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Mrs. Lewis’s high school English lan-guage arts class has 12 students with awide range of ability levels: two stu-dents use wheelchairs and have lim-ited mobility in their arms, onestudent has low vision, five studentsare nonverbal, four have autism spec-trum disorder, three students useEnglish as their second language, andall have moderate or severe intellectualdisability. Mrs. Lewis started the yearwith one goal in mind: to share herlove of literature and English languagearts by exposing the students to a vari-ety of genres, while teaching to theCommon Core State Standards (CCSS).

In Mrs. Lewis’s classroom, literaryterms and definitions cover the wallswith items such as character, setting,theme, and plot—all with picturesupports. The students all have anadapted text of The Pearl by JohnSteinbeck (1947) on their desks, andfollow along by text pointing. The stu-dent with low vision has an enlargedadapted text set on a slant board, andthe nonverbal students have a Big

Mack switch to read the repeated storyline.

Mrs. Lewis reviews the events thathave happened in The Pearl up to thispoint. She uses time delay and exam-ple/nonexample training to teach acombination of high-frequency sightwords and grade-level vocabulary priorto starting the next chapter. Mr. Davis,the paraprofessional, reads the textprojected on the interactive whiteboardaloud to the students. Unlike manyadapted texts, there are no picturesymbols above the words, but there isa picture or two on each page of textillustrating what is happening in thestory. As Mr. Davis reads the textaloud and the students text point intheir adapted books, Mrs. Lewis actsout a scene where Kino deftly opensthe oyster shell to reveal an incandes-cent pearl. The students are mesmer-ized as Mrs. Lewis walks aroundshowing them the beautiful pearl inthe oyster shell, and the students get tofeel the rough oyster shell and thesmooth pearl. Seeing, touching, andinteracting with the shell and the pearl

is a new experience for many of thestudents.

Mrs. Lewis projects several compre-hension questions on the whiteboard;some are literal and some are inferen-tial. She checks students’ understand-ing by walking from student tostudent, displaying response optionson an iPad. One student selects anincorrect answer, and she uses a least-intrusive prompting script to guide himto the correct answer. For inferentialquestions that cannot be found directlyin the text, Mrs. Lewis uses a think-aloud strategy to help students comeup with the answer. She closes the les-son by reading an excerpt from theoriginal text so students have anopportunity to hear the author’s toneand the rich language. At the end ofthe lesson, Mrs. Lewis’s students showan impressive level of understanding,thanks to the supports and instruc-tional strategies she has used to keepthem actively engaged in the story-based lesson (which is aligned to boththe content and the CCSS).

22 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

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Teaching the CommonCore in English LanguageArts to Students WithSevere DisabilitiesAlicia F. Saunders, Fred Spooner, Diane Browder,

Shawnee Wakeman, and Angela Lee

Common Core Significant Disabilities

at COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN (CEC) on December 13, 2014tcx.sagepub.comDownloaded from

http://tcx.sagepub.com/

The Common Core State Standards(CCSS, http://www.corestandards.org)represent a shared set of content stan-dards for all students that provide aframework for instruction and assess-ment. The target for all students asthey participate within the CCSS is col-lege and career readiness. For somestudents this target may mean thatthey are prepared to attend college; forothers it will mean that they are pre-pared to enter the workforce. Which-ever path is chosen, literacy—broadlydefined as the ability to read, write,and communicate (Armbruster, Lehr, &Osborn, 2003)—is crucial. Mrs. Lewisknows that literacy is essential for herstudents; it impacts almost everyaspect of their lives in successful 21st-century classrooms (Murphy, 2001) aswell as in adult life beyond the schoolyears. She also knows that the CCSSrepresent what she is to teach inEnglish language arts (ELA), althoughthey provide no guidance on how toteach the content, especially for stu-dents with severe disabilities.

The target for all studentsas they participate within

the CCSS is college andcareer readiness.

Currently 45 states, the District ofColumbia, and four territories haveadopted the CCSS (see http://www.corestandards.org/in-the-states for thefull list). Individual states are permit-ted to write alternate standards forthose students who require an alter-nate assessment based upon alternateachievement standards (AA-AAS).These alternate standards must belinked to the CCSS for all students whoare exempt from standardized statetests and represent the state’s judg-ment of the highest expectations possi-ble for this population of students (seeColorado Department of Education,2011, for an example). The CCSS alsoserve as the foundation for a newlydeveloped national AA-AAS (seehttp://www.k12center.org/publications/alternative.html); two consortia,

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN � NOV/DEC 2013 23



Dynamic Learning Maps and TheNational Center and State Collabor-ative, have been commissioned todevelop new AA-AAS for teachers likeMrs. Lewis to use with their studentsduring the 2014–2015 school year.

