supporting research passwords

SUPPORTING RESEARCH

Passwords Social Studies Vocabulary

curriculum associates®, iNc. www.curriculumassociates.com 800-225-0248

Introduction to Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary .................................. 3

What Is the Need for Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary? ...................... 4

Why Is Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary Helpful to English-language Learners? .................................................................... 5

What Are the Strategies and Features in Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary That Research Has Proven to Be Effective with English-language Learners? ................................................................ 6

Summary ................................................................................................. 29

Appendix: Quick-Reference Chart of Research-Based Strategies and Features in Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary ....................................... 30

References ............................................................................................... 34

Table of Contents

2 research Paper: Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary

The Supporting Research document for Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary provides information related to research-based instructional strategies and features that promote social studies vocabulary knowledge.

The Supporting Research document is based on a literature review of academic monographs, journals, and reports by content-area researchers and experts.

The Supporting Research document covers topics related to the instruction of social studies vocabulary, as well as the application of research-based teaching strategies that are beneficial to struggling students and English-language learners.


P asswords: Social Studies Vocabulary is an 11-book series concentrating on the instruction of academic social studies vocabulary. The series contains

4 books for grades 1–4 and 7 books for grades 5–12. The series covers topics ranging from world geography and culture, ancient civilizations, to United States history in accordance to many state standards. The program reflects the findings of major publications concentrating in the areas of academic language proficiency, English-language learner (ELL) instruction, and struggling readers. This program centers on direct instruction of academic social studies vocabulary in context. In-depth and meaningful vocabulary study is the educational framework of Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary.

Introduction to Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary

research Paper: Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary 3


Learning academic vocabulary is essential to each student’s comprehension of content-area materials. Researchers (Bailey, 2007; Resnick, 2006; Ogle,

Klemp, & McBride, 2007; Yarbrough, 2007) have shown that many content-area texts may present learning barriers to students. In a 2006 textbook survey by Education Market Research, teachers were asked about the biggest problems they experienced with their current text. Teachers stated that texts that are “hard for students to read” (35.2%) was the biggest problem, followed closely by “doesn’t meet needs of diverse students” (31.4%). Several factors may make a text hard to read, such as:

⌘ A textbook analysis found that some texts are written approximately 2 to 4 reading levels above grade level. This fact highlights why students may struggle with content-area instructional materials (Yarbrough, 2007).

⌘ Social studies texts are more lexically dense and the wording of these texts are not typical to what students hear and say in everyday life (Bailey, 2007).

⌘ Background knowledge of a topic may not be incorporated into a new lesson, causing a disconnect for students who are not familiar with a specific social-studies topic (Ogle, Klemp, & McBride, 2007).

⌘ Struggling readers have difficulty with nonlinear reading. Excess use of photographs, charts, maps, and graphs can inhibit rather than support a struggling reader’s comprehension (Ogle, Klemp, & McBride, 2007).

Concerns about students’ comprehension of content-area texts continues to grow. The 2006 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Social Studies Assessment reported minor increases in the “Basic” level of performance of 4th- and 8th-grade students (Lee & Weiss, 2007). While these results are encouraging, the reauthorization of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) proposes to make NAEP results even more significant. Under the NCLB reauthorization, NAEP assessment scores will be listed alongside each state’s scores. This comparison of scores is meant to close the achievement gap between state tests and the NAEP tests (U.S. Department of Ed., 2007). This new initiative heightens the need for students to master academic vocabulary for better comprehension of content-area materials.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary is a tool that can support students who struggle with “hard-to-read” texts. It unites students with a singular goal of successfully learning the academic language of social studies. This goal is attainable through the instructional features and strategies that research has proven to be effective with diverse student populations.

What Is the Need for Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary?




Academic Language Proficiency is the ability of the student to comprehend, speak, read, and write when the context is reduced and the

topic is cognitively demanding. Examples of cognitively demanding activities are reading textbooks, working long compositions, learning new concepts, and mastering local and state requirements that test students on the academic language of each content area. Zelasko & Antunez (2000) state that “without mastery of classroom English, they [ELL students] will have difficulty competing academically in an all-English setting” (p. 13). The importance of learning academic language is confirmed by national ELL researchers and content-area experts (August & Shanahan, 2006; Marzano & Pickering, 2005; Rolón, 2002/2003; Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007) specifically:

⌘ “Vocabulary development is one of the greatest challenges to reading instruction for ELLs, because in order to read fluently and comprehend what is written, students need to use not just phonics, but context” (Antunez, 2002, p. 2).

⌘ “For English language learners, academic English is like a third language, their second language being the social English of the hallways, community, and media. And whereas students are exposed to social English in various settings, academic language acquisition is generally limited to the classroom. . . . Many English language learners, even those with well-developed social language, struggle to master the complex language of school” (Zwiers, 2004/2005, p. 60).

⌘ “It is not possible to overstate the role that language plays in determining students’ success with academic content. Proficient use of—and control over—academic language is the key to content-area learning. Unfortunately, ELLs often lack the academic language necessary for success in school. This lack of proficiency in academic language affects ELLs’ ability to comprehend and analyze texts in middle and high school, limits their ability to write and express themselves effectively, and can hinder their acquisition of academic content in all academic areas” (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006, p. 7).

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary recognizes the high language demand the content area of social studies requires all students to utilize, especially ELL students. This program is designed to help ELL students and other struggling students to meet this high content-area language demand, through the integration of numerous research-based strategies and features that have proven to be helpful and effective.

Why Is Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary Helpful to English-language Learners?


Social Studies is a cognitively demanding school subject. The first step to comprehending the content of a school subject is to understand the

vocabulary and language of the school subject. Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary incorporates ELL instructional recommendations from content-area experts for teaching vocabulary. Marzano & Pickering (2005), in Building Academic Vocabulary, promote a six-step process for teaching new terms. This process is also integrated in Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary.

Step 1: Provide a description, an explanation, or an example of the new term (along with a nonlinguistic representation).

Step 2: Ask students to restate the description, explanation, or example in their own words.

Step 3: Ask students to construct a picture, symbol, or graphic representing the term or phrase.

