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Monitoring and Technical Services (MATS)

Systems for

Rainfall, Weather

and Climate

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EnvironmentalWeather

The monitoring of meteorological conditions is an integral part of environmental management and is essential for supporting economic, social and environmental objectives. Extremes of wind, temperature and rainfall are obvious examples of the detrimental impact that the weather can have on day to day life.Accurate and timely meteorological information is crucial for a number of government departments and industries, such as aviation, mining, construction, energy, utilities, and disaster prevention and relief. ALS designs and supplies a wide range of products for the unattended, long term, continuous measurement of rainfall, wind, air temperature, humidity, sunshine, barometric pressure, evaporation and other meteorological parameters.

All ALS Measurement and Control Platforms (MCPs), including Water Quality Stations (WQS), Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) and Air Quality Stations (AQS) are designed to be easily integrated into a single, cohesive monitoring network. They are based on quality instrumentation with a proven track record, are versatile and reliable, and are used by government, business and industrial organisations within Australia and around the world.

Systems for Rainfall, Weather and Climate

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Wind Speed and DirectionWind speed and direction sensors are often combined, and are of the cup and vane or propeller type. Ultrasonic wind sensors are becoming more common due to their superior performance at a similar price. Each design has its strengths and so correct selection is crucial. For wind studies, sensors may be installed at various points on a single mast. Ultrasonic sensors are ideally suited for this as they are available in both 2D and 3D versions.

Air Temperature and Relative HumidityLike the wind speed and direction sensor, air temperature and relative humidity are also generally supplied as a combined instrument. Sensors must be installed in a radiation shield to prevent heating or cooling errors caused by exposure to direct sunlight and/or wind. For temperature inversion (Delta-T) measurements, two matched temperature sensors must be used. If temperature variations of around +/- 0.1°C are to be measured, then it is necessary that the sensors be housed within aspirated radiation shields. Temperature errors of up to 2°C may be experienced if aspirated shields are not used.

Solar Radiation Solar radiation is the electromagnetic radiation that is emitted by the sun. This radiation is filtered by the Earth’s atmosphere and requires a variety of sensors to measure it completely. UV-A, UV-B and UV-C sensors measure ultra-violet radiation just beyond the visible spectrum. Global or net radiation sensors measure the total direct, diffused and reflected radiation. Sunshine duration sensors are used to calculate total daily sunshine (radiation of >120 W/m2).

Barometric PressureBarometric pressure sensors measure the current atmospheric pressure with respect to absolute pressure (a vacuum). Barometric pressure sensors used in AWS are small microprocessor based devices that use silicon pressure sensors specifically developed for the application. It should be noted that these sensors output raw or uncorrected barometric pressure, whereas barometric pressure measurements produced by weather services for use by aviation, newspapers, radio and television stations are referenced to mean sea level. The difference between raw and corrected barometric pressure can be large and is around 1.1hPa for every 10 meters in altitude. This correction can be applied on board the AWS prior to logging or during subsequent data processing.

Measurement of Weather

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Multi Parameter SensorsMulti parameter weather sensors combine three or more measurements into a single, compact and cost effective device. They generally offer both analogue and digital outputs and are easy to install and maintain. However, some weather parameters, such as solar radiation, are not suited for these devices while some measurements, such as wind, temperature and rainfall, may be compromised by the location of all sensors into a single unit.

Rain Gauges The standard sensor for rainfall measurement is the tipping bucket rain gauge. These units are highly accurate and reliable, with thousands in use around the world. Sensors that use balance or impact technology are becoming more common. These sensors have no moving parts and are sensitive enough to measure the impact of individual rain drops and even sleet and hail.

Manually read rain gauges are still quite common and are often used when continuous data is not required. Check gauges are used for confirmation and back-up purposes.

EvaporationEvaporation is a combination of the effects of several climate elements – temperature, humidity, solar radiation and wind. Evaporation is greatest on hot, windy, dry days and is minimal when air is cool, calm and humid. The US Class “A” Evaporation Pan has been the standard measure of evaporation for many years and is recommended by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) for general-purpose use. Evaporation pans can be manually read or automated when connected to a suitably programmed AWS for automatic measurements and/or level control (to fill and drain the pan).

Evapo-transpiration (ETO)Evapo-transpiration is a measure of the water lost due to evaporation and plant transpiration. It is used extensively in the agriculture and turf industries, and is normally derived using the Penmans-Monteith equation programmed into the AWS datalogger.