Structure of the CCSS

The CCSS in ELA are organized intotwo sections (one containing the stan-dards for K–5 and one for Grades6–12) intended to guide learning for allstudents, including those with disabili-ties. The K–5 section has four strands:reading, writing, speaking and listen-ing, and language; the Grades 6–12section includes these strands plusthree additional strands: science, his-tory/social studies, and technical sub-jects. The ELA strands also include aset of college and career readinessanchor standards, which are specific toeach strand and are identical through-out the grades. The purpose of theanchor standards is to provide a frame-work intended to ensure college andcareer readiness. Each of the ELAanchor standard strands contain sub-groups:

• Reading and informational text: keyideas and details, craft and struc-ture, integration of knowledge andideas, and range of reading andlevel of text complexity.

• Writing: text types and purposes,production and distribution of writ-ing, research to build and presentknowledge, and range of writing.

• Speaking and listening: comprehen-sion and collaboration and presenta-tion of knowledge and ideas.

• Language: conventions of standardEnglish, knowledge of language,and vocabulary acquisition anduse.

Teachers at all levels, includingteachers working with students withdisabilities and with students eligiblefor AA-AAS, need to be aware that thestandards for each grade level providean indication of the content that isexpected to come before and after. Thisrange of standards allows teachers likeMrs. Lewis who work with studentswho have a range of needs to ensure

alignment and progression within thenew CCSS.As part of our previous work in the

area of aligning academic content forstudents with severe disabilities withacademic standards (Browder, Spooner,Wakeman, Trela, & Baker, 2006;Browder, Trela, & Jimenez, 2007;Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, & Algozzine, 2006; Hudson,Browder, & Wakeman, 2013; Saunders,Bethune, Spooner, & Browder, 2013),we developed a six-step approach thatis effective for ELA instruction:

1. Select a text.

2. Target the CCSS.

3. Adapt text.

4. Develop the lesson template.

5. Incorporate evidence- andresearch-based practices.

6. Include a writing component.

Teachers have found this approach todeveloping lessons aligned to the CCSSin ELA helpful, particularly when theyhave access to practical ideas and clearprocedures at each of these stages.

Teaching the CCSS in ELA

Step 1: Select a Text

Literary and informational texts aretwo types of text teachers can use thatare focused on the CCSS, so bothshould be targeted for all studentswithin a school year. Using both types

of text allows students like those inMrs. Lewis’s class to be exposed to avariety of literature, different genres,and even interdisciplinary texts, suchas in science and social studies. Usingboth types of text can be overwhelm-ing, because the teacher or the stu-dents may have limited knowledge ofgrade-level literature, but collaboratingwith grade-level teams, general educa-tion teachers, and literacy facilitatorscan make this step much easier.

Ideally, selected texts should targetthe middle of a grade band whenteaching multiple grade levels or wheninstructing students with severe dis-abilities. For example, when selectingtext for elementary school in a class-room of third through fifth graders, tar-get the fourth-grade suggested readingselections. Consideration of gender anddiversity also is important to ensurethe texts are appealing to both maleand female students and to provide anopportunity for students to learn aboutdiverse cultures in the classroom.General education teachers and literaryfacilitators are essential to this stepbecause they can recommend grade-level material, provide insight on theconcepts covered within a text, andoffer guidance on text complexity andease of reading. To promote inclusiveopportunities, special education teach-ers can adapt the same literature beingused in students’ general educationclasses. Adapting the same literatureand preteaching comprehension helpsstudents gain skills for participating inthe general education ELA teacher’slessons.It is important to consider text com-

plexity when mapping out texts for theyear. Teachers like Mrs. Lewis mightstart with a simple, easy read, such asa short story or an easy-read chapterbook covering very literal, identifiablecontent and themes. For example, forher middle school students Mrs. Lewis

might begin with the graphic novelDiary of a Wimpy Kid by Jeff Kinney(2007), a popular, easy read, andprogress towards more complexthemes like those found in A SingleShard by Linda Sue Park (2001), whichaddresses Korean culture and home-lessness. Using an easy-to-hard pro-gression captures students’ interestsand gets them acquainted with story-based lessons, adapted text, wordstudy, and simple comprehension. As


Teachers at all levels . . . need to be aware thatthe standards for each grade level provide an indication of

the content that is expected to come before and after.



the school year progresses and stu-dents become familiar with literary les-sons aligned to the CCSS, progressingto other genre types or more complexconcepts and themes is easier toaccomplish.Another tip for educators teaching

the CCSS in ELA to students withsevere disabilities is to considerresources and supports already avail-able, such as YouTube, TeacherTube, orBrainPop videos to support furtherexplanation of the text or concepts cov-ered. Perhaps a movie already hasbeen made based on the book; thereare also web sites that offer interactiveactivities to supplement ELA lessons,and teachers can download images tosupport the text. No matter theapproach, using appropriate literaturewith as many supports as possible isthe key to supporting students withsevere disabilities in their acquisitionof ELA skills and knowledge.