Step 4: Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their knowledge of the terms.

Step 5: Engage students periodically to discuss the terms with one another.

Step 6: Involve students periodically in games that allow them to play with terms.

Additionally, educational experts and researchers from numerous professional organizations (Alliance for Excellent Education, Office of English Language Aquisition, National Literacy Panel, and National Reading Panel) have created a list of instructional recommendations found to be effective, especially with struggling and ELL students. While these organizations are separate entities, they share some common recommendations. These recommendations are integrated throughout Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary.

What Are the Strategies and Features in Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary That Research Has Proven to Be Effective with English-language Learners?




Audio CD

The use of technology, in terms of audio books, is a recognized instructional element of vocabulary development and literacy skills for ELL students (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007). Audio recordings provide models for pronunciation and inflections, as well as read-aloud fluency. Additionally, for struggling students, the read-aloud strategy via an audio CD allows students to have access to higher quality, more complex texts than they would have on their own (Flood & Lapp, 2002; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). Because of this access to richer texts, students of all abilities are able to participate in classroom activities involving discussions and writing.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary provides access to grade-level content through the use of an audio CD. This audio CD provides oral reading modeling with clear pronunciations and inflections. Because listening comprehension is developed before reading comprehension, the audio CD provides comprehension support of the reading selections to students who are struggling with reading.

From Research to Application:⌘ An audio CD of the selections for each level of Passwords: Social Studies

Vocabulary is provided.

“When English language learners can simultaneously hear and read content-related information . . . it helps them decipher the text structures

commonly found in textbooks.” ––Rubinstein-Ávila, 2006



Collaborative Learning

During collaborative learning, students work together in pairs or small groups to attain a goal. Each group member must contribute to achieving a goal in order for collaborative work to be effective. English-language learners face unique challenges in a content-area classroom when they must explain their thought processes either in writing or in discourse. Content-area subjects such as social studies, science, and math have a more intense vocabulary of specialized academic terms that students must know and communicate with in order to be successful learners. (Association of American Publishers, 2004; Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006; Marzano & Pickering, 2005; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). When students have opportunities to listen, speak, and write academic terms in a non-threatening setting, they are more likely to actively participate in learning activities (Carrier, 2005; Rubenstein-Ávila, 2006).

The Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary series uses collaborative learning as one means to aid ELL students. Multiple opportunities to work collaboratively are presented in the Before and After Reading activities. Specifically, the Summarize activity is especially well-suited for collaborative learning. (See Summarizing on page 24.) This one-to-one interaction helps students when they are having difficulty comprehending a word or phrase and when expressing themselves. Through various collaborative learning opportunities, students increase their learning potential for mastering content-area language and concepts.

“Research and common sense . . . confirm that interacting with other people about what we are learning deepens the understanding

of everyone involved—particularly when we are learning new terms.” ––Marzano & Pickering, 2005

From Research to Application:⌘ In each student book lesson, the prereading activity and Activities A–D

promote collaborative learning.⌘ In each teacher guide lesson, the Before Reading and After Reading

activities engage students in collaborative learning.



Considerate Text

Considerate text is text that is presented in a reader-friendly format. The reader-friendly format is visible through clear text structures, short sentence length, and clear headings. Dyck & Pemberton (2002) explain that “certain features of text make it more ‘considerate,’ or easier to read and understand. The features should have clear concepts, consistent text structure, references that are easy to locate, and vocabulary that is precise and relates clearly to the subject. . . . A considerate text makes comprehension easier” (p. 30).

Some of the hallmarks of considerate text are:

⌘ Text structures that exhibit clear patterns, such as sequence, cause and effect, and description

⌘ Grade-level content presented at below grade-level readability

⌘ Clear statement of the lesson topic in an introductory paragraph

⌘ Short line lengths; clear titles, heads, and subheads; simple sentence structure; boldfaced vocabulary words; illustrations that clarify text meaning

Boldfaced words, titles, heads, and subheads are signals that help students ascertain important words or pieces of texts by drawing students’ attention to these words (Farnan, Flood, & Lapp, 2004; Meltzer & Hamann, 2006; Rubinstein-Ávila, 2006). Oftentimes, students’ difficulties in reading content-area materials stem from materials that are inconsiderate of readers. Research has shown that text organization has a significant effect on students’ learning.

“Considerable research over the past two decades indicates that structure, or organization, has an important effect on learning from text. The bottom line of the research evidence is that the better organized the text and the more apparent the structure to the reader, the higher the probability that the reader will learn from reading” (Farnan, Flood, & Lapp, 2004, p. 50).

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary exercises the use of considerate text throughout each lesson by incorporating boldfaced text, graphics, short line lengths, and below grade-level readability. Students of all abilities, especially struggling and ELL students, benefit from the use of considerate text features, because they make complex text more understandable. These overt signals act as guides for students as they navigate their way through more complex expository writing.

“Considerate texts create interest and facilitate learning. They do so by being informationally rich and well-organized.” ––Schraw, Flowerday, & Lehnman, 2001

From Research to Application:⌘ In each student book lesson, elements of considerate text are apparent.⌘ In the teacher guide, a discussion of considerate text can be found on page 4.



Connections for Word Meaning

Connections for word meaning help students build a deeper understanding of new vocabulary words. These connections are integral to long-term and purposeful learning. Students can make personal and meaningful connections to new information through prior-knowledge activation, via pictures, personal experiences, and word knowledge. Beck, McKeown, & Kucan (2002) explain that when managing vocabulary instruction, “relationships are also very important because of the way individuals’ word knowledge is stored in networks of connected ideas. Thus, the more connections that can be built, the more opportunities there are for an individual to ‘get to’ the knowledge” (p. 76). A student who builds a network of connections to a word, is able to broaden a word’s definition, making it a richer, sustainable learning experience.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary builds connections for word meaning through several intersecting access points to the target social studies vocabulary: prior-knowledge activation, illustrations and graphics, and word-study activities involving the use of cognates, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Each of these access points to vocabulary words is discussed later in this section. However, while they are discussed individually, these strategies and features are intertwined with the purpose of building personal connections to the new vocabulary words.

