TAKS biology review

1. Many times the answers are in the question itself:

• Underline key words

• Ignore extra information that doesn’t help

B

Reading graphs & charts: the

answer is there!

total volume: 2.3 kg

most precise balance that can hold 2.3 kg:

W

read question, evaluate graph, each statement

“well” is ambiguous, not what graph shows

graph shows heart rate variation according to temperature

not what graph shows

graph shows doubling during temperature change

graph does not show mutation

has to do with water being stored & not lost:

DESERT

Organisms

Organ systems

Organs

Tissues

Cells

Organelles

Molecules

Atoms

Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

Alive

Not Alive

we organize the world by

“complexity”

tissues are made of cells, etc.

Which is more complex, a bacteria or a frog?

“Complexity” in biology is talking about number of organ systems, specialized tissues.

Not about how hard it is to remember!!

the FROG is more complex (with more organ systems) than a bacteria!

Cells & cell theory:

Cell Theory states:

• All living things are made of cells

• Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in organisms.

• All cells come from pre-existing cells.

• Cells contain organelles with specialized functions

Cell as a City: label with names & functions

General Cell Anatomy• Cell as a City!

Membrane : controls entry & exit Fence: controls entry & exitNucleus: instruction center City hall: instruction center

DNA: instructions City records: instructions

Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold ribosomes that make protein

Factories: hold machines to makestuff

Ribosomes: make proteins Machines: that make stuff

Cell wall: made of cellulose City wall: protects

General Cell Anatomy • Cell as a City!

Membrane : controls entry & exitFence: controls entry & exitNucleus: instruction centerCity hall: instruction centerDNA: instructions City records: instructions

Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold ribosomes that make protein

Factories: hold machines to make stuff

Ribosomes: make proteins Machines: that make stuff

Mitochondria: make energy Power plants: make energy

Golgi: package and ship proteins Post office: package and ship

Vessicle: carrying Truck: carrying

Lysosome:Breaks down& Recycles

Recycling Ctr:Breaks down& Recycles

Vacuole:stores Warehouse

Chloroplasts: solar Solar power plants

Prokaryotic Cells• Simple cellular

organization with no nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.

• Example: Bacteria• Diseases caused by

bacteria: Cholera, diphtheria, Dysentery, Tetanus, MRSA, Strep Throat, Tooth Decay.

Eukaryotic Cells

Domain: Eukarya

Found in 4 kingdoms

• Protista

• Fungi

• Plantae

• Animalia (Cell Shown)

Ribosomes: site of protein

synthesis… a.k.a. translation

Polypeptide chain

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are Not membrane-bound

Bacteria have themToo!

What is unique to:Animal Cells:• Lysosomes – contain

digestive enzymes.• Centrioles – used in

cellular division.

Plant Cells:• Chloroplast – site of

photosynthesis• Cell Wall – formed of

proteins and cellulose and lies outside of the plasma membrane

• Vacuole – huge storage compartment for water and starch

Questions for you to answer #1

1. What is a difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A. Eukaryotes have a nuclear membrane and therefore a nucleus.

B. Organelles are found only in prokaryotes.

C. The cells of prokaryotes only contain cytoplasm.

D. Prokaryotes contain an endoplasmic reticulum.

Question 2

A disease not caused by bacteria

A. Tetanus

B. Strep Throat

C. Dysentery

D. HIV

Question 3Match the function to the organelle:

Ribosome A. Packaging

Mitochondria B. Lipid Synthesis

Smooth ER C. Protein Synthesis

Golgi Apparatus D. Cellular Respiration

Membrane Structure: Phospholipid Bilayer

Some proteins, called peripheral proteins, are stuck to the surface of the membrane.

Glycolipids act as surface receptors and stabilize the membrane.

Some proteins completely penetrate the phospholipid layer, allow specific molecules through.

Glycoproteins play an important role in cellular recognition and immune responses. They help stabilize the membrane structure.