Step 2: Target the CCSS

The next step is to target the CCSS forthe unit. First, teachers should check tosee if their state has already prioritizedCCSS or alternative standards for theCCSS. There are many commonalitiesacross the CCSS from literary to infor-mational texts, as well as across gradebands, so some CCSS will be addressedover multiple units. Teachers like Mrs.Lewis can use word studies that spanacross units and even across literaryand informational texts. For example,the third-grade standards in literature(RL) and informational text (RI) sharea common theme:

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.3.4Determine the meaning of wordsand phrases as they are used in atext, distinguishing literal fromnonliteral language.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.3.4Determine the meaning of gen-eral academic and domain-spe-cific words and phrases in a textrelevant to a grade 3 topic or sub-ject area. (National GovernorsAssociation Center for BestPractices, Council of Chief StateSchool Officers, 2010, pp. 12 and14)

CCSS comprehension goals, similarly,cross strands. Here is an example fromthe seventh-grade standards:

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.7.1 Citeseveral pieces of textual evidenceto support analysis of what thetext says explicitly as well asinferences drawn from the text.

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.7.1 Citeseveral pieces of textual evidenceto support analysis of what thetext says explicitly as well asinferences drawn from the text.(National Governors AssociationCenter for Best Practices, Councilof Chief State School Officers,2010, pp. 36 and 39)

Because of the commonalities andrepetition across grade bands, the com-plexity of selected texts, the vocabu-lary, and the concepts or themesshould build and vary over the schoolyear. Mrs. Lewis can use the CCSS tohelp write comprehension questionsand to plan additional skill-buildingactivities for her lessons. She may evenwant to develop a table to organize thetext, targeted CCSS, and specific objec-tives when planning. Table 1 illustrateshow this can be accomplished withelementary, middle, and high schoolstandards.Although phonics and fluency are

only addressed in elementary CCSS,these foundational literacy skills areessential for building independentreading skills. Students with severe dis-abilities need to work on these founda-tional skills throughout their schoolcareer, or as specified in their individu-alized education program. Opportun-ities for practicing phonics and fluencyshould be embedded into each lesson.

Step 3: Adapt Text

This step can be the most time con-suming of all, but with careful plan-ning and external resources it can bedone quite efficiently. When adaptingtext for students, first read the originaltext; it is essential to understand thetext as a whole, from beginning to end,in order to teach it well. Reading theoriginal text provides the opportunityto highlight excerpts to read to theclass while implementing the unit,identify difficult concepts that may

need to be taught before presenting thetext, and select grade-level vocabularyand sight words for the word study.The next step is to shorten the text.One rule of thumb to use when doingthis is “no more different than neces-sary!” If students can respond to aread-aloud of the original text, noadaptations need to be made. Thereare a number of ways to go aboutshortening the text, such as summariz-ing the chapters, finding an abridgedversion on the Internet, collaboratingwith an ELA general educationteacher, working in teams and dividingchapters to summarize, or recruitinggeneral education students who haveread the book and are willing to sum-marize. Some schools may even have areading competition team, such asBattle of the Books (see http://www.battleofthebooks.org/), and participat-ing students might be willing to adaptseveral grade-level books as a groupactivity. One very important considera-tion is to ensure that literary ele-ments—such as a mix of sentencestructures, grade-level vocabularywords, figures of speech, context clues,author’s tone, author’s purpose (i.e., toinform, to persuade, to entertain),theme, and plot—are preserved in theadaptation. Mrs. Lewis always readsexcerpts from the original text to herstudents, ensuring that they gain somefamiliarity with the author’s tone andrich language—another tip for teachersusing adapted texts.The Lexile Framework for Reading

(http://www.lexile.com/) provides anumerical value that measures textcomplexity, and Lexile measures formany books can be found on theInternet (e.g., using the search terms“Lexile measure Steinbeck Pearl”). Toget a Lexile score for adapted texts,users must input the adapted text intothe Lexile Analyzer; the LexileAnalyzer requires registration and isfree to use. Because of length limits,this may need to be done chapter bychapter for each adapted text. The rec-ommended Lexile levels for each gradeband (i.e., elementary beginning ofschool year 100–300, second half ofschool year 300–600; middle schoolbeginning of school year 140–445,





Table 1. Sample Planning Sheet to Align ELA Units With CCSS

GradeBand CCSS Code and Standard Targeted Objective

3.RL.1 Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referringexplicitly to the text as the basis for the answers.

4.RL.2 Determine a theme of a story, drama, or poem from details in the text;summarize the text.