“Learning academic terms involves making connections with things familiar to us, and these things commonly arise from experiences native to our culture.”

––Marzano & Pickering, 2005

From Research to Application:⌘ In the student book, My Social Studies Dictionary, found on pages 94–98,

allows students to create their personal list of social studies words. In each lesson, multiple illustrations and graphics help to activate prior knowledge of vocabulary words.

⌘ In the teacher guide, Before Reading activities, through target word introduction and cognate instruction, build on students’ prior knowledge of words.



Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction is an instructional approach that allows students of varying abilities to learn the same content. Differentiated instruction enables teachers to provide options that meet the various needs of students in the classrooms. The basic goal of instruction is to advance students and give them the content knowledge they need in order to handle undifferentiated situations (Tomlinson, 2004). Making sure that students are given the tools to face trying situations—whether testing situations or classroom situations— is a crucial step in developing independent and successful students. Differentiated instruction is a key teaching strategy that ensures that students of various abilities will have an equal opportunity to access new information and knowledge. Wormeli (2005) states, “Differentiating instruction is doing what is fair and developmentally appropriate for students. It’s whatever works to advance the student. It’s highly effective teaching” (p. 29).

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary allows for differentiated instruction by providing students with various multi-sensory experiences of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Through these differing modalities, students of varying abilities have equal access to the same content. Furthermore, Activities A–D progress in difficulty so that each student is practicing on the same vocabulary, but at his or her comfort level for gaining comprehension. The language demand of these activities is scaffolded so that a student may work at his or her appropriate English proficiency level. Scaffolded activities are highly effective because they are based on each student’s “zone of proximal development.” This concept, first credited to Vygotsky (1962), centers around a student’s ability to learn or complete tasks that they would usually not be able to without a teacher’s guidance. In illustration, Activity A typically requires the least amount of reading or writing; students are only asked to complete matching types of exercises. Activity D, on the other hand, asks students to write sentences using target vocabulary words correctly. Activity A is appropriate for the student who is close to the novice stage of proficiency and who needs intensive language support, while Activity D is appropriate for the student who is near the advanced stage of proficiency and needs little language support. Extension activities are also provided in the teacher guide for each activity, A–D, to further challenge students at varying proficiency levels.

“Because children differ, no single text nor any single task can be appropriate for all children in a classroom.”

––Allington, 2005



From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson of the student book, Activities A–D progress in difficulty.⌘ In the teacher guide, differentiated instruction is possible through listening,

speaking, reading, and writing activities (students work on the same information, but through different multi-sensory experiences); Activities A–D and Extension activities for each lesson, and Vocabulary Teaching Strategies on pages 9–11.



Direct Instruction Within Context

Researchers (August & Shanahan, 2006; Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006; NICHD, 2000) all support the direct instruction of vocabulary within a meaningful context as one of the most effective ways for students, especially ELL students, to learn content-area vocabulary. Meaningful contexts are those in which the words would most likely appear and are appropriate. For social studies vocabulary, vocabulary lessons should be supported by social studies topics and applications so that the words can be discussed and written about in meaningful and relevant ways. Students will gain insight into the importance of communicating their thoughts, knowledge, and opinions of a topic through powerful and concise content-area vocabulary.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary teaches vocabulary in a meaningful context, rather than in isolation. On the most basic level, the social studies vocabulary words are grouped and presented by major historical time periods or themes. Within each book, all vocabulary words are introduced in reading selections that are based on topics drawn from social studies. Through explicit and direct instruction, students read, speak, and write the target vocabulary words, along with their definitions. Graphic organizers are integrated into the direct instruction as students explore deeper meanings, multiple meanings, and nonlinguistic representations of the target vocabulary words. The added instruction of root words, and affixes supplement the direct instruction of the target vocabulary words within thematic contexts. Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary applies direct instruction of vocabulary within meaningful contexts throughout each lesson.

From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson of the student book, direct instruction within context occurs

through the reading selections.⌘ Each lesson of the teacher guide includes prereading activities that involve

both direct instruction and in-context instruction. Instruction of root words, prefixes, and suffixes is another vehicle of direct instruction.

“The teaching of individual words is most effective when learners are given both definitional and contextual information, when learners actively process the new word meanings, and when they experience multiple encounters with words.”

––Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2002



ELL Focus

A language-intensive subject, with its specialized content-area vocabulary, presents a higher level of challenges for ELL students. And these students are populating more and more classrooms. Educational surveys reveal that ELL students make up 22% of mainstream classrooms. According to the National Research Council (2006), nearly 1 in 12 students receive special assistance to learn English. This growth in ELL student population has caused a rise of concern about how to meet the academic needs of these students. “Teachers and administrators were expressing concern that ESL students who apparently could speak and understand English fairly well were nevertheless encountering serious difficulties in content classrooms where they were expected to use English as a tool for learning” (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994, p. 7). English-language students need extra support and scaffolding while learning academic vocabulary. English-language learners benefit not only from the vocabulary teaching strategies discussed in this section, but also from the study of cognates, the use of Total Physical Response (TPR), and accommodations for English-language proficiency.

Use of Cognates

Cognates are words from different languages that resemble one another in both sound and meaning. For example, the Spanish cognate of the English word doctrine is doctrina. The use of cognates helps to bridge students’ knowledge in their first language to newly learned words in English (Meltzer & Hamann, 2006; Rubinstein-Avila, 2006; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). Further, “studies also indicate that students are able to take advantage of cognate relationships between their first language and English to understand English words, an important precursor to comprehension. There is limited evidence as well that cognate knowledge is associated with the development of reading comprehension in English” (August & Shanahan, 2006, p. 5).

Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response is a language-teaching method that uses movement to help students connect new words to their meaning. This nonlinguistic learning strategy emphasizes listening and physical response over written language. For a fuller discussion of the Total Physical Response strategy, see page 25 in this section.

“Vocabulary development is perhaps the most critical element of literacy instruction for English language learners.”