Lightning Detection and WarningLightning detection sensors provide information about the direction and distance of recent lightning discharges (flashes), thus providing a warning of approaching storms. Lightning warning sensors or electric field strength monitors measure the local atmospheric electrical field strength and provide an indication of the likelihood of a lightning strike before it begins. In high risk applications, the monitoring system may comprise both lightning warning and detector sensors.

Other ParametersMany other parameters can be calculated or derived, such as wind vector, sigma-theta, wind gust, wind run, wind chill, dew point, heat index, wet and dry bulb temperature and statistics such as average, minima and maxima.

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Budget/Consumer GradeThese weather stations are aimed at the cost conscious customer who does not necessarily need the reliability or accuracy offered by the higher grade stations. These stations may use inexpensive sensors manufactured from plastic with relatively short life spans. Measuring, logging and telemetry options are often sacrificed in favour of simple-to-produce computer based software packages.

Industrial GradeWeather stations designed for industry are rugged and reliable systems designed for commercial use. They may use research or commercial grade sensors and are often customised for a particular application and/or customer.

Research GradeResearch Grade weather stations are the most sophisticated and robust available. They are permanent and often have backup sensors, telemetry and power supplies and are used for aviation, government meteorological networks, flood warning systems and industrial and scientific research.

Measurement StandardsThe correct exposure of a weather station and its sensors is crucial for the collection of accurate and valid data. The location must be typical of the area of interest and not be affected by buildings, trees, hills or other obstacles. Wind, temperature rainfall and evaporation measurements are just some of the parameters that can be adversely affected by improper site selection. Many standards exist to define the minimum exposure requirements, such as those of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), the International Civil Aviation organisation (ICAO), the American Association of State Climatologists (AASC), the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) and local Environmental Protection Agencies/Authorities (EPAs). The table on the following page outlines typical weather station sensor location and exposure requirements for commonly used standards.

Weather stations (and thus their measurements) fall into three broad categories, which generally reflect their relative costs:

Weather Station Standards

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COMMON STANDARDS FOR SENSOR EXPOSURE AND ACCURACYParameter Exposure Range and

Accuracy (WMO)Comments

Wind 10Mtr (WMO, EPA, BOM)

2, 3 & 10Mtr +/-0.5Mtr (AASC)

Speed = 0-75m/s,

+/- 0.5m/s (<5m/s) or 10% (>5m/s).

Direction = 0-360° +/- 5°

Avoid buildings and trees. Sensor location should be at least 2.5 x obstruction height and 10 x obstruction distance.

Air Temperature and Relative Humidity

1.25 – 2 Mtr (WMO)

1.5Mtr +/- 1Mtr (AASC)

2Mtr temp only (EPA)

2 & 10Mtr temperature inversion (EPA)

Temp -60-60°C +/- 0.1°C

RH 5-100% +/- 3%

Must be housed in a ventilated radiation shield. EPA recommends sensors be at least 4 x obstruction height, >9Mtr obstruction distance, 30Mtr from paved areas and above short grass or earth. Avoid heat sources, rooftops, slopes, hollows, high vegetation, shade, swamps and standing water.

Solar Radiation As above

2Mtr recommended (WMO)

Orient to North (Sth Hemisphere) or South (Nth Hemisphere)

Range not specified

Accuracy +/-0.4MJm2d (<8MJm2d) or 5%

No skywards obstruction for entire day except for objects <5° above the horizon.

No shadows or reflective surfaces.

Barometric Pressure

No standard 920-1080hPa +/- 0.1hPa

Sensor not exposed to winds or direct sunlight. Sensor port must be open to the atmosphere (i.e. not inside a sealed enclosure).

Rainfall 0.3Mtr min (WMO, EPA)

0.3Mtr (BOM)

1Mtr +/- 0.2Mtr (AASC)

0-400mm +/- 1mm (<5mm) or 10%

Orifice must be horizontal, open to sky, protected from wind and high enough to avoid splashing and snow accumulation. Typically mounted over short grass or gravel. AASC and EPA recommend at least 4 x obstruction height.

Evaporation 0-10mm +/-0.1mm (<5mm)

or 2% (>5mm)

Site should be representative of region of interest. No shadows, concrete, rock or asphalt surrounds. No obstructions within 1.5Mtrs (preferably 2.5Mtr) height or 10 x distance. No contaminants (dirt, leaves, twigs, etc in pan).