4.RL.1 Refer to details and examples in a text when explaining what the text saysexplicitly and when drawing inferences from the text.5.RL.1 Quote accurately from a text when explaining what the text says explicitlyand when drawing inferences from the text.5.RL.3 Compare and contrast two or more characters, settings, or events in a storyor drama, drawing on specific details in the text (e.g., how characters interact).

Answer literal recallquestions (e.g., who,what, where, when)

Determine the theme ofstory or poem (providecommon themes)

Refer to detail in text toexplain what text says

Identify and/orcompare characters,settings, or events

3.RF.4 Read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support comprehension.b. Read on-level prose and poetry orally with accuracy, appropriate rate, andexpression on successive readings.4.RF.3 Know and apply grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in decodingwords. a. Use combined knowledge of all letter-sound correspondences,syllabication patterns, and morphology (e.g., roots and affixes) to readaccurately unfamiliar multisyllabic words in context and out of context.4.L.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning wordsand phrases based on grade 4 reading and content, choosing flexibly from anarray of strategies. a. Use context (e.g., definitions, examples, or restatements intext) as a clue to the meaning of the word or phrase.5.L.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning wordsand phrases based on grade 5 reading and content, choosing flexibly from anarray of strategies. a. Use context (e.g., definitions, examples, or restatements intext) as a clue to the meaning of the word or phrase.

Identify grade-levelwords

Use context clues formultiple meaningwords

6.RL.2 Determine a theme or central idea of a text and how it is conveyed throughparticular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions orjudgments.

6.RL.1 Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly aswell as inferences drawn from the text.

7.RL.2 Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its developmentover the course of the text; provide an objective summary of the text.8.RL.2 Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze its developmentover the course of the text, including its relationship to the characters, setting, andplot; provide an objective summary of the text.7.RL.1 Cite several pieces of textual evidence to support analysis of what the textsays explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.8.RL.1 Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of whatthe text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.

Summarize a text (usegraphic organizer tosupport)

Make inferences aboutcharacters

Analyze development oftheme (use graphicorganizer to support)

Make inferences usingtextual evidence

6.L.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning wordsand phrases based on grade 6 reading and content, choosing flexibly from anarray of strategies. a. Use context (e.g., the overall meaning of a sentence or para-graph; a word’s position or function in a sentence) as a clue to the meaning of theword or phrase.7.L.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning wordsand phrases based on grade 7 reading and content, choosing flexibly from anarray of strategies. a. Use context (e.g., the overall meaning of a sentence orparagraph; a word’s position or function in a sentence) as a clue to the meaningof the word or phrase.

Use context clues todetermine meaning ofgrade level words andmultiple meaning words

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second half of school year 445–810;high school beginning of school year445–810, second half of school year565–910) vary widely, but are intendedto provide guidelines for graduallyincreasing difficulty throughout theschool year. When adapting texts,teachers can increase the Lexile levelby varying sentence structure, sentencelength, and difficulty of vocabulary.Before adapting texts, check the Lexilelevel; the book might already fallwithin the recommended range andmay only need to be read aloud withopportunities for independent reading.Hudson and colleagues (2013) offeredseveral suggestions for adapting text,including making text augmentations,using predictable text structure, andcreating response options.The word study standards of the

CCSS go far beyond traditional high-frequency sight words and functionalvocabulary. Although these are impor-tant, students with severe disabilitieshave demonstrated that they can learngrade-level vocabulary as well (Jame-son, McDonnell, Polychronis, & Riesen,2008). When developing adapted text(see Figure 1), consider including acombination of high-frequency sightwords, words that can do double dutyas functional sight words, and grade-level vocabulary words. Also, considerincluding multiple-meaning words and

words whose meaning can be deter-mined through context clues, toenhance the word study component ofthe lesson. One suggestion for contextclues is to add a sentence either beforeor after the unfamiliar vocabulary wordwhich defines or explains the meaning.In Figure 1, which presents an originalsample of an adapted text for middleschool students, the sentence after theword ecstatic (i.e., “I was so happy tosee my friend had returned.”) helps thestudent define an unknown word. Thisalso helps students learn to look innearby sentences for clues to under-stand words and phrases that they maynot know.Several Common Core grade-level

vocabulary lists—including recom-mended lists for mathematics, science,and social studies for all grades lev-els—can be found on the Internet.These can be used when adapting textto ensure that grade-level vocabularywords are included in the text. Teach-ers should consider incorporating aword wall in their classroom arrange-ment, so vocabulary can be added andreviewed throughout the school year.

Step 4: Develop the LessonTemplate

Once the book has been adapted, les-son development is quite simple, andthe lesson format can be used across

chapters of a book by simply changingthe vocabulary words and comprehen-sion questions, as well as addressingdifferent targeted CCSS. This providesmultiple opportunities for students topractice the same skills across time butwithin different contexts, which pre-vents memorization and builds gener-alization.

