscientious

Checks for quality and on-time delivery

Thorough, self-disciplined, sees things through to the end

Specialist Curious, lifelong learner

Driven by the pursuit of knowledge and information

Detail-oriented, will investigate something thoroughly to acquire a deep understanding

To learn more about Belbin team roles:

www.btinternet.com/~cert/intro_to_team_roles.pdf


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Note that there is some confusion over the definition of 'specialist'. As used in team roles, 'specialist' does not refer to a person's job function, but to the role they take in a team. For example, your team may include Jo from the Accounting department. Accountants are generally described as 'specialists', but Jo's team role preference is 'implementer'. So Jo is the person in the team who is always asking, 'What do we need to do to make this idea work in reality?'. On the other hand, Scott is a General Manager, a position which is usually described as a 'generalist', but his team preference is 'specialist', so he is the person who brings newspaper and journal articles about new ways of doing things, and he is most likely to ask 'What if we did this process differently?'.

Most work teams will probably need people who can perform each of these roles at some stage during the team's life. Although people will have a consistent preference for two or three of these roles and will be more comfortable when performing within their role preferences, they can learn to operate effectively in other team roles when the makeup of the group requires this.

T H E M Y E R S B R I G G S T Y P E I N D I C A T O R

Another widely used approach to identify and describe differences between people is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).

Developed in the 1940s by Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katherine Briggs, the MBTI extended the theories of psychological type developed by Swiss psychiatrist, Carl Jung, who found that differences in behaviour between individuals result from people's inborn tendencies to use their minds in different ways. Jung said that these behavioural differences are classifiable and predictable and are caused by personality differences. The MBTI transformed this theory into a tool that is useful for understanding differences between people in work (and life) situations.

The MBTI explores how people prefer to operate along four mental dimensions:

1. Focus of attention and source of energy: Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I)

2. Taking in information: Sensing (S) or iNtuition (N)

3. Making decisions: Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)

4. Orientation to the outer world Perceiving (P) or Judging (J).

Table 2 shows the relationship between these dimensions.

Complete Activity 6: Belbin team roles


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Table 2: The Myers Briggs Type Indicator

Focus of attention and source of energy

EXTRAVERSION

'E'

external world of other people and events

INTROVERSION

'I'

inner world of thoughts, ideas and feelings

Taking in information

SENSING

'S'

reliance on senses of seeing, hearing and touching: 'what is actually there'

INTUITION

'N'

emphasis on connections, abstractions: 'what is possible'

Making decisions

THINKING

'T'

reliance on logical, rational analysis: 'is this consistent?'

FEELING

'F'

reliance on potential effect on people and personal values: 'is this fair?'

Orientation to the outer world

PERCEIVING

'P'

prefers to be open to new information until the last minute: journey-oriented

JUDGING

'J'

stops considering new information to make a decision and achieve closure:

destination-oriented

To obtain an individual profile of preferences, you complete a self-report questionnaire and are allocated a four-letter code, such as ESTJ or INFP, which corresponds to likely behaviours and preferred ways of operating. There are 16 possible combinations of preferences on the four dimensions. Understanding your own and your team members' preferences can help to foster mutual respect and prevent many misunderstandings and communication difficulties.

S O C I A L E V E N T S

Giving your team members opportunities to socialise together is another really important way to develop team cohesion. Events such as team lunches or breakfasts, Christmas or birthday celebrations can give team members a chance to get to know each other. You could have some kind of regular event; say an afternoon tea once a fortnight where one person brings the food. It's preferable to schedule this type of 'team bonding' event within business hours. While you might think that sitting around and chatting is unproductive because team members are neglecting their work, reassure yourself that it is part of a manager's job to make sure that team members get along.

Make sure you consider the needs of different team members when you decide what sort of social event to have. A part-time worker is unlikely to want to come in on their day off; someone with school-age children might find a breakfast inconvenient. Consult with team members to find out what they prefer.

