Understanding Public Communication • 1Communication Models • 2Linear Model of Communication • 3Interactive Model of Communication • 5Transactional Model of Communication • 7Conversation Versus Speech • 8Public Speaking Myths • 10

Myth #1: Public Speaking Is a Talent, Not a Skill • 10Myth #2: Speech Is Easy; We Do It All the Time • 11Myth #3: There Is No “Right Way” to Deliver a Speech • 11

Speech Anxiety • 13Communication Apprehension • 15Physical Effects of Communication Apprehension • 16Combatting Communication Apprehension • 20 Practice, Practice, and Practice • 20

Employ Relaxation Techniques • 21Visualize Success • 24Dialogue with the Audience • 24Systematic Desensitization • 25

Speaking and Ethics • 27Public Messages Cannot Be Taken Back • 28Ethical Responsibilities of Speakers • 29

The Ethics of Choosing a Topic • 30The Ethics of Research • 31The Ethics of Language and Delivery • 34

Ethics as an Audience Member • 40Be a Responsible Audience Member • 40

Speaking in and to Different Disciplines • 43Contextual Factors • 44

External Environment • 44The Speaking Format • 45General Audience Characteristics • 47

Speaking in Different Fields and Professions • 47Politics and Speech • 48Speaking for Educators • 49Speaking in the STEM Fields • 51Speaking in Business Settings • 52Speaking in Health Settings • 54

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The Speaker’s Primer

Topic Selection • 57General Purpose Statements • 58Choosing Your Topic • 59Narrowing the Topic • 60Determining the Specific Purpose • 63General Guidelines for Specific Purpose Statements • 67

Research and Preparation • 69Information Literacy • 70

Characteristics of Information Literacy • 70Types of Information • 72

Background information • 72Unique information • 73

Places to Research • 74Libraries • 74The Internet • 76People • 78

Documenting Your Research • 80Modern Language Association Style Guide (MLA) • 81American Psychological Association Style Guide (APA) • 83Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) • 86Verbally Attributing Sources • 89

Audience Analysis • 91Before the Speech • 92

Direct Observation • 93Demographics • 94

Methods of Analysis during the Speech • 96Direct Observation • 96Polling the Audience • 98

Other Ways of Gathering Audience Information • 99Contact Persons • 99Scientific Surveys • 100Personal Interviews • 102

Supporting Materials • 105Examples • 106Statistics • 108Testimony • 111Guidelines for Using Supporting Materials • 113

Context and the Speech Situation • 117Basic Components of the Speaking Environment • 119

Physical Location • 119

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Speaking Tools • 121The Speaker • 123

Media • 125Room Ratios • 126

Outlining • 131Outlining Principles • 132

Subordination • 132Coordination • 133Division • 133

Preparation Outline • 134Speaking Outline • 136Other Forms of Speaking Materials • 137

Introductions, Conclusions, and Connective Statements • 145Structure of the Introduction • 146

1. Get the Audience’s Attention • 1462. Clearly State the Relevance of Your Topic • 1483. Establish Your Credibility • 1494. State Your Argument • 1505. Preview Main Points • 1516. Transition to the Body • 152

Transitions between Main Points • 153Internal Summaries • 154Signposts • 154Internal Previews • 154

Structuring the Conclusion • 154Signal the Conclusion • 155Provide a Summary • 155Clinch the Speech • 156

Reasoning • 157Types of Reasoning • 158

Deductive Reasoning • 158Inductive Reasoning • 159

Forms of Reasoning • 160Reasoning by Cause • 160Reasoning by Example • 161Reasoning by Analogy • 161Reasoning by Sign • 163

Reasoning Fallacies • 163

Informative Speeches • 169Types of Informative Speeches • 170

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Speeches about Objects • 170Speeches about Processes • 171Speeches about Events • 172Speeches about Concepts • 172

Organizational Patterns • 174Chronological • 174Cause-Effect • 174Problem-Solution • 175Spatial • 176Topical • 176

Goals and Strategies for Informative Speeches • 177Tips for Informative Speeches about Objects • 177Tips for Informative Speeches about Processes • 178Tips for Informative Speeches about Events • 178Tips for Informative Speeches about Concepts • 179

Persuasive Speeches • 181The Persuasive Process • 182

Stage #1: Issue Awareness • 182Stage #2: Comprehension • 183Stage #3: Acceptance • 183Stage #4: Integration • 184

Types of Credibility • 184Initial Credibility • 185Derived Credibility • 185Terminal Credibility • 186

Types of Persuasive Speeches • 186Questions of Fact • 187Questions of Value • 187Questions of Policy • 188Refutation • 188

Persuasive Speech Organizational Patterns • 189Problem-Solution • 189Problem-Cause-Solution • 190Comparative Advantages • 190Monroe’s Motivated Sequence • 190

Adjusting to the Audience during the Speech • 192Adapting to a Favorable Audience • 192Adapting to a Neutral Audience • 192Adapting to a Hostile Audience • 194

Ceremonial Speeches • 197Types of Commemorative Speeches • 198

Eulogies • 198

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Toasts • 199Presenting an Award • 199Receiving an Award • 200Graduation Addresses • 201

Characteristics of Commemorative Speeches • 202Language Differences • 202Emotional Quality • 203The Importance of Context • 203Less Rigid Organization • 203

Guidelines for Commemorative Speeches • 204Connect the Audience to the Event • 204Use Descriptive Language • 205Consider the Audience • 205

Presentation Aids • 207Traditional Aids • 208

Models • 208Charts • 209Graphs • 209Objects • 211Photographs • 211

Technological Aids • 212Video • 212Audio • 213Slideshow Presentations • 213

Guidelines for Using Presentation Aids • 216

Language • 219Language Characteristics • 220

Arbitrary • 220Ambiguous • 220Abstract • 221Hierarchical • 221Spoken vs. Written Language • 222

Structuring Language • 222Repetition • 222Alliteration • 223Parallelism • 223Antithesis • 224

Language Devices • 225Similes • 225Metaphors • 225Narratives • 227

Guidelines for Using Language • 227

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Delivery • 231Modes of Delivery • 232

Memorized Speeches • 232Manuscript Speeches • 232Impromptu Speaking • 233Extemporaneous Speeches • 234

Components of Delivery • 234Verbal Delivery • 234Physical Delivery • 237Functions of Physical Delivery • 239

Tips for Good Delivery • 240

Practice • 243Quality and Quantity • 244

Mirror, Mirror • 244Friends and Family, Gather ‘Round • 244Lights, Camera, Practice! • 245

Stages of Practice • 245Early Stages: Organization • 246Middle Stages: Feedback • 246Final Stages: Refining Your Speech • 247

Tips for Good Practice Sessions • 247

Group Presentations • 251Group Presentation Formats • 252Group Roles • 254

Task Roles • 254Maintenance Roles • 255Leadership Roles and Styles • 256

Being a Good Team Member • 258Group Discussion and Q&A Sessions • 261

Appendix: A Brief History of Communication • 263The Greeks and Romans • 264

Greeks • 264Romans • 265

Contemporary Scholars • 266Marie Hochmuth Nichols • 266Kenneth Burke • 267Others of Note • 268

Key Terms • 269Index • 277

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