The word study standards of the

CCSS go far beyond traditional

high-frequency sight words and

functional vocabulary.

Keeping the same lesson structureacross story-based lessons also helpsstudents know what to expect and howto respond, maximizing instructionaltime. For example, Mrs. Lewis alwaysbegins her lessons by having studentsfind the title and author, introduces orreviews characters and setting (ifknown already), and introduces therepeated story line for the text or chap-ter. Next, she teaches the vocabularyusing instructional strategies such asconstant time delay (see box, “What Isthe Constant Time Delay Strategy?”),which has been found to be an evi-dence-based practice for teaching stu-dents with severe disabilities (Browder,


Table 1. Continued

GradeBand CCSS Code and Standard Targeted Objective

11-12.RL.1 Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis ofwhat the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, includingdetermining where the text leaves matters uncertain.

11-12.RL.5 Analyze how an author‘s choices concerning how to structure specificparts of a text (e.g., the choice of where to begin or end a story, the choice toprovide a comedic or tragic resolution) contribute to its overall structure andmeaning.

Support inferences orsummaries of plot usingtextual evidence (usegraphic organizer tosupport)

Identify elements of astory’s plot (use graphicorganizer to support)

11-12.L.4 Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaningwords and phrases based on grade 11-12 reading and content, choosing flexiblyfrom an array of strategies. a. Use context (e.g., the overall meaning of a sentence,paragraph, or text; a word’s position or function in a sentence).

Use context clues todetermine meaning ofgrade level words andmultiple meaningwords

Note. ELA = English language arts; CCSS = Common Core State Standards. National Governors Association Center for BestPractices, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010.

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Ahlgrim-Delzell, Spooner, Mims, &Baker, 2009). Examples and nonexam-ples are another potential way to teachstory elements like character and set-ting or grade-level vocabulary terms.After doing introductory story elementsand vocabulary, Mrs. Lewis’s studentsread the adapted text aloud. In orderfor students to be engaged, teacherscan vary the tone when reading, actout the scene when feasible, have stu-dents participate by finding and read-

ing key vocabulary terms, and pause toread the repeated story line as a class.Frequent, active participation is criticalto engagement in shared story reading.Finally, end by reading an excerpt fromthe original text. When teachers usethis format, students gain a rich liter-ary experience.Although it is tempting to cover a

new chapter every day, repeated read-ing across days may improve compre-hension and provide students with

severe disabilities more time to practice

skills (Mims, Hudson, & Browder,

2012). A typical lesson template, incor-

porating the constant time delay strat-

egy for vocabulary instruction, would

be:

• On Day 1, read and focus on begin-

ning story elements, introducing

vocabulary at a zero-second delay

round, and asking literal compre-

hension questions.


Figure 1. Sample Adapted Text for Middle School Vocabulary Word Study (Lexile Level 760)

Vocabulary and Text High Frequency Words:

Once I had a pet owl. A man in Fairfax had to cut down a tree and this baby owl was in it. The owl was nothingbut a ball of feathers, and I named him Rotate and kept him about three years. He was a great horned owl and hewas an affectionate little guy. I would take him to see my friends and he would sit snuggly on my shoulder. Henever scratched me. He never bit me. He was always loyal and respectful towards me.

My mother did not want me to take the owl into the house. If she caught me with the owl in the house, she wouldsay, “You and that owl are on thin ice!” I knew she really liked him and considered him part of our family.

One day Rotate scratched my sister across the hand when she took a hamburger away from him. My mother said,“That owl’s got to go.” I started to sob because I was so upset but my mother said it was going to be alright. Shesaid that owls needed to be in the wild. So I took him down to the mountain and turned him loose about threemiles away from my grandmother’s house. When I got home the old owl was sitting up in the tree waiting for me.I was ecstatic. I was so happy to see my friend had returned.

High frequency wordsowl scratch treehouse pet

Vocabulary wordsMulti-meaning Figure of SpeechGrade Level Vocabulary Context Clues

Sample studentresponse board for

selecting the meaningto a figure of speech

Step 10: Sometimes we use figures of speech. A figure of speech is aphrase used to create an effect but does not literally mean what it says.Listen to this passage: “You and that owl are on thin ice”?

What does “on thin ice” mean?

They were standing on this ice.

They were in trouble.

They ate shaved ice.



• On Day 2, quickly review story ele-ments, repeat the zero-second delayround vocabulary, ask some higher-level comprehension questions, andteach topic and supporting details.

• On Day 3, do a 4-second delayround with the vocabulary, reviewtopic and supporting details, askinferential comprehension ques-tions, and then teach context clues.