Soil Temperature 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000mm deep (WMO and BOM)

100+/-10mm deep (AASC)

No specification Area of interest should be level and at least 1m2. Not in a shadow or where water can accumulate or become submerged.

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ALS can design and supply a wide range of Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) to suit any application, ranging from small stand alone systems through to large sophisticated monitoring networks. The majority of these stations are designed to be fixed and permanent, however portable or mobile stations are also available. They may be customised with virtually any combination of sensors and be fitted with many forms of telemetry system. They may even be configured for multiple applications, such as for hydro-meteorological and air quality monitoring networks, or configured with sensors for agricultural and crop monitoring applications.

Our stations are suitable for the monitoring and/or control of virtually any environmental parameter, including:

• Wind Speed, Wind Direction, Sigma-Theta, Wind Run and Wind Gust

• Air Temperature, Relative Humidity

• Solar Radiation

• Barometric Pressure

• Rainfall and Snow

• Evaporation and Evapo-transpiration

• Dust and Noise

• Soil Moisture and Soil Temperature

• Lightning Detection and Warning.

All of our stations are completely self-contained with all sensitive components (datalogger, sensor interfaces and telemetry equipment) packaged within a sealed enclosure for protection against the environment. The enclosure, sensors and power supply are generally mounted on a custom mast or tower, specifically designed for the application and ease of installation and maintenance.

Masts or towers over three metres in height that can pivot, tilt or collapse are preferable to fixed masts or towers due to OH&S issues. Sensors are secured using special brackets with all sensor, power and/or communications cabling run, if possible, inside the mast or tower or underground (where possible) for neatness and protection from small birds, animals and the elements.

Lightning rod

Wind speed and direction sensor

Solar PanelRF/cellular antena

Solar radiation sensor

Rain gauge

Grounding Rod

Enclosure houses datalogger, power supply, and modem

Relative humidity sensor with radiation shield

ALS Automatic Weather Stations

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Budget Weather StationsThe most basic weather stations supplied by ALS are the preconfigured budget stations. They are fully integrated outdoor systems designed for use in water management, irrigation control, schools etc.

Compact Weather StationsThese stations offer many of the features of the more expensive stations in a single, compact device. With good quality sensors and software they are a viable option when ‘standard’ measurements are not required.

ETO Weather StationsThese stations are designed for use at golf courses, agricultural, industrial and public locations where the primary purpose is evapo-transpiration calculations. They feature good quality sensors, simple connections and limited (but adequate) telemetry and software options.

Standard and Custom Weather StationsStandard weather station installations are designed to take measurements based on one or more of the previously mentioned standards. A variety of masts, tripods, towers and brackets are available for these types of installations, and are usually secured with guy wires, a concrete footing and/or anchoring device. Generally these installations are separate to other monitoring equipment, though they may be co-located and integrated with other systems if needed.

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Typical Weather Station Equipment

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System OperationThe dataloggers fitted to each station are programmed to read the weather sensors at regular intervals. The results of these measurements are termed the current or ‘real time’ data. The datalogger then collects or ‘logs’ these measurements in internal memory at set intervals. This is termed the ‘logged data’ and is generally the data used for historical purposes. The main difference between the two data types is that real time data is replaced every time a new measurement is taken, whereas logged data is stored and may be retrieved at a later date.

The rate at which the weather sensors are read and logged by the datalogger is determined by the programmer and the client’s requirements. Parameters may be read and logged at the same rate and/or at any interval desired (i.e. 10 second sensor readings and 15 minute, hourly and daily logging). Event or conditional based logging is also possible to collect, for example, instantaneous rainfall or wind gust data. Changing these rates at a later date is relatively straightforward. The advantages of logging data on site is that if the telemetry system fails for any reason, the historical data will not be ‘lost’.

Telemetry SystemsThe availability of multiple telecommunications and on-site options for retrieving data allows systems to be customised to meet exact needs. Off-the-shelf telecommunications options include satellite (DCP), radio, telephone, mobile phone, and voice-synthesised phone. Data from stations may be collected by base station software at regular intervals. Data may also be collected on demand if required. In the case of a radio system, the base station computer needs to be located in a suitable location with near line-of-sight communications to the monitoring stations.