In’N’Out: No energy required:Passive Transport – relies on thermal

energy of matter and the cell does not work (No energy “ATP” used – High Concentration to Low Concentration). Four types:

• Diffusion (usually solutes)• Facilitated Diffusion – membrane

enzyme carries the substance• Osmosis – diffusion of WATER across a

semi-permeable membrane (usually solvent due to solute concentration)

• Bulk flow – movement of fluids affected by pressure.

ACTIVE transport: uses ATP (energy)!

• endo cytosis

• (to inside)

• exo cytosis

• (to outside)

Active Transport: uses ATP to move stuff through channels....

sodium potassium PUMP

Question 5Which of the following is an example of

osmosis?A. The movement of ions from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.B. The movement of ions from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration.C. The movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.D. The movement of water from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration.

Photosynthesis

Sugar(to rest of the

plant)

Oxygen gas(through stomata)

Water and nutrients

(via the roots)

Carbon dioxide gas

(through stomata)

6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2OChlorophyll

Light

Sunlight

Photosynthesis Equation:“follow the money”, I mean “carbon”

Photosynthesis – First Stage

Light Dependent Reactions:

The captured light energy is transferred to electrons that come from H2O and O2 is the byproduct.

ATP is produced

Second Stage of Photosynthesis:

Light Independent Reactions: Energized electrons are

transferred to CO2 to form glucose in the Calvin-Benson Cycle.

Autotrophs use the energy from the sun to make organic compounds and are the basis of all terrestrial and most aquatic food chains.

Cellular Respiration

• Cells use OXYGEN to break down SUGAR

• to make: ATP

Cellular RespirationHighly energized electrons stored temporarily

in glucose are removed (oxidation reactions) in a stepwise fashion to maximize energy captured at each step (and avoid blowing things up).

All organisms must use energy and the energy is in the form of ATP.

ATP

• like a chemical battery

• it can store energy

• it can release energy when last P- bond is broken

Mitochondrial matrix

Cristae

ATP

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Substrate-level phosphorylation

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE

PHOSPHORYLATIONThe inner membrane of the

mitochondria

GLYCOLYSISThe cytoplasm

Glucose ➙Pyruvate

Electrons carried via

NADH

KREBS CYCLEMatrix of the mitochondria

Electrons carried by NADH and

FADH2

Oxidative phosphorylation

ATPATP

Mitochondrion

6CO2 + 12H2OC6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Idea: “Respiration”

co2

Oxygen34ATP

glucose

What if there’s not enough oxygen?

• is there another way to make ATP?

• Glycolysis then....

• Fermentation!

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Skeletal muscle

Pyruvate

Alcohol Fermentation

Pyruvate

Relationship between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Question 7

What two products of photosynthesis are reactants in cellular respiration?

A. Glucose and oxygen

B. Glucose and water

C. Oxygen and carbon dioxide

D. Sunlight and oxygen

Question 9

Which stage of cellular respiration occurs in all organisms under anaerobic conditions?

A. Glycolysis

B. Krebs Cycle

C. Electron Transport Chain

D. Calvin Cycle

Question 10What organelles are the locations of the

processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

A. Chloroplast and Ribosomes

B. Chloroplast and Golgi Apparatus

C. Chloroplast and Endoplasmic Reticulum

D. Chloroplast and Mitochondria

nucleic acidsStructural differences between DNA and RNA

include:

DNA RNA

Strands Double Single

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Bases Guanine Guanine

Cytosine Cytosine

Thymine Uracil

Adenine Adenine

DNA

DNA Replication(Semiconservative)

• allows cells to pass genetic information on to offspring.

• Errors in the process results in mutations.

• Remember A – T and G – C.

The letter “C” fits intoThe letter “G”…like they are cuddling.

Mnemonic

Question 11

The functional unit of both DNA and RNA is the nucleotide. What comprises the nucleotide?

A. Sugar, Protein, and a Base

B. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Base

C. Sugar, Protein, and a Ribosome

D. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Ribosome

Question 12

Which sequence of bases will pair with the base sequence CTAGGATTC in a DNA molecule?

