summary of research articles (latest)

7/27/2019 SUMMARY of Research Articles (Latest)

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Cereal-based fermented foods and beverages

A. Blandinob, M.E. Al-Aseeria, S.S. Pandiellaa, D. Canterob, C. Webba

Summary:

Cereal grains constitute a major source of dietary nutrients all over the world.

Although cereals are deficient in some basiccomponents (e.g. essential aminoacids),

fermentation may be the most simple and economical way of improving their

nutritionalvalue, sensory properties, and functional qualities. This review focuses first

on some of the indigenous fermented foods and beveragesproduced world-wide that

have not received the scientific attention they deserve in the last decades. Products

produced fromdifferent cereal substrates (sometimes mixed with other pulses)

fermented by lactic acid bacteria, yeast and/or fungi are included.Finally, newly

developed cereal-based foods with enhanced health properties will also be

reviewed.Since the beginning of human civilisation there hasbeen an intimate

companionship between the humanbeing, his fare and the fermentative activities of

microorganisms.These fermentative activities have been utilized in the production of

fermented foods andbeverages, which are defined as those products that havebeen

subordinated to the effect of microorganisms orenzymes to cause desirable

biochemical changes. The microorganisms responsible for the fermentation maybe the

microflora indigenously present on the substrate,or they may be added as starter

cultures. Cereal grains are considered to be one of the mostimportant sources of

dietary proteins, carbohydrates,vitamins, minerals and fibre for people all over

theworld. However, the nutritional quality of cereals andthe sensorial properties of

their products are sometimesinferior or poor in comparison with milk and milk

products.The reasons behind this are the lower proteincontent, the deficiency of

certain essential amino acids(lysine), the low starch availability, the presence

ofdetermined antinutrients (phytic acid, tannins andpolyphenols) and the coarse

nature of the grains. A fermented, thick suspension made of a blend of

rice(Oryzasativum) and dehulled black gram (Phaseolusmungo) is used in several

traditional foods in SoutheastAsian countries. Among them, idli and dosa are

verypopular in India and Sri Lanka (Sands &Hankin,1974). Traditionally, for idli

preparation the rice andblack gram are soaked separately. After draining thewater,

rice and black gram are grinded independently,with occasional addition of water


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during the process.The rice is coarsely ground and the black gram is finelyground.

Then the rice and the black gram batters aremixed together (2:1ratio) with addition of

a little saltand allowing to ferment overnight at room temperature(about 30 _C).

Finally, the fermented batter is placed inspecial idli pans and steamed for 58 min

(Nagaraju&Manohar,2000). The lactic acid bacteria Leuconostocmesenteroides,

Streptococcus faecalis, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillusfermenti, Lactobacillus

lactis and Pediococcuscerevisiae have been found to be responsible for the

fermentationprocess, although L. mesenteroides and S.faecalis are considered to be

the microorganism essentialfor leavening of the batter and for acid productionin idli

(Purushothaman, Dhanapal, &Rangaswami,1993; Ramakrishnan, 1993). The yeasts

Geotrichumcandidum, Torulopsisholmii, Torulopsis candida

andTrichosporonpullulans have also been identified in idlifermentation

(Chavan&Kadam, 1989; Shortt, 1998).Fermentation of idli batter appears to have a

significanteffect on the increase of all essential amino acids and inthe reduction of

antinutrients (such as phytic acid),enzyme inhibitors and flatus sugars (Steinkraus et

al.,1993). Idli is a low calorie, starchy and nutritious food,which is consumed as

breakfast or snack. Steamed idlicontains about 3.4% protein, 20.3% carbohydrate

and70% moisture (Teniola&Odunfa, 2001). Large-scaleproduction of idli is carried out

in batch compartmentalsteaming units. This is labour intensive and has

limitedcapacity. With the growing demands for breakfastfoods, idlis are being

consumed on a large scale in someIndian institutions such as army, railways,

industrialcanteens, etc. In order to meet the demand, numerousstudies are carried out

for the development of continuousunits for the production of idli. Despite of the

conventional foods and beverages largelyproduced from cereals in the Western

world(breads, pastas and beers), there is a wide variety ofproducts produced

worldwide that have not received thescientific attention they deserve. These products

areoften fermented, and have an improved self-life andnutritional properties in

comparison with the rawmaterials used. The flora responsible for the fermentationis in

many cases indigenous and includes strains oflactic acid bacteria, yeast and fungi.