Monitoring and ControlBase station computers are typically set up with special software (such as Campbell Scientific LoggerNet software) for the automatic collection and storage of real time and historical data. The data is generally collected in CSV format and can be placed in any suitable location on the customer’s computer network. Depending on the telemetry system fitted, systems can be programmed to send alarms or report site conditions by calling out to computers, phones, radios or pagers. Stations can also be polled directly using LoggerNet SDK, MODBUS, DNP3 and other protocols.

Real time or historical data can be displayed or processed with a variety of software. Data exchange between LoggerNet and other SCADA packages can be achieved using OPC. Data can also be exported as ASCII files for further processing by spreadsheets, databases or analysis programs. Real Time Monitoring & Control (RTMC) software can be used to generate displays for monitoring and control by local users. These displays can be published to the intranet/internet using RTMC Web Server software as shown in the examples below.

Data Archiving and ReportingThere are many third party software packages available to process, archive and/or report on the data collected from our Data Collection Platforms.

Vista Data Vision software can be supplied so that customers may carry out data processing, reporting and even web page generation themselves. HYDSTRA Data Management software can be set up to carry out a high degree of automated data processing and reporting, with data being available to the customer via a secure web site. Email and/or SMS alarms can be generated for virtually any condition, including out of tolerance parameters or sensor malfunction.

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Water Resource ManagementWeather stations are an integral component of all water resource management systems. The collection of weather data is vital to the understanding of the relationship between the weather and the movement and distribution of water throughout catchment areas. Data is often used for analysis, modelling and planning, and so must be complete, accurate and valid. An ALS AWS provide engineers and environmental managers with continuous rainfall and water level, flow and quality, with other parameters, such as weather and evaporation sensors, easily added.

Air Quality ManagementThe spread of industry and mining into populated areas means environmental dust and noise is increasingly becoming a key issue. Communities need to be assured that the emissions from these activities will not affect health or lifestyles. Industry must become more environmentally responsible and aware of possible impacts of their operations on themselves and their neighbours. Our AWS provide environmental managers with the data to properly evaluate noise and dust impact in circumstances ranging from straightforward complaints to complex environmental impact statements and various other conservation strategies.

Compliance MonitoringMany monitoring systems today are used to ensure compliance with government and environmental regulations. Our AWS can provide rainfall data to aid the monitoring of water resources (such as dams, rivers or streams), ponds, and discharge points. They can be co-located with dust monitoring equipment to provide wind speed and direction data or with continuous noise monitoring equipment to provide temperature inversion information. ALS AWS provide data that is scientifically valid, of known precision and accuracy, and is legally defensible.

Energy and UtilitiesIn recent years there has been a marked increase in the number of utilities and energy companies that require weather stations. Wind Power and Geothermal companies use weather stations with multiple sensors to assess potential sites or monitor their performance once established. A single AWS is easily capable of monitoring the wind at six or more heights with multiple temperature sensors and even warning lights. Hydropower companies use weather stations to help manage the impact of rainfall on their storage systems according to best environmental practice. ALS stations can be combined with water level/flow stations to provide a complete picture of the storage system and catchment areas.

Applications

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Flood WarningAll ALS AWS (and WQS) can be configured as versatile and reliable flood warning stations. We offer a range of systems, from the standard ALERT station for the transmission of rainfall and/or water level data, through to multi-purpose stations that can provide both the routine data for operational or management purposes, as well as data for flood warning systems. A single AWS station can be configured to monitor a range of parameters, such as wind speed and direction, temperature, relative humidity and rainfall, as well as other parameters, such as water level and flow. Fitted with the latest telemetry systems, our systems provide advanced solutions for flood warning.

MiningMining activities usually involve the removal and relocation of large quantities of earth and raw material. Stockpiles, haul roads, access roads, earthworks, dams, streams and ponds must all be protected from the damage or erosion caused by extreme weather conditions. The dust and noise generated by mining activities is affected by wind and temperature. The effective monitoring of the weather is therefore a vital component of mining operations. Our AWS can be used to provide rainfall intensity alarms, periodic rainfall totals, averaged wind vectors, wind gust data, maximum wind speeds, temperature inversion warning, rate of evaporation and flood warning alarms. These stations are easily integrated with Water and Air Quality Stations to provide a total monitoring solution for mine environmental managers.