A. GATCCTAAG

B. ATGTTGCCA

C. CTAGGATTC

D. GAATCCTAG

Protein Synthesis – 2 steps

Transcription – nucleus

DNA mRNA

Translation – cytoplasm

mRNA rRNA tRNA protein

DNA mRNA protein trait

TAC on the template DNA strand

GeneTranscription unit Three

nucleotides make up a triplet

GeneDNA

3 '5 'START Triplet STOPTriplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet TripletSTARTSTOP

This polypeptide chain forms one part of the functional protein.

Functionalprotein

This polypeptide chain forms the other part of the functional protein.

Amino acidsA triplet

codes for one amino acid

Polypeptide chain Polypeptide chain

Protein synthesis: transcription and translation

Nucleotide

In models of nucleic acids, nucleotides are denoted by their base letter.

GENE to PROTEIN RELATIONSHIP: 3 bases = a codon = an amino acid

Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

DNA nucleotide sequence mRNA Steps:1. Messenger (m)RNA is copied from DNA, by

unzipping a portion of the DNA helix that corresponds to a gene using RNA polymerase.

2. Only one side of the DNA will be transcribed, and nucleotides with the proper bases (A with U and C with G) will be sequenced to build mRNA.

3. mRNA leaves the nucleus.

Translation – occurs in the cytoplasm with ribosomes forming proteins

mRNA + rRNA + tRNA + amino acids = proteinsSteps:1. mRNA attached to a ribosome2. tRNA molecules pick up an amino

acid and carry them to the ribosome.

3. tRNA anticodon and the mRNA codon join together

4. As the amino acid chain lengthens enzymes form peptide bonds between amino acids.

5. The tRNA exit to locate a new amino acid and this process continues until the stop codon is reached.

Question 15

DNA RNA Protein (= trait)

In the diagram above, what is the function of RNA?A. Carry the set of instructions that replicates another DNA molecule in the protein chain.B. Carry the set of instructions that places amino acids in the protein chain in the correct order.C. Carry the set of instructions that places phosphate molecules in the protein chain.

D. Carry the set of instructions that bonds hydrogen to the protein chain

Question 16

What is the process in which mRNA is coded from the DNA and in what part of an eukaryotic cell does it occur?

A. Transcription, Nucleus

B. Transcription, Cytoplasm

C. Translation, Nucleus

D. Translation, Cytoplasm

Question 18

The DNA sequence, GATTACACG, would code which of the following mRNA sequence?

A. CTAATGTGC

B. CTUUTGTGC

C. CATATGTGC

D. CUAAUGUGC

Question 19

What process is being shown in the diagram to the left?

A. Transcription

B. Translation

C. Replication

D. Selection

MutationsAny random, permanent change in the DNA molecule.

Many are harmful, some have no effect, and some benefit the organism. Nature selects those mutations that are beneficial or adaptive in organisms to help shape the course of evolution.

DNA sequence: GCATACCA

Types of mutations:

Deletion – lost base GC*TACCA

Duplication – extra copies GCATCATACCA

Inversion – backwards CGATACCA

Cladistics & homologyHomology means “similarities”

• deciding how closely things are related = cladistics

comparative anatomy

comparative embryology

Taxonomy: naming things according to cladistics

old ways: 5 Kingdom vs 6 Kingdom5 Kingdoms: Monera (prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic),

Fungi* (eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia (eukaryotic)

6Kingdoms: Eubacteria (prokaryotic), Archaebacteria (prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic), Fungi* (eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia (eukaryotic)

* Cell Wall Present (Chitin in Fungi and Cellulose in Plantae)

What is the difference: Monera has been split into the Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.

What no Viruses?

older

old

New taxonomy: 3 domainsbased on cell type

DomainBacteria

DomainArchaea

DomainEukarya

Common ancestor

Eukaryotic Domain

• Protists

• Fungi

• Plants

• Animals

Animals: invertebrates• Porifera (sponges)

• Cnidaria (stingers)

• Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

• Nematoda (roundworms)

• Annelida (earthworms & leeches)

• Arthropoda (joined legs)

• Mollusca (snails, octopus)

• Echidnoderms (starfish)

Animals: chordates do have a spinal cord

• Fish (bony & cartilage skeletons)cartilage = sharks & rays GILLS for respiratory system

• Amphibianlungs & skin for respiratory system

• Reptilescan live in dry environment

• Birds (Aves)have 4 chambered heart

• Mammals4 chambered heart, feed young milk, give birth to live young

FilovirusThis newly emerged group of viruses, include the dangerous Marburg and Ebola.