––Linan-Thompson & Vaughn, 2007

´



Accommodations for English-Language Proficiency

Being cognizant of an ELL student’s level of English proficiency is a signal that researchers identify as effective ELL instruction (August & Shananhan, 2006; Vacca & Vacca, 2005; Vialpando & Yedlin, 2005). Content-area vocabulary can be a formidable challenge to ELL students when they are trying to master complex subject matter, such as social studies, that is typically written outside of their reading comfort zone. Research has documented that explicit instruction should be used in combination with allowances for each student’s level of language proficiency.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary factors in the importance of English-language proficiency by offering leveled activities that progress in difficulty. The activities are designed for students who are at the intermediate to advanced level of English proficiency. In Activity A, students need only to identify the correct vocabulary word. Activity B is a little more strenuous in that the students must identify the correct vocabulary word and then write the word as well. Activities C and D are suited for students who have more language proficiency because they must be able to demonstrate comprehension of the target vocabulary and lesson content. Activity C calls for students to complete cloze questions using the target vocabulary. Activity D challenges students by asking them to write complete sentences using the target vocabulary words. English language proficiency is also attended to by presenting grade-level content that has below-grade readability. An audio CD further supports students’ reading efforts by providing clear verbal modeling of the reading selections.

From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson of the student book, Activities A–D are leveled according

to English language proficiency.⌘ In the teacher guide, pages 9–11, Vocabulary Teaching Strategies,

including cognate instruction, word-root instruction, and listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities, are central in the instruction of ELL students.

⌘ An audio CD provides models for pronunciation, inflection, and fluency.



Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers are visual representations of a word’s meaning and/or a text’s organization of ideas and concepts. They are a means to stimulate students’ interaction with the text, both on a word-meaning level and an idea level. Researchers (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002; NICHD, 2000; Snow, 2002; Vacca & Vacca, 2005; Vialpando & Yedlin, 2005) confirm that active interaction and engagement maximizes and deepens students’ learning. A graphic organizer is a highly effective method for initiating student interaction with text and facilitating comprehension.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary makes extensive use of graphic organizers to actively engage students. Graphic organizers serve two specific purposes in this series: to deepen vocabulary knowledge and to help students’ identify and organize their thoughts as they respond to a writing prompt.

Vocabulary Graphic Organizers

The vocabulary graphic organizers allow students to experience deeper vocabulary study through examples, drawings, and synonyms. These types of graphic organizers allow students to make personal connections to each vocabulary word, which in turn, aids in long-term retention of the newly learned vocabulary word. The use of synonyms and examples are ways to tap into students’ prior-knowledge. Some ELL students may already have mastered the social studies vocabulary and concepts in their native language. They may only need to learn how to communicate their knowledge in English. (Crowther, 2006; Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006). The ability of ELL students to generate a synonym or an example of a word’s meaning is evidence that the social studies term and concept are understood.

“Students with very limited English proficiency show their understanding in a variety of ways. ELL students can demonstrate their knowledge through

visual representations.” ––Crowther, 2006



In each lesson, the vocabulary graphic organizer is introduced as a Before Reading activity, a strategy that sets a purpose and motivation for reading (Rupley & Nichols, 2005). As students work through the lesson, they add information to their vocabulary graphic organizer. Students outline the vocabulary word’s meaning and relationships to other words and concepts. This interaction with the text stimulates meaningful connections to vocabulary words, which in turn, aids in the retention of the newly learned words.

Writing Graphic Organizers

The writing graphic organizers allow students to organize their ideas and to see relationships among those ideas. The writing graphic organizers relate to the types of writing that students encounter in informational text: description, sequence, and lastly, cause and effect. These types of text each have a clear structure to their organization. They are written to inform, tell, and explain. The writing graphic organizer aids students with completing Write!, the final activity in each lesson. Students are instructed to use a specific graphic organizer to respond to a writing prompt. The writing prompts relate directly to each lesson’s topic. The writing prompts also require the same type of text structure that is found in the reading selection. Students are asked to describe or explain a certain process or idea in their own words. The graphic organizers help students to identify the important information in order to complete their written response.

From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson in the teacher guide, Before Reading and After Reading

activities, including the WRITE! activity, use both vocabulary and writing graphic organizers. Reproducible pages with graphic organizers can be found on pages 76–83.

©Curriculum Associates, Inc. Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, Book C 77

Name Date

Vocabulary Graphic Organizer: Word Chart

Word

Defi nition

Examples

Sentence

Draw a Picture

82 ©Curriculum Associates, Inc. Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, Book C

Name Date

Writing Graphic Organizer: Main Idea and Details Chart

Main Idea Details

1.

2.

3.

Vocabulary Graphic Organizer: Word Chart

Writing Graphic Organizer: Main Idea and Details Chart



Illustrations and Graphics

Clear and explicit photographs, illustrations, charts, and graphics help build understanding of a word’s meaning. These visual clues provide contextual clues to new or confusing words. These clues are especially beneficial to ELL students (Association of American Publishers, 2004; Carrier, 2006; Dyck & Pemberton, 2002). “Giving an ESL student a nonlinguistic representation will provide a way for them to understand the meaning of the term that is not dependent on an understanding of English” (Marzano & Pickering, 2005, p. 35). These typographic clues, according to Vacca & Vacca (2005) provide a “clear-cut connection and a direct reference to an unknown word” (p. 125). Students can pull from their background of experiences to relate to the concepts, actions, and vocabulary that the illustrations and graphics are exhibiting. An ELL student may recognize a photograph of an object or an illustration of a concept or process and know the label for it in their native language. Comprehension is eased because the student may now have a foundation to draw from in order to learn the word in English.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary uses illustrations, photographs, and graphics to depict the important vocabulary words and lesson concepts. Easy-to-read captions and clear labels accompanying each illustration and graphic provide the reader with additional support. An illustrated glossary offers another direct reference to target vocabulary words.

From Research to Application:⌘ Throughout each lesson in the student book, clear and explicit photographs,

illustrations, and graphics, as well as an illustrated glossary, are used to help build understanding of a word’s meaning.

“Pictures and other graphic aids provide additional sources of meaning other than the definition of a word.”