Singles of mixedcereals sometimes mixed with other pulses are used, andthe final

texture of the product can vary according tothe processing and fermentation

conditions. Similarfermentation procedures have been used nowadays todevelop new

foods with enhanced health properties,which is a trend likely to continue in the future.


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sweet, slightly sharp to slightly sour, non-alcoholic beverageconsumed daily in

Bulgaria, Albania, Turkey, and

Romania. It is made from wheat, rye, millet, maise andother cereals mixed with sugar

or saccharine (Hancioglu&Karapinar, 1997). Due to its pleasant taste, flavour,and

high nutritional values, boza has become a verypopular beverage consumed as

everyday food by peopleof all ages. Microflora identification of Bulgarian bozashows

that it mainly consists of yeasts and lactic acidbacteria, though the lactic acid bacteria

are always predominantin the microbial association with an averageLAB/yeasts ratio

equal to 2.4 (Gotcheva, Pandiella,ngelov, Roshkova, & Webb, 2000). The lactic

acidbacteria isolated has been identified as Lactobacillusplantarum, Lb. acidophilus,

Lb. fermentum, Lb. coprophilus,Leuconostocraffinolactis, Ln. mesenteroides andLn.

brevis. The yeasts isolated comprise Saccharomycescerevisiae, Candida tropicalis, C.

glabrata, Geotrichumpenicillatum and G. candidum (Gotcheva et al., 2000).For the

industrial production of boza, the grains arewashed and cooked in an autoclave for

about 2 h at 45atmospheres. Between 3 and 1vo lumes of water areused per volume

of grains, and during the cooking processthe mixture turns into a mash. Afterwards,

themash is gradually mixed with cold water at a ratio of 1:1volume parts. The mash is

percolated and then storedat 4C. A significant increase in glucose content isobserved

during the fermentation, while the pH, viscosity,free amino nitrogen content and dry

matterdecreases. Sugar or saccharine is added before bottling.Boza is acceptable for

consumption at every stage ofthe fermentation until pH drops to about 3.5. Despite of

the antimicrobial effects of the lactic acidbacteria from cereal-based fermented foods,

the use ofthese microorganisms and their fermented products forthe production of

new probiotic foods is also a newtred. The term probiotic refers to a product

containingmono or mixed cultures of live microorganisms,which when ingested will

improve the health status and/or affect beneficially the host by improving its

microbialbalance (Salovaara, 1996). Most of the probioticsstrains are isolated from

human gut and belong to thegroup of lactic acid bacteria, of which

Lactobacillusspecies are the most important (Table 4).There are some new cereal-

based fermented foodsthat are considered as probiotic products (e.g. yosa;Wood,

1997). Other traditional cereal-based fermentedfoods has been modified to aid the

control of some diseases.An improved ogi named Dogik has been developedusing a

lactic acid starter with antimicrobialactivities against some diarrhoeagenic bacteria.


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provided seed funding, technical support and resourcesto facilitate the voluntary

adoption of the Guidelines inpublicly funded recreation facilities. At both the

provincialand local level there was recognition that interactionwith the snack and

beverage industry stakeholders was akey element of transition success since those

that manufacture,supply and distribute food and beverage productsplayed a key role

in defining the choice of products servedthrough vending machines, concessions and

programs [17].Acknowledging this, industry members were invited tocontribute to the

development of the planning toolkit forfacilities participating in the HFBS initiative

and a sectionon the initiative web page was dedicated specifically forindustry [18]. As

the initiative progressed, it became evidentthat there was a critical need for those

involved inimplementation to talk with industry partners, particularlyvendors, to

better understand their perspectives and thecontext in which they were operating.