Complete Activity 7: Use the MBTI for team

effectiveness

To learn more about the MBTI and its variant the Keirsey temperament:

www.personalitypathways. com/type_inventory.html

www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type

www.keirsey.com


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FA C I L I TAT I N G C O O P E R AT I V E W O R K P R A C T I C E S

The most important measure of team effectiveness is cooperative work practices. These practices underpin the other measures (team cohesion, high performance levels and stakeholder satisfaction). If a team is not working well together, towards a common goal, it is very difficult for it to perform to high levels, and consequently it won't be meeting stakeholders' expectations.

To encourage cooperative work practices, you as manager need to establish:

> consultative communication

> collective problem solving and decision making processes

> interpersonal conflict resolution processes.

We will discuss each of these in turn.

C O N S U L T A T I V E C O M M U N I C A T I O N

Consultative communication involves you and your team members talking to one another about your activities. This assists in sharing information and ideas, identifying synergies and avoiding overlaps and duplication of effort.

The key test of whether your communication is consultative is whether it is two-way. Do your team members have a genuine opportunity to give their opinions? Are their opinions taken into account when decisions are made? It may be that you consult with your team members through informal discussions, emails and phone conversations; however, it is very important that you also hold meetings with them.

For many people, work meetings are like time spent in traffic jams: unproductive and frustrating, but a seemingly unavoidable part of modern life. There are probably very few people who could honestly say 'That was a good meeting' as they're walking out of one. However, with forethought, you can learn how to run efficient, effective meetings.


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To start with, you need to identify the 5 Ws:

Figure 5: The 5 Ws

What do you want to communicate?

This will depend on whether the meeting is a regular one such as a monthly or weekly team meeting, or an exceptional one such as a meeting convened to report on a project. So the 'what' may be 'Introduce a new team member', or 'Share the latest financial results' or 'Assign responsibilities for the office move'.

Why are you having a meeting?

Now that you know the 'what' of your meeting, you need to decide 'why' you think a meeting is the best way to communicate. Meetings make a significant demand on people's time, so make sure a meeting will provide a significant benefit that cannot be gained from any other way of communicating your 'what'.

As a rule, people are likely to feel that meetings are a waste of time if they are used only to convey information and do not provide an opportunity for people to discuss issues, provide feedback, influence or make decisions, or participate in some other way. For example, if what you want to communicate is information about a new product, it may be more productive to send people information via an email or electronic newsletter rather than holding a more time-consuming meeting. Equally, if you want to share the monthly graphs of machine runtime, you may be better off displaying them on a noticeboard where people can glance at them at a convenient time.

Some examples of situations where a meeting is the best and most efficient way to achieve an outcome include:

> morale building during times of crisis

> brainstorming solutions to a shared problem

> delegating tasks, or sharing progress, on a group project

> making an important announcement that affects everyone.


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Who needs to attend, who wi l l chair the meet ing and who wi l l take minutes?

Now that you know what the meeting is about and why you are having it, you can make an informed decision about who needs to attend. This may be specific team members or the entire team, depending on the nature of your 'what' and 'why'. It may also be people from other areas of the organisation, or perhaps even external consultants, clients, suppliers or other guests.

An appropriate person must be designated to chair the meeting and another person chosen to take minutes. Whilst there will be times when you will be the best person to chair a meeting, resist the temptation to always perform this role. Regular meetings represent a great opportunity to empower your team members and develop their skills by having a rotating chair and/or minute-taker.

Where and when wi l l the meet ing take place?

Consider which venue will you meet in, and when (day and time) you will hold the meeting. These will be largely influenced by the 'what' and the 'who'. For example, a meeting to introduce a new team member might be held in an informal venue such as a local café on a Monday morning, whereas a strategic or otherwise 'exceptional' meeting will need to be held in a more formal venue and should not be held on a Monday morning or a Friday afternoon when people's attention is often elsewhere. Electronic meeting organisers such as Microsoft Outlook's meeting request function can be used to identify a date and time when all the attendees are available.

The 5 Ws should be documented in an agenda that lists the date, time and location of the meeting, the items to be discussed and the speaker for each item. This should be distributed to all attendees well in advance of the meeting. Email or an intranet can be an effective way of doing this.