––Crowther, 2006



Listening/Speaking/Reading/Writing Experiences

Listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities provide students with several avenues to learn new information. Researchers (August & Shanahan, 2006; Garcia, 1999; Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007) recommend that teachers integrate the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing along with curriculum materials that are rich in opportunities for the four language skills to gain maximum learning for ELL students. Simply stated, “Language learning is not a passive process; it is facilitated through production and interaction, and therefore, depends heavily on the ability to practice and produce language, especially in academic settings” (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006, p. 27). The active process of developing language proficiency is multi-staged. Initial language proficiency starts with oral language. Through listening and speaking experiences, students gain repeated exposure to words and how they are used in English. Speaking proficiency is gained through teacher and peer modeling, feedback, and interactions with more language proficient individuals. As students hear and speak language, their comfort and comprehension levels with language increases until they are ready for another, more demanding level of language development––reading and writing.

Language proficiency of content-area vocabulary is key to each student’s success in any subject area, as discussed in previous sections. Multiple receptive and expressive experiences help students develop deeper understanding and longer recall of the newly learned information. Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary provides multiple opportunities for students to practice new vocabulary through all four language skills. For example, an audio CD is a learning tool that engages student’s listening skills, which in turn, may enhance student’s comprehension of the reading selections. Student’s language experiences extend to the home as well. The take-home activity encourages the use of speaking through summarization, and listening. This activity is based on Vygotsky’s theory (1962) that mastery of a subject can be exhibited if the student can summarize or explain newly learned knowledge to another person. More recent research continues to support the premise that using the four language kills is highly effective teaching: “No matter what the subject, the people who read it, write it, and talk it are the ones who learn it best” (NCTE, 1993).

From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson of the teacher guide, Before, During, and After Reading

activities provide listening, speaking, reading, and writing experiences.

“Successful word learning is active. Students learn words by using them. Thinking, saying, and writing new words help us make new words our own.”

––Bromley, 2003



Multi-step Lesson PlanIn addition to the other strategies and features of Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, this series integrates a multi-step lesson plan, which allows for in-depth instruction of new words. Students receive multiple exposures to a word, rather than a single experience, an instructional strategy that is promoted as highly effective instruction (NICHD, 2000). Marzano & Pickering (2005) explain that a six-step process to teaching targeted academic vocabulary achieves two goals: the first set of steps appropriately introduces and builds the initial meanings of new words. The second set of steps provides ample practice so that students will “shape and sharpen their understanding of the new terms” (p. 14).

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary achieves the first goal (to introduce a new term appropriately and to build an initial understanding of the word) through direct instruction of target vocabulary, Before Reading activities, prior-knowledge activation activities, and thematically-related reading selections. Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary achieves the second goal (to shape and sharpen their understanding of the new terms) with leveled During Reading and After Reading activities; listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities; a student-created personal dictionary; and an illustrated glossary.

From Research to Application:⌘ Each teacher guide lesson guides teachers through a multi-step lesson plan.

A discussion of the multi-step lesson plan is presented on page 6 in the teacher guide.



Parental Engagement

Parental involvement has shown a solid beneficial effect on student’s learning in terms of maintaining student motivation in school, active engagement in studying, and building a sense of value of education (Fecho & Allen, 2003; Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, & Holbein, 2005; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; McCarthy, 2000; Zelasko & Antunez, 2000). “The research does suggest that bridging home–school differences in interaction patterns or styles can enhance students’ engagement, motivation, and participation” (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007, p. 7). Parental engagement benefits students in other ways as well. Students whose parents are involved in their schooling often have better attendance and behavior in school (U. S. Department of Education, 2004).

In Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, parental engagement is gained through each lesson’s take-home activity. Each take-home activity is centered around a crossword puzzle, which serves as a topic review for each lesson. Once the puzzle is completed, students are directed to share with a family member what they have learned about a lesson’s topic. This speaking and listening activity provides students an opportunity to share their newly learned knowledge. This interaction keeps parents connected with their children’s learning. In summary, “When families of all backgrounds are engaged in their children’s learning, their children tend to do better in school, stay in school longer, and pursue higher education” (Henderson & Mapp, 2002, p. 73).

From Research to Application:⌘ In the teacher guide, take-home activities can be found on pages 84–98.

“The evidence is consistent, positive, and convincing: families have a major influence on their children’s achievement in school and through life.”

––Henderson & Mapp, 2002



Prior-knowledge Activation

Prior-knowledge activation is a hallmark of effective instruction, both for English speakers and for ELL students (Jesness, 2004; Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). Prior-knowledge activities stimulate students’ memories of past experiences in school and in their personal lives in order for them to relate to new information or experiences. Learning that is gained through prior knowledge is desired because knowledge that is gained through memories is retained through each person’s long-term memory (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994). Additionally, students become more engaged in learning when they understand the connection between what they already know and what they are currently learning. Prior-knowledge activation brings relevance to the new knowledge that students are gaining during a lesson. “All new information needs to be linked to students’ relevant prior knowledge . . . students need to make their own linkages between their prior knowledge and the topic being studied” (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994, p. 33).

In Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, each lesson contains a Before Reading activity that is designed to explicitly activate prior knowledge. In this activity, multiple strategies are used to engage students’ background knowledge about the lesson’s topic. Some examples of the student-centered activities are brainstorming, filling out KWL charts, and making observations about everyday objects that have relevance to the student’s lives. With these simple but powerful types of activities, the bridge to learning new information is set. Prior-knowledge activation is also a supportive framework for other lesson activities, such as the word-study activities, word-play activities, and the lesson opener in each student book lesson. Prior-knowledge activation is also a guiding principle in building word connections for long-term learning.

From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson of the student book, the introductory paragraph serves to

activate students’ prior knowledge.⌘ In each lesson of the teacher guide, the Before Reading activities include

a prior-knowledge activation activity. A discussion of prior-knowledge activation occurs on page 9 in the Vocabulary Teaching Strategy section.