Therefore the purposeof this study was to explore industry perspectiveson the

transition to healthier food and beverage sales inpublicly funded facilities. Specifically,

we wanted to knowmore about their: (a) awareness and use of the provincial(state

level) Guidelines and implementation supports; challenges encountered in the

transition to healthier products;and thoughts on future trends and opportunitiesin

the snack and beverage business.

Despite of the antimicrobial effects of the lactic acidbacteria from cereal-based

fermented foods, the use ofthese microorganisms and their fermented products forthe

production of new probiotic foods is also a newtred. The term probiotic refers to a

product containingmono or mixed cultures of live microorganisms,which when

ingested will improve the health status and/or affect beneficially the host by improving

its microbialbalance (Salovaara, 1996). Most of the probioticsstrains are isolated from

human gut and belong to thegroup of lactic acid bacteria, of which

Lactobacillusspecies are the most important. There are some new cereal-based

fermented foodsthat are considered as probiotic products (e.g. yosa;Wood, 1997).

Other traditional cereal-based fermentedfoods has been modified to aid the control of

some diseases.An improved ogi named Dogik has been developedusing a lactic acid

starter with antimicrobialactivities against some diarrhoeagenic bacteria.


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Contracting out food and beverage operations in hotels: Acomparative study of practice in north America and the United

KingdomGary Hallam and Tom Baum

School of Business, The University of Buckingham, Hunter St, Buckingham

MK18 lEG, UK

Summary:This paper addresses one of the most significant changes that is taking place

withrespect to the food and beverage area in hotels, that of contracting out operations

toexternal operators, whether individual restaurateurs or branded restaurant

chainnames. This development is widely regretted by many traditionalists but

represents areality in north America and, increasingly, in the United Kingdom as well.

This paperconsiders the current situation in north America and the UK and reports

the findings ofa survey of individual hoteliers and corporate interests in both localities.

The surveysought information on current attitudes to contracting out within the hotel

industry andmixed responses are reported here. What can be reported with some

confidence is thatthis practice will continue to grow in both locations.

Hotels around the world are rethinking the ways they operate and deliver their food

andbeverage. From limited service budget hotels to the luxury full service five star

hotels,increasingly establishments are looking to outside operators or proven franchise

conceptsto enhance customers' perceptions and to help increase profitability. The

hotel industry isre-evaluating its relationship with in-house food and beverage

operations. As a result,some hotel companies no longer consider food and beverage a

necessary amenity to beprovided in the traditional sense. However, whether provided

by hotel management orleased out to another operator, food and beverage is crucial to

image, and thereforeremains closely linked to success (Brennan, 1987).

Many hotels engage in some form of contracting out activities, such as their

laundryfacilities or pastry production. However, there are wide differences between the

policieswhich hotel groups adopt towards distancing. In general, the approach has

been tocontract out peripheral rather than core activities. These distancing strategies

that involvecontracting out operations, shift the burden of risk and uncertainty

elsewhere (Guerrierand Lockwood, 1989). Until recently, food and beverage had been

considered a centralactivity of most hotels and thus not within the scope of

contracting out.


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There are many reasons why hotels contract out portions or all of their food

andbeverage operations. These reasons vary with size, location, market level and

ownershipof each individual hotel. Bjorn Hanson, chairman of Coopers & Lybrand's

hospitalityconsulting group, argues "today's increased need to maximize cash flow is

sure to focusmore attention on increasing the F&B profit". Hanson says that this focus

on the bottomline is leading hotels to lease their food and beverage to entrepreneurial

operators, whilehotels with multiple food and beverage units are simply closing one or

more down(Wexler, 1993).With guest's expectations on the rise, operators in hotel food

& beverage departmentsincreasingly find themselves facing two choices to improve

value; lower prices orupgrading of service and quality. What most say is that they can

no longer afford to cut costs to enhance their profitability. Sean Handerhan, director of

F&B marketing forMarriott argues that the company's initiative had shifted from cost-

cutting to driving sales.And that means reinvesting in it's food and beverage

operations (Chaudhry, 1993).Hotel restaurants also are at a financial disadvantage in

relation to independentrestaurants. According to a 1992 study by Coopers & Lybrand,

payroll and benefits madeup almost 39% of sales for hotel restaurants, compared with

about 33% for the averagerestaurant (Chaudhry, 1993).