Hepatitis virusesThe viruses responsible for hepatitis A, B and C.

HerpesvirusNearly 100 herpesviruses are known. Types found in humans include those that cause cold sores, chickenpox, shingles, and genital herpes.

InfluenzavirusThis virus causes influenza in humans. Rapid mutation has resulted in many strains.

PapillomavirusThis virus causes the formation of warts in humans.

RhinovirusMore than 100 rhinoviruses have been identified. They are the most common cause of colds.

HIVThe human immuno- deficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS.

LyssavirusThis bullet-shaped virus causes rabies.

VIRUSES

Viruses• Viruses are either a segment of DNA or RNA with a

protein coat and are acellular. (Does not meet the life processes… it is not alive… no cells)

• Infection pattern of viruses is either lytic or lysogenic. Lysogenic pattern has a dormancy stage.

• Vaccinations is the most effective defense against viral infections. Antibiotics CANNOT treat viral infections.

• Viral Diseases: AIDS, Chickenpox, Common Cold, Hepatitis, Flu, Measles, Mumps, Polio, Rabies, Smallpox, Warts, Avian Flu, and West Nile Virus.

• Viruses that infect bacteria are Bacteriophage.

Virus Life Cycle

Lysogenic virusesAre like sleeper cells;They hang out andReplicate invisibly

Lytic viruses are likeTerrorists; theyDestroy the cell asThey replicate by theThousands and leave.

Do vaccines work on viruses?

• Vaccines are a piece of protein from the virus coat, or a weaker or

empty virus, in a shot that the doctor gives you.

• The bits train your immune system to recognize and attack when they see that protein or virus.

• But some viruses change proteins too quickly for us to keep up… like colds, and HIV

Question 21

How are viruses different from living organisms?

A. Viruses have no DNA or RNA.

B. Viruses use host cells to reproduce.

C. Viruses contain no proteins.

D. Viruses can be killed by antibiotics.

Ecology

• Autotrophs or producers are organisms that capture sunlight or other organic molecules to form an organic molecules. Photosynthesis. Examples: plants, algae, and bacteria

• Heterotrophs or consumers are organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy(food). Examples: Fungi, bacteria, animals.

Heterotrophs Relationship• Herbivore – Animals that eat only plants

(Cows)• Carnivore – Animals that eat only other

animals (Lions)• Omnivore – Animals that eat both plants

and animals (Humans, Wolves, Bears)• Detritivores – obtain energy from dead

organisms and organic waste. (Earthworms and fungi)

• Decomposers – are detritivores that cause decay. (Bacteria and fungi)

Trophic Pyramid: energy levels

Food Web:

Food web questions: the answer is usually in the food web itself.

Mice eat both plants (grass, grain, berries)and meat (grasshoppers)

the details give you the answer!

Energy and Matter in the Ecosystem

Matter is recycled through the ecosystem, where energy is lost between the trophic levels.

• Food Chain – shows direct relationshipsPlantsGrasshopperBlue JayProducer Primary Consumer Secondary Consumer (3 trophic levels)

• Food Web – interrelationships within an ecosystem between producers, consumers, and decomposers.

90% of energy is lost between each trophic level!

Symbiosis Relatioships

Symbiosis is a close relationship between two organisms that are different species.