Meetings should always start on time and the chairperson should try to keep the meeting moving and focused on the agenda items. They should recognise 'stalemates' in the discussion, act to resolve them and assist the participants in reaching consensus on key issues. They should also encourage meeting participants to voice opinions and feelings, seek information, suggest possible solutions, clarify or elaborate ideas, praise and correct others and accept praise and constructive criticism themselves.

The outcomes of meetings should be documented as minutes and distributed to attendees prior to the next meeting. Minutes are a summary of the main issues raised that require action, but not a transcript of everything that was said. A short example is shown in Example 3. Documenting action items enables the group to quickly check on progress at the start of the next meeting (as the first item on a meeting agenda is often 'Minutes of last meeting'). For informal meetings, a list of action items is often all that is required.


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Example 3: Meeting minutes

Kembla Excavat ions Ltd

Minutes of monthly OHS meeting

Purpose: OH&S Next Meeting: 10am Tues 06.02.07

Date & Time: 10am Tues 09.01.07 Location: Boardroom

Present: GB (Chair), AN, BR, KF (Minutes) Next Chair: AN

Apologies: JK Next Minute-taker: JK

Item Issue Action By Date

2.1 Rear steps on cutter truck to be extended, distance between bottom step and ground too great

GB Next Meeting

2.2. Internal audit to be conducted on excavator

BR 08.05.07

C O L L E C T I V E P R O B L E M S O L V I N G A N D D E C I S I O N M A K I N G P R O C E S S E S

It is important that your team members are actively involved in problem solving and decision making. Even though you may sometimes need to make the final decision on particular issues, remember that your team is often closer than you are to work problems and so may propose solutions or alternative practices that you may not think of.

A problem is essentially a situation in which there is more than one course of action. The decision to pursue one action instead of another might have long-term consequences, so working through a problem solving process will help you to fully understand the ramifications of a chosen course of action.

There are seven steps in the problem solving process.

1. define the problem

2. analyse the problem

3. establish criteria for a solution

4. generate alternative solutions

5. evaluate alternatives and select a solution

6. implement the decision

7. evaluate the outcome.

Complete Activity 8: Evaluate team meetings


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Your role is to facilitate your team collectively working through this process and achieving consensus at each stage. Whilst this can sometimes be time-consuming, it generally produces better outcomes because greater input produces more ideas and greater ownership and acceptance of decisions.

Collective problem solving and decision making involves discussion and constructive feedback leading to consensus between a number of people. Consensus does not mean that everyone has to be completely happy with an outcome, it simply means that everyone can live with it. In order to achieve consensus, each party involved in the process must be willing to compromise or give up something in order to achieve an overall desirable outcome. For example, if one team member is ill for an extended period of time and a deadline is looming, another team member might agree to take on extra duties temporarily in return for higher pay or additional holiday leave. It is not a compromise if one person gives up something for no gain.

Consensus-building involves encouraging people to think creatively, be open-minded, communicate openly and consider and respect each other's position. However, where consensus cannot be reached, you may need to break the stalemate and make the final decision.

M A N A G I N G C O N F L I C T

Great teams are not characterised by an absence of conflict. In great teams, conflict becomes productive. (Senge, p249)

The idea that conflict—something most of us seek to avoid—could be productive, is a challenging one. But it needs to be understood in the context of managing your team to perform at its peak. The type of conflict that Peter Senge claims is productive is the difference of opinions that arises when a team has robust, unfiltered debate around the issues important to it. In this view, a team that is completely in harmony, in which no-one ever disagrees, is stagnating. As another management expert, Stephen P. Robbins, writes:

Conflict challenges the status quo and therefore furthers the creation of new ideas, promotes reassessment of group goals and activities, and increases the probability that the group will respond to change. (Robbins, p435).

However, as a mid-level manager, it is likely that you are going to be more concerned with managing unproductive conflict than with creating productive conflict.

Some degree of conflict is inevitable in teams, and could be caused by one or more of the following:

> personality clashes between team members with different attitudes and values

> communication breakdowns

> lack of clarity in roles, overlapping tasks and responsibilities

> competition for scarce resources (funds, power, information, authority)

> expectations not being met.