Tom Lattin, director of Coopers and Lybrand's national hospitality industry

consultingservices group notes the problem of trying to wear multiple hats. "Most hotel

managersmanage the food and beverage service in the traditional hotel style, which

means offering meals a day. But that's not their business, it's hotels". Lattin said

operating food andbeverage requires more accounting staff, more time from sales staff,

more administrationstaff, more payroll taxes, and higher maintenance costs (Rowe,

1993).Some of the main reasons for inviting outside restaurateurs to help with the

food andbeverage operation is to provide a hotel with a specialty restaurant, to give the

feeling thatthe guest is going out to a local bistro or trattoria: Secondly, the hotel may

be small, andwithout management capability to handle food and beverage. Finally the

hotel may justrequire a proven franchise concept to help boost sales (Wexler, 1993).

Goldman and Eyster (1992) also identified some of the advantages and disadvantages

oflease agreements, necessary success factors and implications for the future that

would helpimprove further agreements for both parties. Table 1 shows some of these

reportedadvantages and disadvantages from a restaurateur's perspective.


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In the UK, there are a few hotels which currently contract out their food and

beverageoperations, but an increasing number are moving in this direction. The

Grosvenor HouseHotel in London, has leased their fine dining restaurant to Michelin

star chef NicoLadenisfor 5 years. It is fullyindependent of the Forte hotel, but provides

guests with a local highprofilechef within their hotel. The move has added about 1

million a year to therestaurant's takings (Young, 1993). However, some tensions have

shown. Since May,1993, the menu at Nico at Ninety has sported a disclaimer on a fly

sheet which says "Nico atNinety is conducted by Chez Nico Restaurants Ltd as

leasehold tenants of this portion ofthe Grosvenor House Hotel, and is not part of the

Forte plc organization for the purpose ofmanagement or otherwise".

This study was undertaken in order to find out why hotels are contracting out portions

orall of their food and beverage operations to outside contractors and restaurateurs.

Thestudy compares the trends and reasons from North America with those in the

UnitedKingdom. The methodology used to collect primary information was a

questionnairesurvey of individual hotels and corporate hotel companies in the UK and

north America.In addition, interviews were conducted in the UK and in Ontario,

Canada with a widevariety of industry professionals in order to include a qualitative

dimension to the study.This part of the paper is, substantively, based upon qualitative

data collected through theinterviewsThe study looked at both internal and external

factors that may cause hotels to contract outportions or all of their food and beverage

operations.The first internal concern raised was that there are not enough well trained

food andbeverage managers to operate successful in-house operations. The majority of

respondentsdisagreed with this statement and identified the problem was elsewhere.

Asrespondents in both the UK and north America indicated, hotels have not been

preparedto hire the correct people. Managers need incentives and the feeling of

ownership in orderto be successful. Sheraton Hotels, for example, have restructured

their food and beveragemanagement areas in order to meet the needs described above.

They have eliminatedmany layers of management so that restaurant managers now

report directly to the hotelGeneral Manager. They are also developing a profit sharing

plan (Chaudhry, 1993).Hotels need to restructure their management incentive

programmes, and empowertheir food and beverage managers so they have a feeling of


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ownership in order to havesuccessful operations. This issue is not a very strong

reason for a hotel to contract outportions or all of its food and beverage operation.