• On Day 4, do a 4-second delayround with vocabulary and reviewall prior steps at a rapid pace.

• On Day 5, review what happened inthe previous chapter and repeat theprocess with the next chapter.

Story-based lessons can be used effec-tively with students with the mostsevere disabilities (Mims, Browder,Baker, Lee, & Spooner, 2009). See box,“Implementing Story-Based Lessons,”for suggestions for working with thisgroup.

Step 5: Incorporate Evidence-Based and Research-BasedPractices

Systematic Instruction. To ensurehigh-quality instruction, the lessonshould include evidence-based orresearch-based practices that have beenfound to be effective with studentswith severe disabilities. The two pri-mary strategies that have been docu-mented in the research on literacy forstudents with severe disabilities areconstant time delay to teach vocabu-lary (Browder et al., 2009) and the sys-tem of least intrusive prompts to teachstudents to locate the correct answerwhen the text is read aloud (Hudson,Browder, & Jimenez, in press; Mims etal., 2012). In the system of least intru-sive prompts strategy (see Figure 2),the teacher reads a portion of the textaloud (e.g., one paragraph or page)and asks a comprehension question. If

the student does not answer correctly,the teacher rereads three sentences thatcontain the answer. If still not correct,the teacher rereads the sentence withthe answer. If the student still needsmore help, the teacher reads the sen-tence and points to the answer on aresponse board (or says the answer).Finally, the teacher guides the studentto point to the answer. Peers also canlearn to read the adapted text aloudand provide this prompting support(Hudson et al., in press).

Graphic Organizers. Graphic organ-izers are a good method for supportingcomprehension in students with severedisabilities (Schenning, Knight, &Spooner, 2013; see Figure 3). Graphicorganizers can be created to helpstudents summarize a story by whathappens first, next, and last; compareand contrast two articles about thesame topic; select and organize themain idea, theme, or conclusion andsupporting details; sort responseoptions with examples from the text todetermine the author’s purpose; createa KWHL chart (what I know, what Iwant to know; how I will find out;what I learned); and identify the prob-lem and solutions.

Add Technology. Technology shouldbe used in the classroom to increaseengagement, understanding, communi-cation, and independence during story-based lessons. There are technologytools for supplementing instruction(e.g., showing the movie after readinga book), as a means to deliver instruc-tion (e.g., a computer program or aninteractive whiteboard), and for aug-menting instruction (e.g., using a tabletapplication for student responding).Assistive technology—whether usinglow-tech picture symbols, or high-techdevices such as a switch, voice outputdevice, or dynamic communicationdevice—is especially important forstudents with limited verbal communi-cation, and can help them more effec-tively express themselves and theirknowledge. Technology also can beused to increase independence duringa story-based lesson. For example, theQuizlet online flashcard system andQuizlet app (http://quizlet.com/) allowusers to select a word, hear it spoken,


What Is the Constant Time Delay Strategy?

Using constant time delay to teach vocabulary (Browder et al., 2009), theteacher begins by asking the student to find the word in an array (or by readingthe word aloud, if verbal) and simultaneously (no delay/zero-second delayround) showing the correct answer. This is repeated for each new vocabularyword. Over teaching trials, the prompt is faded using small increments of time(e.g., 4-second delay round) so that the student anticipates the correct response.Constant time delay also can be used during general education lessons to teachkey vocabulary (Jameson et al., 2008). For example, a peer tutor might give thestudent a definition and ask the student to find the word in an array.



and learn the definition. Text-to-speechsoftware also expands students’ oppor-tunities to engage with text.

Step 6: Include a WritingComponent

Reading and writing are complemen-tary activities and should be taughtconcurrently and interrelated whenpossible. It is important for teacherslike Mrs. Lewis to remember that writ-ing is not a one-size-fits-all approachand may require different activitiesfrom student to student. Whether writ-ing means stamping a name or letters,scribbling, writing letters, copying froma model, or using inventive versus con-ventional spelling, the goal is for allstudents to start writing and beencouraged in this task. There are sev-eral ways to incorporate writing intolessons. For example, when workingwith students who can copy from amodel, Mrs. Lewis may choose to put asentence on the board with incorrectgrammar and have students correct thesentence in a journal as a warm-upactivity; at the same time, other stu-dents in her class are practicing writingor typing the new vocabulary wordsfor a lesson.The process of writing as presented

in the CCSS focuses on narrative anddescriptive writing in elementary,informative writing in middle school,and persuasive writing in high school.Table 2 provides a sample of extensionwriting activities that special educatorsdeveloped in ELA lessons that align tothe CCSS. There are several alterna-tives for students like Mrs. Lewis’swho cannot write entire paragraphs ontheir own. Although some studentsmay be able to use a word wall and/orhigh-frequency sight word list to writesentences or a paragraph, other stu-dents may need much more support.Some may need to use sentencestarters or structured sentences withfill-in blanks, or to dictate ideas to ateacher or paraprofessional. Severalwriting software programs are availableto help support students with severedisabilities, such as SymWriter (http://www.widgit.com/products/symwriter/index.htm, previously Writing with


Implementing Story-Based Lessons for Students With Severe Disabilities

• Select literal texts that discuss topics familiar to students (make sure the top-ics are age-appropriate).