Complete Activity 9: Collective problem

solving and decision making


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Most people will fall back on a single approach to conflict resolution, and may not realise that they are doing so. It is also common to think that you must always aim for a 'win-win' approach. This may mean that you choose an approach that is not the best one for the particular conflict you are dealing with.

By understanding the different conflict resolution styles, you can increase your success in resolving conflict. The most widely-used description of conflict resolution styles was developed by Kenneth Thomas in the mid-1970s. He classified the styles according to the degree of assertiveness and cooperativeness shown by the parties to the conflict. Table 3 shows the five styles and provides guidance on when each style is useful.

Table 3: Conflict resolution styles

Style Assertive/ Cooperative

Typical characteristics Useful to use when

Competition Most assertive and least cooperative

Aggressive, strong desire to meet one's own needs and concerns at the expense of the other parties.

Can result in resentment and hostility.

Quick, decisive action is vital (e.g. in emergencies).

You are in conflict with parties who refuse to cooperate.

You need to make a difficult or unpopular decision.

Collaboration Most assertive and most cooperative

Attempts to satisfy needs and concerns of both parties.

Requires all parties to be committed to resolution.

'Win-Win' approach

The needs and concerns of both parties are equally important and cannot be ignored.

You need a creative solution merging insights from people with different perspectives.

There is plenty of time.

The conflict is between peers.

Avoidance Least assertive and least cooperative

Evades issue, 'peace at any cost', avoids discussion.

Can be overused by those who are not interested in other's needs and ideas.

Your stake in the issue is not high.

Confrontation will damage a critical working relationship.

Others can resolve the conflict more effectively.

Not worth your time and effort.

Discussion is heated and others need to cool down.

The issue is only a symptom of other problems.


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Accommodation Unassertive and highly cooperative

Passive. Place needs of others ahead of one's own.

Can result in feelings of resentment about outcome.

Maintaining the relationship outweighs all other considerations.

The changes agreed are more important to the other party than they are to you.

Time to resolve the conflict is limited.

You have no hope of having your needs met, and wish to minimise your losses.

Compromise Unassertive and moderately cooperative

Search for a mutually acceptable, 'meet half-way' solution.

No clear 'winner' or 'loser'.

Each party must concede something of value.

Issues are complex and critical, and there is no simple and clear solution.

All parties have a strong interest in different solutions.

Time pressures mean a quick solution is necessary.

Collaboration or competition has failed.

Regardless of which conflict resolution style you choose, it is important to ensure that you use neutral language. When people are in conflict, emotions run high. If you are called on to resolve a conflict between others, or if you are involved in a conflict yourself, try to remain calm. Focus on the issue, rather than the person. Be aware of the 12 barriers to communication, listed in Figure 6.

Figure 6: The 12 barriers to communication


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A good way of preparing for a conflict resolution meeting is by using the conflict resolution map, shown in Table 4. In the box headed 'Issue', write a description of the issue. Try to phrase it as a statement, rather than a yes/no question. For example, 'Overtime', instead of 'Should Sian do overtime?'. Then fill in the names of each party to the issue, and their needs. Depending on the nature of the conflict, you might decide to circulate the map to everyone involved prior to the meeting, or just use it as a reference yourself. Use your discretion—if the conflict has become personal, a map like this might not be useful.

Table 4: Conflict resolution map

Issue:

Who:

Needs:

Concerns:

Who:

Needs:

Concerns:

Who:

Needs:

Concerns:

Who:

Needs:

Concerns:

Complete Activity 10: Conflict resolution styles

To learn more about resolving interpersonal

conflicts: www.managementhelp.org/

intrpsnl/conflict.htm


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C O M M U N I C AT I N G W I T H M A N A G E M E N T A N D O T H E R S TA K E H O L D E R S

As you might have gathered from your reading of this Study Guide so far, managers play a crucial role in communicating to their team. Managers need to ensure that all team members:

> understand the organisation and their department or team objectives

> understand their individual responsibilities and performance targets

> have access to and understand procedures, processes and legislation needed to complete their work

> feel supported and have opportunities to interact with others and provide feedback.