“Students who lack in academic background knowledge also lack in academic achievement. To be most effective, a teacher should be aware

of each student’s level of background knowledge.” —Marzano & Pickering, 2005



Read-aloud Strategy

The benefits of the read-aloud strategy are multiple. The read-aloud strategy explicitly models correct pronunciation and inflection of the English language. It also provides a guide for reading pace and expression. Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera (2006) offer this explanation as to the benefits of applying the read-aloud strategy at all grade levels:

“Reading aloud and shared readings that are accompanied by structured discussion are an excellent way to promote language development. Although reading aloud and shared reading are thought of as especially important in the primary grades and primarily thought of to promote comprehension skills, they are equally important in the middle and high school years when there is sophisticated language and content to be discussed. Reading aloud and shared readings provide an opportunity for practice and modeling effective language use, appropriate expression, and a platform for structured discussion, with scaffolds, to promote language development” (p. 28).

In Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, the teacher is directed to read aloud each lesson’s selection as the initial activity for the During Reading section. Students are engaged with the selection as they actively listen, discuss, and complete written exercises that clarify and reinforce what they have just heard. These exercises are models of comprehension strategies that students should use while reading informational texts (Beck & McKeown, 2001; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). In addition, reading aloud the selection is also supportive of the next stage in the During Reading section in which the student rereads the selection independently. Vacca & Vacca (2005) state, “Read-alouds give struggling readers access to information in the more difficult texts commonly used in content area classrooms” (p. 180). Reading aloud is an effective strategy that provides support and modeling to readers of various abilities.

From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson in the teacher guide, During Reading activities employ

the read-aloud strategy.

“Teacher read-alouds are perhaps the most consistent activity used by classroom teachers that provides frequent, if not daily, opportunities

to enhance the literacy of ELLs by integrating effective vocabulary practices.” ––Hickman, Pollard-Durodola, & Vaughn, 2004



Summarizing

Students work with a partner to review and share what they have learned from each lesson in either written or oral format. As defined by Vacca & Vacca (2005), summarizing is not retelling. It is the process of reducing text to its main points through paraphrasing. Researchers (Graham & Perin, 2007; Biancarosa & Snow, 2004; Armbruster, 2000; and NICHD, 2000) acknowledge the educational benefits of summarizing as a studying strategy, often referred to as writing-to-learn or writing across the curriculum. Research has determined that writing paraphrase summaries can improve learning. Moreover, the writing-to-learn instructional strategy promotes active learning, student engagement, and extends thinking (Knipper & Duggan, 2006; Milan & Camps, 2005).

In Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, students engage in 15 Summarize activities in each level from C–H. The Summarize activity is a tool that promotes deeper understanding of a topic, discloses misunderstood information, and increases students’ abilities to explain content through the use of the newly learned content vocabulary words. Students are asked to work with a partner, and in their own words, write about what they have learned about the lesson’s social studies topic. Sharing a summary of each lesson with a peer orally is especially helpful for ELL students. This social interaction, and variation of the read-aloud strategy, helps students receive feedback and connect to another peer’s views. Students also have another opportunity to hear English with varying fluency and inflection (Vacca & Vacca, 2005; Vygotsky, 1962). The Summarize activity is a key vehicle for both language development and comprehension mastery.

“Summarizing is a good method of integrating ideas and generalizing from the text information.”

––NICHD, 2000

From Research to Application:⌘ In each lesson in the teacher guide, a Summarize activity is part

of the After Reading activities in levels C—H.



Total Physical Response Strategy

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching strategy that involves active movement in order to help students remember new information, especially vocabulary words (Asher, 1996). TPR involves only a few steps: The teacher speaks a command or an instruction to students and then models the command/instruction. Students copy the teacher’s movement without repeating the command/instruction. Finally, without modeling, the teacher says the command/instructions and students act out the command, demonstrating their understanding of the vocabulary through actions. In a research synthesis, Slavin & Cheung (2005) state that teachers of English-language learners may use language development strategies, such as Total Physical Response, to help students internalize (through listening and observations) new information and to help attach meaning to new words. This technique is effective for ELL students because of the lack of language demand. Students do not have to speak unless they are ready to do so as part of TPR, because their physical response to a command is demonstration of understanding (Asher, 1996; Conroy, 1999; Jesness, 2004). A secondary benefit of TPR is that the strategy adds an air of playfulness to the vocabulary lesson, which adds to the retention of newly learned words.

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary applies the teaching strategy of TPR for appropriate and meaningful contexts. For example, to illustrate the meaning of the word blockade, teachers may have a student stand up and block the doorway so that no one can exit or enter the room. Only vocabulary words that can be clearly demonstrated are suitable for TPR, and so the strategy is used selectively in order to maximum learning.

“Having children physically act out songs, poems, or readings—all forms of TPR methodology—is an effective way to support vocabulary development.”

––Drucker, 2003

From Research to Application:⌘ In the teacher guide, the Total Physical Response strategy is discussed on

page 9 in the Vocabulary Teaching Strategies section. In selected lessons, During Reading activities involve the Total Physical Response strategy.



Vocabulary Teaching Strategies

Vocabulary is one of the most elemental features of learning. “To be academically literate, students need a strong and constantly growing vocabulary base. Knowledge of words, word parts, and word relationships is critical if students are to understand topics in a content area and develop strong reading comprehension and test-taking skills” (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007, p. 34). Educational experts and researchers (August & Shanahan, 2006; Crowther, 2006; NICHD, 2000; Vacca & Vacca, 2005) support that using multiple strategies for teaching vocabulary is a highly effective method for teaching students of all abilities.

Vocabulary teaching strategies are implemented before, during, and after reading. The strategies help students build deeper understanding of new vocabulary and include:

⌘ Accessing prior knowledge

⌘ Word and definition cards

⌘ Context clues

⌘ Prefixes and suffixes

⌘ Greek and Latin roots

In Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary, many of these strategies are discussed in more detail as separate entries in this research document. Teachers who deliberately help their students learn these specific literacy practices will see the benefit in content learning as well.

From Research to Application:⌘ In the teacher guide, Vocabulary Teaching Strategies are discussed

on pages 9–11.