• Commensalism – one organism benefits and the other does not benefit nor is harmed. Ex:Clown Fish and Sea Anemone (Finding Nemo)

• Mutualism – both species benefit. Ex: Lichens (which are fungi and algae)

• Parasitism – one organism lives directly on other organism. Ex: Tapeworm and Humans

• Predation – one organism captures and eating another. Ex: Gazelle and Lion

Biogeochemical Cycles

Water Cycle – Evaporation and Transpiration, Condensation, Precipitation, and Runoff

Carbon Cycle – Photosynthesis/Cell Respiration

Nitrogen Cycle – Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification, Assimilation, and Denitrification

Human Systems

Integumentary System

Structures: Skin, Hair, and Nails

Function: Protects the body from injury, defense against pathogens, regulate body temperature, and prevents the body from drying out.

Skeletal System

Structures: Bones, joints

Function: Provide protection to internal organs and work with muscles for movement.

Tendons attach muscles to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone and limit the movement of bones.

Joints include Ball and socket(hip), pivot(neck), hinge(fingers), gliding(wrist), and saddle(thumb only).

Circulatory System

Structures: Heart, Blood, and Blood Vessels.

Heart – 4 chambers, atrium(2) receives blood and ventricles(2) pump blood

Blood – composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets

Blood Vessels – arteries, veins, and capillaries

Function: connects all organs in the body and transports material throughout the body.

Pulmonary – Heart to Lungs & Systemic – Heart to Body

The Heart: 4 Chambers = high efficiency

• Atria:– Entrance

• Ventricle:– Exit Chamber– Power Pumper

Respiratory System

Structures: Diaphragm, Lungs, Pharynx, Trachea, Bronchi, and Alveoli

Function: Works with the circulatory system to transport oxygen to the cells of the body for cellular respiration and the removal of carbon dioxide.

Pathway of air: Pharynx Larynx TracheaBronchi Bronchioles Alveoli

Exchange occurs between the alveoli and capillaries

Destination: Lungs!! • It’s all about surface area!

• Your lungs have enough surface area to cover a tennis court!

Digestive System

Structures and Pathway: Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestines, Large Intestines, and Rectum. Accessory Organs: Liver, Pancreas, and Salivary Glands.

Function: To break down large organic molecules in food to usable smaller molecules.

Steps: Ingestion Digestion Absorption Elimination

Excretory System

Structure: Kidney, Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra

Function: The removal (excretion) of water soluble NITROGENOUS waste in blood from chemical activities in cells including ammonia from metabolism of proteins.

Two Steps: Filtration and Reabsorption

Nervous SystemStructures: Neurons, brain, and spinal cord.Function: Controls and coordinates functions throughout

the body. Uses both chemical and electrical signals.

Electrical impulse travels: DendriteCell Body Axon (neurotransmitter) Dendrite

Neurotransmitters are chemical/protein messengersCentral Nervous System – Brain and Spinal CordPeripheral Nervous System - Nerves

Immune System

Function: To protect the body from disease causing agents (pathogens).

Nonspecific defenses: Skin, Inflammatory response, histamine, tears, and increase in temperature.

White Blood Cells – 3 types – Neutrophils, Macrophages, and Killer T Cells

Endocrine System

Structure: Glands and Hormones

Function: Regulate the activity of the body using hormones.

Endocrine glands produce hormones and are secrete directly into the blood or fluid around cells.

Gland and Hormone pairs:

Adrenal–adrenaline, Ovaries-estrogen, Pancreas–insulin, and Testes–testerone

Reproductive System

Function: Reproduction of offspring

Male Reproductive System: Testes produces sperm (haploid cell 23 chromosomes)

Female Reproductive System: Ovaries produce ova (haploid cell 23 chromosomes), fallopian tube (fertilization occurs) and uterus (embryo development).

Basic Organs of Plants

• Roots – Anchorage and Absorption

• Stems – Supports leaves

• Leaves – Photosynthesis

• Flowers – Reproduction ( found only in Angiosperms)

Nonvascular Plants

Nonvascular plants lack roots, stems, and leaves.

Examples: Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornworts

Vascular Plants

Vascular tissues are xylem and phloem. (much like our vessels in our bodies) Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves for photosynthesis. Phloem transports sap (sugar and water) from the leaves to other areas of the plants.

Vascular Plants include Gymnosperms (pine trees) and Angiosperms (flowering plants).