• Significantly shorten text. Consider students’ attention span. Begin withvery short reading sessions and gradually increase the duration over time.

• Keep vocabulary simple, focusing on one or two target words. Use objects torepresent key vocabulary.

• Change names of characters to names that are familiar to students.

• Focus on the fundamental CCSS component. What is essential for the stu-dent to understand? (For example, for the CCSS expectation “Determine themain idea of a text,” the expectation is that the student will be able to iden-tify the topic from the repeated story line using pictures/objects; for the CCSSexpectation “Determine character traits,” the student should be able to iden-tify the main character.)

• Intersperse comprehension questions (ask a comprehension question imme-diately after reading the sentence with the answer).

• Use objects and surprise elements to enhance comprehension and maintaininterest. Surprise elements are things that involve multiple senses andincrease engagement (e.g., misting water in the air while reading about arainy day).

• Ask questions that do not have a “correct” answer (e.g., Did you like thestory? Who was your favorite character?).

• Reduce response options to two: one correct and one far-off distracter, ifneeded. Objects can be used in place of photographs or picture symbols forresponse options.

• Frequently praise or reinforce attending and responding.

• Use assistive technology.

• Consider student’s response mode. Is it the most efficient manner for thestudent to answer? Is it easier or more efficient for students to respond viaeye gazing or head nodding than raising hands and verbalizing?

• Look for small achievements (e.g., more consistent responding, attendingfor longer periods, signs of enjoyment/engagement, selecting a correctresponse).

• Adapt the principle of least dangerous assumption (Donnellan 1984) andpresume competence. Your students just might surprise you with consistent,effective instructional practices!




Figure 2. Least Intrusive Prompting Strategy

Figure 3. Sample Graphic Organizers to Support Comprehension

Identifying Author’s Purpose Build Essential Understanding: Selecting Topic and Supporting Details



Symbols 2000), Clicker (http://www.cricksoft.com/us/products/tools/clicker/home.aspx), and IntelliKeys(http://www.intellitools.com/intellikeys.html).

Final Thoughts

The CCSS is a set of content standardsthat target readiness for college andcareer participation for all students,including those with severe disabilities,and represents a shared framework forinstruction and assessment in two pri-mary areas: English language arts andmathematics. In both cases, the CCSSprovides guidance on what to teach,but not on how this content is to betaught.In an effort to offer assistance to

teachers like Mrs. Lewis who workwith students with severe disabilities inunderstanding the CCSS in ELA, wehave offered suggestions about how tostructure ELA lessons aligned to theCCSS. Our six-step approach has beensuccessfully used by teachers in devel-

oping lessons aligned to the CCSS stan-dards. The goal of the alignment is toenhance the long-term quality of lifefor students with severe disabilities andtheir families in providing increasingaccess to the general curriculum.

ReferencesArmbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J.(2003). Put reading first: The researchbuilding blocks for teaching children toread kindergarten through grade 3.Jessup, MD: National Institute forLiteracy.

Browder, D. M., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L.,Spooner, F., Mims, P. J., & Baker, J.(2009). Using time delay to teach literacyto students with severe developmentaldisabilities. Exceptional Children, 75,343–364.

Browder, D. M., Spooner, F., Wakeman, S.,Trela, K., & Baker, J. N. (2006). Aligninginstruction with academic content stan-dards: Finding the link. Research andPractice for Persons with Severe Dis-abilities, 31, 309–321.

Browder, D. M., Trela, K., & Jimenez, B.(2007). Training teachers to follow a taskanalysis to engage middle school stu-

dents with moderate and severe develop-mental disabilities in grade-appropriateliterature. Focus on Autism and OtherDevelopmental Disabilities, 22, 206–219.http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10883576070220040301

Browder, D. M., Wakeman, S., Spooner, F.,Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., & Algozzine, B.(2006). Research on reading instructionfor individuals with severe developmen-tal disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72,392–408.

Colorado Department of Education. (2011,March). Colorado academic standards:RWC extended evidence outcomes. Den-ver, CO: Author. Retrieved from http://www.cde.state.co.us/CoExtendedEO/Documents/RWC_with_EEOs.pdf

Donnellan, A. (1984). The criterion of theleast dangerous assumption. BehavioralDisorders, 9, 141–150.