“Effective instructional methods emphasized multimedia aspects of learning, richness of context in which words are to be learned, active student participation,

and the number of exposures to words that learners will receive.” ––NICHD, 2000



Word-Play Activities

Researchers (Alber & Foil, 2002; Marzano & Pickering, 2005; Paynter, Bodrova, & Doty, 2005) stress that word play builds strong connections to newly learned vocabulary. Through word-play activities, students remember the words and their meanings because they are exposed to the words multiple times. Games also typically foster positive feelings from students from the early elementary grades to high school and beyond. Word-play activities encourage recall and retention because they intrinsically motivate and engage students. When students attach positive feelings to word-play activities, word consciousness is raised (Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2002; Richek, 2005).

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary recognizes the instructional value of word-play and incorporates word-play activities in several ways. The take-home activity is built around a crossword puzzle. Word cards are provided in each teacher guide along with several suggestions on how to use the cards in games. The Vocabulary Teaching Strategies section also lists word-play activities that the teacher may use at various times during each lesson.

From Research to Application:⌘ In the teacher guide, word-play activities are discussed on pages 10–11

in the Vocabulary Teaching Strategy section. Take-home activities on pages 84–98, and Word Definition Cards, on pages 99–128, are additional word-play opportunities.

“Activities using words in games, connecting words, and manipulating words creatively result in excellent student learning.”

––Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002



Word-Study Activities

Word-study activities that integrate prefixes, suffixes, roots, and cognates provide a deeper understanding of learned and newly learned words. Students are able to make connections or build a network of related words through word-study activities that show semantic relationships (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006; Hennings, 2000; NICHD, 2000; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). In addition, for all students, “time spent in meaningful, contextually relevant word study facilitates students’ understanding of the subject discipline” (Hennings, 2000, p. 278).

Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary integrates word-study activities covering root words, prefixes, and suffixes into each lesson. Students participate in a deeper study of vocabulary words through the study of affixes and root words. Bloodgood and Pacifici (2004) summarize the benefits of word-study on student learning, “Word study can support students’ development as readers and writers and facilitate vocabulary, grammar, and spelling growth” (p. 250).

From Research to Application:⌘ In each student-book lesson, a Word Root instructional feature

is presented. Root Words, and Suffixes and Prefixes activities are offered on pages 99–100.

⌘ In the teacher guide, a discussion of root words, prefixes, and suffixes is provided on page 10 in the Vocabulary Teaching Strategy section. In each lesson, explicit instruction of target vocabulary cognates and word roots is offered. In selected lessons, vocabulary strategies focus on roots, prefixes, and suffixes.

“Teaching a word’s facets of meaning moves students beyond a narrow definition of a word.”

––Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002



The instructional objective of Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary is to teach social studies vocabulary using effective research-based strategies

that make the targeted vocabulary words and their related concepts accessible and memorable. Through repeated exposures to the vocabulary (NICHD, 2000), students participate in deep vocabulary study while engaged in Before Reading, During Reading, and After Reading activities. These activities include prior-knowledge activation, cooperative group work, as well as listening, speaking, reading, and writing experiences. Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary is designed to meet the educational needs of ELL students and struggling students as they encounter the demanding language of social studies.

Summary



Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary

This Series Uses . . . Example Research Says . . .

Audio CDStudents receive modeled reading of selections to aid in comprehension. Students hear correct pronunciations and typical English language inflections.

Audio CD “When English language learners can simultaneously hear and read content-related information . . . it helps them decipher the text structures commonly found in textbooks” (Rubinstein-Ávila, 2006).

Collaborative LearningStudents work together in pairs or small groups to attain individual goals.

TG: In each lesson, Before Reading and After Reading activities

“Students interacting verbally with other native speakers of English pick up vocabulary and content knowledge” (Association of American Publishers, 2004).

“Research and common sense . . . confirm that interacting with other people about what we are learning deepens the understanding of everyone involved—particularly when we are learning new terms” (Marzano & Pickering, 2005).

Connections for Word MeaningStudents make personal connections to new information through prior-knowledge activation, via pictures, personal experiences, and word knowledge.

SB: Pgs. 94–98, My Social Studies Dictionary; In each lesson, multiple illustrations and graphics

TG: In each lesson, Before Reading activity through target word introduction and cognate instruction

“Learning academic terms involves making connections with things familiar to us, and these things commonly arise from experiences native to our culture” (Marzano & Pickering, 2005).

“All new information needs to be linked to students’ relevant prior knowledge . . . students need to make their own linkages between their prior knowledge and the topic being studied” (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994).

Considerate TextText that is presented in a reader-friendly format. The reader-friendly format is visible through clear text structures, short sentence length, and clear headings.

SB: Throughout each book

TG: Pg. 4, a discussion of considerate text

“Certain features of text make it more ‘considerate,’ or easier to read and understand. The features should have clear concepts, consistent text structure, references that are easy to locate, and vocabulary that is precise and relates clearly to the subject. . . . A considerate text makes comprehension easier” (Dyck & Pemberton, 2002).

“Considerate texts create interest and facilitate learning. They do so by being informationally rich and well-organized” (Schraw, Flowerday, & Lehman, 2001).

Differentiated InstructionAn instructional approach that allows students of varying abilities to learn the same content.

SB: In each lesson, Activities A–D progress in difficulty

TG: Listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities (Students work on the same content, but through different multisensory experiences); Activities A–D, Extensions; Pgs. 9–11, Vocabulary Teaching Strategies

“Because children differ, no single text nor any single task can be appropriate for all children in a classroom . . .” (Allington, 2005).

“Students do not learn effectively when tasks are too simple or too complex for their particular readiness levels. Rather, say these researchers, tasks must be moderately challenging for the individual for growth to occur” (Tomlinson, 2004).

Appendix: Quick-Reference Chart of Research-Based Strategies and Features in Passwords: Social Studies Vocabulary





Direct Instruction within ContextWords are introduced through definitions and through thematically-related reading selections.

SB: In each lesson, the reading selections and Activities A–D

“The teaching of individual words is most effective when learners are given both definitional and contextual information, when learners actively process the new word meanings, and when they experience multiple encounters with words” (Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2002).