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Fire WeatherALS can provide stations specially configured for the fixed or portable monitoring of fire weather during actual fire events or prescribed burns. Fixed weather stations can be installed at key locations in and around both native and plantation forests. Portable stations can be quickly deployed by fire authorities in as little as 10 to 15 minutes to enable the capture of weather data at specific areas of interest. Radio or satellite telemetry technology relays near real time data back to a central server/control facilities, completely independent of technologies likely to be overloaded during emergencies (such as GSM/GPRS or Next G). Information can be easily integrated into other monitoring and control systems to provide emergency services staff with complete and up to date weather information.

Road Weather MonitoringThese weather stations are specifically designed to provide road maintenance authorities with continuous monitoring of local weather and road surface conditions. Road authorities must assess actual road conditions, while considering the safety, environmental and financial implications, before taking steps to alleviate the situation (such as gritting). The AWS can be fitted with temperature sensors built into the road surface to provide a warning of ice formation. Road weather cameras can also be installed to give visual confirmation of current and historical conditions. And like all ALS stations, they can be expanded with rain gauges and water level sensors to provide flood warning information.

Agriculture and Turf ManagementAWS monitoring stations can be used to provide evaporation data vital to the agricultural and irrigation industries for scheduling and frost prediction, thus saving energy, limiting disease and increase yields. Stations can continuously monitor ETO/ETz, dew point, soil temperature and moisture, rainfall, evaporation and be integrated with sensors from Campbell, AquaSpy and Sentek and systems from Toro and Rainbird. By linking stations together with telemetry, the management of irrigation for crops and turf can be greatly improved. Pumps and sprinkler systems can be controlled more precisely and used only when needed and alarms can be generated to warn of deteriorating conditions or system failures.

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Benefits of ALS Measurement and Control PlatformsThere are many advantages to using our Measurement and Control Platforms:

• They form a common network of stations to collect quality, reliable, environmental data

• May be customised by choosing the number of channels, sensors and communication method required

• Multiple channel types accurately measure nearly every available sensor, including those with analogue, pulse or digital signals (including MODBUS and SDI-12)

• All stations are designed to be as low powered as possible. Power supplies are selected to suit the location and application. Systems may be solar, mains, wind or micro-hydro powered (or any combination). In most cases, a Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) battery is installed to ensure continuous station operation and 100% data recovery even during power blackouts

• Mathematical and statistical calculations can be programmed into the station to provide continuous information on any derived parameters (e.g. stream flow or dam volume)

• Data recording (logging) rate is programmed to suit the site characteristics and client requirements. Time-stamped data recording is fully programmable and may be determined according to time or event (or both). Data is stored directly in engineering units (no scaling required). On board data compression techniques minimise the amount of data required for transmission by telemetry. After telemetry outages any data not collected is automatically recovered from the station datalogger.

• Virtually any communication device may be employed including land line, short haul, cellular, radio (VHF, UHF, Spread Spectrum), satellite, fibre or TCP/IP

• The powerful programming permits automatic decisions to be made based on time or events. For example, if a measurement exceeds a preset threshold, the station can start pumps, open valves, trigger water samplers or send SMS or email alarms. Data is typically displayed and stored in the desired units of measure (e.g. cfs, psi, feet, inches, meters, centimetres)

• The capacity to upgrade and expand the systems is virtually endless. Sensors can be added to sites and new sites can be added to networks at any time. Level monitoring stations can be reconfigured into full water quality stations with minimal effort.

Operation and MaintenanceALS can provide advice and/or offer servicing and maintenance for all monitoring stations and networks. Please contact ALS for further information.

Other Products and ServicesALS can supply a vast range of related products and services, including:

• Systems for Hydrology, including Water Quality Stations (WQS), Gauging Stations, Rainfall Stations, Flowmeter Stations and Flood Warning Stations

• Systems for Air Quality Monitoring, including a variety of Air Quality Stations (AQS) to monitor dust, gas and noise

• Systems for Agriculture and Aquaculture

• Systems for Civil, Industrial and Geotechnical Engineering

• Dataloggers, Data Acquisition, Sensing and Telemetry Equipment

• Power Supplies, Huts, Enclosures, Masts and Mounting Brackets

• Data Monitoring, Control, Collection and Processing Software, including data hosting and web access

• System Design, Installation, Commissioning, Operation, Maintenance

• Training, Documentation and Quality Control.

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Australia

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Australia

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SCORESBY VIC 3179

Australia

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