Hudson, M. E., Browder, D. M., & Jimenez,B. (in press). Effects of a peer-deliveredsystem of least prompts intervention andadapted science read-alouds on listeningcomprehension for participants withmoderate intellectual disability. Educationand Training in Autism and Develop-mental Disabilities.

Hudson, M. E., Browder, D. M., & Wake-man, S. (2013). Helping students with


Table 2. Sample Writing Extension Activities

Grade Band Text Writing Extension Activity

Elementary Esperanza Rising(Ryan, 2000)

Focus: Narrative

Sample prompt: We learn about many characters and their traits in thisbook. Pick a friend in the class to write about and use descriptive words todescribe the person.

Elementary Informational texts topic:Taking care of pets

Focus: Narrative

Sample prompt: Write about experience of adopting pet or taking care ofpets. Option—incorporate sequencing (first, next, last).

Middle A Single Shard(Park, 2001)

Focus: Informative

Sample prompt: Tree Ear wants to be a master potter. He had to do years oftraining to become one. What do you want to do? What will you have to doto achieve this goal?

Middle Informational texts topic:All about flying

Focus: Informative

Sample prompt: What do you need to go to an airport and fly on a plane?

High Marcelo in the RealWorld(Stork, 2009)

Focus: Persuasive

Sample prompt: Come up with a problem. What are your options? Choosethe best option and explain why you would choose this option.

High Informational texts topic:Part-time jobs

Focus: Persuasive

Sample prompt: Why am I the best person for a job?



moderate and severe intellectual disabil-ity access grade-level text. TEACHINGExceptional Children, 45(3), 14–23.

Jameson, J. M., McDonnell, J., Polychronis,S., & Riesen, T. (2008). Embedded, con-stant time delay instruction by peerswithout disabilities in general educationclassrooms. Intellectual and Develop-mental Disabilities, 46, 346–363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/2008.46:346-363

Kinney, J. (2007). Diary of a wimpy kid.New York, NY: Abrams.

Mims, P., Browder, D. M., Baker, J., Lee, A.,& Spooner, F. (2009). Increasing com-prehension of students with significantintellectual disabilities and visual impair-ments during shared stories. Educationand Training in Developmental Dis-abilities, 27, 65–78.

Mims, P., Hudson, M., & Browder, D.(2012). Using read alouds of grade-levelbiographies and systematic prompting topromote comprehension for studentswith moderate and severe developmentaldisabilities. Focus on Autism andDevelopmental Disabilities, 27, 65–78.

Murphy, J. (2001, October). Leadership forliteracy: Policy leverage points. Confer-ence Proceedings for Educational TestingService/Education Commission of theStates Conference on Leadership forLiteracy, Washington, DC.

National Governors Association Center forBest Practices, Council of Chief StateSchool Officers. (2010). Common corestate standards for English language arts& literacy in history/social studies, sci-ence, and technical subjects. Washington,DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/assets/CCSSI_ELA%20Standards.pdf

Park, L. S. (2001). A single shard. NewYork, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Ryan, P. M. (2000). Esperanza rising. NewYork, NY: Scholastic.

Saunders, A. F., Bethune, K. S., Spooner, F.,& Browder, D. M. (2013). Solving thecommon core equation: Teaching mathe-matics CCSS to students with moderateand severe disabilities. TEACHINGExceptional Children, 45(3), 24–33.

Schenning, H., Knight, V., & Spooner, F.(2013). Effects of structured inquiry andgraphic organizers on social studies com-prehension by students with autism spec-trum disorders. Research in AutismSpectrum Disorders, 7, 526–540. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2012.12.007

Steinbeck, J. (1947). The pearl. New York,NY: Viking.

Stork, F. X. (2009). Marcelo in the realworld. New York, NY: Scholastic.

Alicia F. Saunders (North Carolina CEC),Research Associate; Fred Spooner (NorthCarolina CEC), Professor of Special Educa-tion; Diane Browder (North Carolina CEC),Professor of Special Education; ShawneeWakeman (North Carolina CEC), ClinicalAssistant Professor; and Angela Lee (NorthCarolina CEC), Research Associate, TheUniversity of North Carolina at Charlotte.

Address correspondence regarding thisarticle to Alicia Saunders, College of Edu-cation, Department of Special Educationand Child Development, The University ofNorth Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 UniversityCity Blvd., Charlotte, NC 28223 (e-mail:[email protected]).

Support for this research was provided inpart by Grant No. H373X10002 from the U.S.Department of Education, Office of SpecialEducation Programs, awarded to the Univer-sity of North Carolina at Charlotte. The opin-ions expressed do not necessarily reflect theposition or policy of the Department ofEducation, and no official endorsementshould be inferred.

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 46,No. 2, pp. 22–33.

Copyright 2013 CEC.


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