ELL FocusEnglish-language learners are becoming a larger part of today’s classrooms. These students need extra support and scaffolding while learning academic vocabulary.

SB: In each lesson, Activities A–D are leveled.

TG: Pgs. 9–11, Vocabulary Teaching Strategies, including cognate instruction, word-root instruction, and listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities.

Audio CD

Educational surveys reveal that ELL students make up 22% of mainstream classrooms. According to the U.S. Department of Education, nearly 1 in 12 students receive special assistance to learn English.

“Teachers and administrators were expressing concern that ESL students who apparently could speak and understand English fairly well were nevertheless encountering serious difficulties in content classrooms where they were expected to use English as a tool for learning” (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994).

Graphic OrganizersGraphic organizers are visual representations of a word’s meaning and/or a text’s organization of ideas and concepts.

TG: In each lesson, Before Reading and After Reading activities, including the WRITE! activity; Pgs. 76–81, Graphic organizer reproducible pages

“Students with very limited English proficiency show their understanding in a variety of ways. ELL students can demonstrate their knowledge through visual representations” (Crowther, 2006).

Illustrations and GraphicsClear and explicit photographs, illustrations, and graphics help build understanding of a word’s meaning.

SB: Throughout each lesson; Illustrated Glossary

“Giving an ESL student a nonlinguistic representation will provide a way for them to understand the meaning of the term that is not dependent on an understanding of English” (Marzano & Pickering, 2005).

“Pictures and other graphic aids provide additional sources of meaning other than the definition of a word” (Crowther, 2006).

Listening/Speaking/Reading/Writing ExperiencesEach student has his or her own style of learning. Listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities provide students with several avenues to learn new information.

TG: In each lesson, Before, During, and After Reading activities

“Successful word learning is active. Students learn words by using them. Thinking, saying, and writing new words help us make new words our own” (Bromley, 2003).

Garcia (1999) recommended that teachers use “curriculum materials that are rich in opportunities for speaking, listening, reading, and writing in English.”





Multi-Step Lesson PlanA multi-step lesson plan allows for in-depth instruction of new words. Students receive multiple exposures to a word, rather than a single experience.

TG: Pg. 6, a discussion of Multi-Step Lesson Plan; Each TG lesson guides teachers through a multi-step lesson plan.

Marzano & Pickering (2005) explain that a six-step process to teaching targeted academic vocabulary achieves two goals: the first set of steps appropriately introduces and builds the initial meanings of new words. The second set of steps provides ample practice so that students will “shape and sharpen their understanding of the new terms.”

Parental EngagementParental engagement reinforces student learning in the classroom.

TG: Pgs. 84–98, Take-Home Activities for each lesson

“The evidence is consistent, positive, and convincing: families have a major influence on their children’s achievement in school and through life” (Henderson & Mapp, 2002).

Prior-knowledge ActivationPrior-knowledge activities stimulate students’ memories of past experiences in order for them to relate to new information or experiences.

SB: In each lesson, introductory paragraph

TG: In each lesson, Before Reading activities; Pgs. 9–11, Vocabulary Teaching Strategy section

“Students who lack in academic background knowledge also lack in academic achievement. To be most effective, a teacher should be aware of each student’s level of background knowledge” (Marzano & Pickering, 2005).

“To facilitate communication of content knowledge, teachers can offer support in several ways: Plan adequate time to activate students’ prior knowledge and encourage students to share what they already know in journals, small groups, or paired brainstorming sessions” (Rolón, 2002/2003).

Read-Aloud StrategyTeachers model the correct pronunciation and inflection while reading aloud.

TG: In each lesson, During Reading activities

“Teacher read-alouds are perhaps the most consistent activity used by classroom teachers that provides frequent, if not daily, opportunities to enhance the literacy of ELLs by integrating effective vocabulary practices” (Hickman, Pollard-Durodola, & Vaughn, 2004).

SummarizingStudents work with a partner to review and share what they have learned from each lesson.

TG: In each lesson, After Reading activities

“Summarizing is a good method of integrating ideas and generalizing from the text information” (NICHD, 2000).

Total Physical Response StrategyTeachers use movement to help attach meaning to new words. For example, to illustrate the meaning of the word blockade, teachers may have a student stand up and block the doorway so that on one can exit or enter the room.

TG: Pg. 9, Vocabulary Teaching Strategies section; In selected lessons, During Reading activities

“Having children physically act out songs, poems, or readings—all forms of TPR methodology— is an effective way to support vocabulary development” (Drucker, 2003).

In a research synthesis, Slavin & Cheung (2005) state that teachers of English-language learners may use language development strategies, such as Total Physical Response, to help students internalize new information.

Vocabulary Teaching StrategiesUsing multiple strategies for teaching vocabulary is a highly effective method for teaching students of all abilities.

TG: Pgs. 9–11, Vocabulary Teaching Strategies section

“Effective instructional methods emphasized multimedia aspects of learning, richness of context in which words are to be learned, active student participation, and the number of exposures to words that learners will receive” (NICHD, 2000).





Word-Play ActivitiesWord games motivate student participation.

TG: Pgs. 10–11, Vocabulary Teaching Strategy section; Pgs. 84–98, Take-Home Activity pages; Word Definition Cards

Researchers (Marzano & Pickering, 2005; Paynter, Bodrova, & Doty, 2005) stress that wordplay builds strong connections to newly learned vocabulary.

“Activities using words in games, connecting words, and manipulating words creatively result in excellent student learning” (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002).

Word-Study ActivitiesWord-study activities that integrate prefixes, suffixes, roots, and cognates provide a deeper understanding of new words.

SB: In each lesson, Word Root feature; Pgs. 99–100, Root Words, Suffixes and Prefixes activities

TG: Pg. 10, Vocabulary Teaching Strategy section; In each lesson, target vocabulary cognates and word roots; In selected lessons, vocabulary strategies focus on roots, prefixes, and suffixes

Students may find learning English easier if there are similar roots, pre/suffixes between their first language and English. Hansen (2006) suggests exploring cognates in order to aid students in making connections between their first language and English.

“Teaching a word’s facets of meaning moves students beyond a narrow definition of a word” (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002).



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