TA: Nazita LajevardiOffice Hours: Thu 10:15-12, SSB 341Email: nlajevar@ucsd.edu

Introduction to American Politics

OutlineOverview of Congress’s: Role Composition Structure and process of legislation

Overview of a representation experimentBrief comments on final

Congress’s role in government

Role in GovernmentThe Framers saw Congress as the key federal bodyAfter many failures at coordination under the Articles of

Confederation, Congress would exercise national leadershipBut would Congress be too powerful? Checks and balances were

meant to avoid concentration of powerCongress grew in national importance as power moved from

states to the federal government (see week 3)But over time, other parts of government have taken on much of

Congress’s power:The President has become more influentialThe Supreme Court can strike down laws as unconstitutional (judicial

review) and interpret themThe bureaucracy makes most of the actual specific policy

But Congress is still importantArt. 1, Sec. 1 of the Constitution lets Congress:Collect taxes, borrow money, print currency, and pay debtsRegulate commerce (the Commerce Clause)Establish post offices and roads (infrastructure)Create copyright/patent rulesSet up courts below the Supreme CourtRaise armies and navies, and declare war (officially)“To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for

carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers…” (the Elastic/Necessary and Proper Clause)

The Senate also approves the President’s nominees for SC justice, Cabinet secretary, etc. (“Advice and Consent”)

Congress’s composition

Who is in the 114th Congress?Senate:100 members (54 R, 44 D, 2 I)

6 year staggered terms 2 per state Chosen statewide

House: 435 members (245 R, 188 D, 2 vacant) 2 year terms Allocated to states based on population Chosen from districts of equal pop.States determine boundaries - gerrymandering

Gender and Sexuality

Source: Washington PostAlso currently 6 openly LGBT members of Congress

Race in Congress vs. the population

Source: Washington Post

Religion in Congress vs. the population

Source: Pew

Types of Representation

(1) Descriptive Representation

(2) Substantive Representation

Descriptive RepresentationOne form of representation is to have people with similar

characteristics representing you (“descriptive”)I.e. Blacks need Blacks in office to represent their interests. I.e. Women need women in office to represent their interests. TAKEAWAY: This form of representation suggests that if the needs of

a community are going to be advocated for in the political process, they need someone who resembles them to be representing them.

There is some evidence suggests descriptive representation leads to more substantive representation

The Supreme Court has sometimes agreed based on the Voting Rights Act, and required states to draw district lines such that minority groups are able to choose their own Representatives

Substantive Representation

Substantive representation occurs when someone who is not from the same group as you is still able to advocate for your interests.

I.e. Democrats pursuing policies that are in line with Black interests.

I.e. A man being able to advocate for policies that are beneficial to women.

This is when representatives will vote in your interest without resembling you (“substantive”)

Discussion questions(1/3) What do you think are some reasons why Congress is less diverse than the nation as a whole?

Discussion questions (1/3) What do you think are some reasons why Congress is less diverse than the nation as a whole?

(2/3)How do you think geographic representation relates to descriptive/substantive representation?

Discussion questions(1/3) What do you think are some reasons why Congress is less diverse than the nation as a whole?

(2/3) How do you think geographic representation relates to descriptive/substantive representation?

(3/3) Do you think it is important for people to have descriptive representation? Can substantive representation occur on its own and be enough?

Experiments on Representation

Generally Political scientists today measure whether legislators

are more or less representative of their interests and of them by conducting experiments on them.

They use fictional aliases to measure responsiveness rates by legislators with different backgrounds

They then measure these differences between groups to show discrimination.

Discriminatory Congressional Responsiveness: Race and Immigration Status

Puzzle: Legislators have an incentive to assist possible voters within

their electoral district.

But it is not clear how responsive they actually are to constituents within their districts. We vary race and immigration status and thus, ability to vote.

Research Question:Do legislators discriminate in their provision of constituent

services based on the race and immigration status of the constituent?

Lit Review: Two Perspectives on Constituent Services

(1) U.S. members of Congress generally render constituency services indiscriminately to their constituents (Fenno 1978; Miller and Stokes 1973). They have a massive electoral incentive to do so.

(2) U.S. representatives discriminate in their provision of constituency services. See Butler and Broockman (2011), Butler et al.

(2012), and Broockman (2013).

Why Hispanics?Hispanics constituted 17% of the U.S. population and 23.3

million eligible voters in 2012. (Pew Research Center)

11 million + Hispanics voted in the last presidential election but this represents only 48% of eligible Hispanic voters.

Many Hispanics do not take part in the political process and are thus an untapped constituency.

So, previous tests on Blacks vs. Whites fail to appreciate the relevant impact of bias against Hispanics.

Experimental Design

Template

Responses by ALL Legislators and Republican Legislators

Responses by White Legislators

Conclusions we can take from this about Representation

While there is some evidence of discrimination, it is not found across the board.The results validate the ability of non-Hispanic legislators to substantively represent

Hispanic constituents by being responsive to them. Non-Hispanic legislators consistently responded to all Hispanic constituents,

regardless of immigration status, at similar rates to Whites. It suggests that Hispanics do not necessarily need a co-ethnic in office (or descriptive

representation) to experience responsiveness in the political process. Republicans are also equally responsive to Hispanics and to White constituents (just

less so to Hispanic undocumented).They are more responsive overall compared to Democratic legislators: Are they

looking to capture more votes?

Congress’s structure and the process of

legislation

Structure of the two chambers

Party leadership and committeesThe Speaker of the House or Majority Leader of the Senate is

the most powerful memberBelow the top leaders of each party are the whips whose job it

is to make sure members vote the party line (not always easy)There are also committees, which take on responsibility for

legislation in certain policy areasCommittee chairs can be powerful, able to control the

agenda and block legislationBut rules changes over the last few decades have helped

party leaders control them

Passing legislationMost bills are first introduced into committees, where they can

be amended and passed to the floorMost bills die in committee

The Speaker of the House can stop floor votesRepublicans have an informal rule that votes only occur if a

majority of them agree (“majority of the majority”)Any Senator can block voting (the filibuster) – this can only

be overcome with 60 votesIn recent times with high polarization between the parties,

60 votes are needed for most legislationIn 2013 the Democrats used the “nuclear option” – a

majority vote to bypass the filibuster for nominees

Recent polarizationTraditionally, members of the two parties often worked together on legislation and crossed over in votes

This has declined in recent yearsThe parties have become more homogeneous in ideology

(esp. after the South moved Republican)Members have more pressure from constituents and interest

groups to avoid compromise (esp. Tea Party)When this kind of party unity and mutual opposition is combined with checks and balances, it means less legislation is passed

Comments on Paper and Final

Paper

Can you all see your grades?

Section 1 (9 am) Average: 891 C, 6 Bs, 7 AsHighest grade: 99

Section 2 (2 pm)Average: 89.761 C, 14 Bs, 11 AsHighest grade: 99

- Most of you did a great job on the paper

- Having a well-structured argument that was outlined in your thesis was key.

- Not going off on tangents was also necessary, because you did not have a lot of space to write and you had to hit on all of the points outlined in the prompt.

- The quality of your writing mattered.

- Supporting your arguments with evidence (i.e. with statistics) was also important and gave strength to the best papers.

FinalFinal study guide is on TEDBRING TWO BLUEBOOKSPart 1: 4/5 essays like the midterm, on the second half of the

course material25% of your course grade

Part 2: A cumulative longer essay15% or 25% of your course grade, whichever would give you

the best gradeBring questions next week!