Yet the manager's role extends beyond the team. Managers have an important role in communicating with stakeholders. Stakeholders are people who have an interest in your team's output, and they usually have the power to make decisions that affect the team.

Figure 7 depicts the manager's role in relation to stakeholders.


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Figure 7: Communicating with stakeholders

The major stakeholders for a manager may include (you can probably think of others):

> line manager/management

> Board/committee members

> funding bodies

> union/employee groups

> government or regulatory authorities.

Whether you are communicating between your stakeholders and your team, or communicating line management decisions to your team, you need to ensure there is a two-way flow of information. This simply means that you keep everyone 'in the loop'. The best way to do this is to establish and maintain open communication.

O P E N C O M M U N I C A T I O N

Open communication processes are both transparent and equitable. That is, everyone knows what the processes are, and everyone has the opportunity to put across their point of view. But how do you create and maintain open communication processes?

For communication with stakeholders, the following points will help:

> Consult with your stakeholders to determine how they would prefer to be kept informed. This consultation might take place by email, phone calls or through more formal channels such as meetings.

> Communicate regularly. You will need to use your judgment to decide what 'regularly' means to your stakeholders, but whatever the frequency you agree on, make sure you stick to it.


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> Use formal and informal channels to provide stakeholders with information. Formal channels such as reports and meetings are a good way of providing detailed information. More informal channels such as telephone calls or 'corridor chats' can build relationships, as well as allowing for immediate feedback.

> Respond to concerns or queries promptly. To ensure your stakeholders view communication with you as open, it's important to respond to their concerns promptly. This doesn't necessarily mean you have to respond yourself—you might delegate the job to a team member.

By consulting with your stakeholders about how they would like to be kept informed, you satisfy their needs and you will also save yourself time. Different stakeholders prefer different information. Your line manager will probably want the detailed information about your team's performance against goals, and is likely to prefer a formal channel of communication, such as a report.

When it comes to your team members, the way in which you interact with them will have the most effect on enhancing open communication. Make sure you:

> accept suggestions with an open mind

> record and follow up on feedback

> encourage the quieter members of your team to contribute (don't let the most confident member dominate).

R E S O L V I N G I S S U E S

If you look again at the list of stakeholders on the previous page, they represent a diverse range of interests and priorities. For example, union representatives may be agitating for shorter working hours, while your line manager has told you there is a big production order to fill, and has asked for your team members to work overtime.

As manager, it will be up to you to balance these different priorities to everyone's satisfaction. This balancing act will draw on your skills in negotiation, communication and conflict resolution. You need to be politically aware, and an accomplished communicator able to look beyond the everyday demands of individuals and see the 'big picture' of the environment in which you are working.

Complete Activity 11: Communicating with

stakeholders


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S U M M A R Y

In this Study Guide we explored the different skills and activities involved in managing your team to perform at its best. These included:

> establishing team purpose and goals

> establishing job roles and responsibilities

> developing performance plans

> facilitating team member performance through feedback, empowerment and coaching

> developing team cohesion by understanding team role preferences and personality types

> facilitating cooperative work practices through consultative communication, collective problem solving and decision making and interpersonal conflict resolution

> communicating with management and other stakeholders.

R E F E R E N C E S

Belbin, R. Meredith. (1981) Management teams: why they succeed or fail, Heinemann, London.

Bolton, R. (1987) People Skills, Simon & Schuster Australia, Sydney.

DeMarco, Tom and Timothy Lister. (1987) Peopleware: productive projects and teams, 2nd edn, Dorset House, New York.

Robbins, Stephen P. (2006) Foundations of Management, 2nd edn, Pearson Prentice Hall, Frenchs Forest, NSW.

Senge, Peter. (1994) The Fifth Discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization, Currency, New York.

Thomas, Kenneth (1976) 'Conflict and Conflict Management', in M.D. Dunnette (ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational behaviour, John Wiley, New York.

team effectiveness

Documents

ve team

team roles

team cohesion

team outcomes

i tat ing team member

i t ies

ing team cohes ion

establ ish ing team