In the USA and north America in general, leased food and beverage outlets have

beenoperated for a considerable period of time. However, it would be harsh to suggest

that thehotel industry as a whole is abandoning food service. In the budget and

economy sector,the customer is looking for, and is willing to pay for, an inexpensive

yet decent room, not afine dining experience. A fast food restaurant in the property,

sharing the same location,adjacent to the hotel, or in close proximity to the hotel is

usually sufficient to satisfy thecustomer.Days Inn first experimented with opening two

Wendy's in the 1980's. The benefit toDays Inn was the presence of a brand name

foodservices company rather than theirprevious generic dining concept. According to

Michael Leven, then president of Days Inn,the restaurant in one of the Atlanta hotels

grossed approximately $550,000 prior to itsconversion to a Wendy's. In 1987, the

restaurant registered approximately $900,000 insales, with an average check of just

$1 to $2 lower than preconversion.In 1985 McDonald's, Burger King and Wendy's

approached La Quinta Motor Innsabout developing their restaurants alongside the

hotels (Romeo, 1985). Since then manyother hotel and restaurant companies have

followed. Currently, at least 50% of Choicehotels that have F&B operations leased to

outside operators, even though it is onlyrecommended, not mandated by headquarters

(Biagini, 1993). Burger King is now takingthings one step further. The chain is

negotiating with lodging groups that want to retrofittheir limited service hotels with

BK's scaled down kiosk concept. "We'll either bolt in ontotheir building or put it right

inside the hotel", said Barry Conrad, president of BK'sfranchise division. The prime

candidate for a kiosk said Conrad, is a roadside economymotel lacking a restaurant of

any sort. Currently, some 4000-4500 U.S. properties fit thatdescription. BK plans to

let the licensees run the kiosks, but Conrad said "who operates itis incidental, we'll

have situations where a local franchisee operates it, where the hoteloperates it as a

franchise, or where we operate it".Hospitality Franchise Systems and McDonald's Corp

were reported to be close tostriking a strategic alliance that would bring delivery

service of McDonald's products toHFS brand hotels.


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Traditional fermented foods and beverages in BurundiNzigamasaboAloys, Nimpagaritse Angeline

Summary:Several traditional fermented foods and beverages are produced at the household level

in Burundi. Theseinclude milk products (urubu, amateregua and amavuta), cereal and

banana-based beverages (Urwarwa,Isongo, Impeke and Kanyanga) and cassava-based

fermented foods (Ikivunde, Inyange, Imikembe and Ubswage).Literature on Burundian

fermented foods and beverages is non-existent. Therefore, the objective ofthis review is

to document the methods by which these Burundian foods and beverages are

produced andto devise scientific means to improve their quality and optimize their

production methods.

Several traditional fermented foods are produced at the householdlevel in Burundi.

The presence of unspecified microorganismscomplicates the control of fermentation

process and gives productsof variable quality. The microbiology and the biochemistry

of thesetraditionally fermented foods need to be fully understood beforethe

predominant microorganisms in these fermentations are isolated,identified, character

sized and used in the development ofstarter cultures. These together with improved

processing andthe use of good quality raw materials for fermentations could beused in

the establishment of a small-scale industry of fermentedfoods. Further research

should be directed towards identifyingthe benefits and risks associated with

fermenting and possible contaminatingmicroorganisms.

Most of the traditional alcoholic beverages (Impeke and Urwarwa)can be distilled to

yield a more concentrated (in terms of alcoholcontent) and a relatively pure beverage

called Kanyanga. Toproduce Kanyanga, the brew is placed in drums, which are

thentightly closed and put on a fire in one room. A coiled copper tubeleading from the

drums to another room is placed in cold waterand the distillate is collected in a bottle.

The concentration ofKanyanga is higher (no study has been done yet); those who

drinkit get easily drunk. It is usually drunk by lower income individualswho cannot

afford expensive beer produced in Burundi. No localdistillers exist in Burundi and its

production, selling and consumptionis illegal because the spirit is alleged to be toxic

as its drinkinghas been associated with ill health and cases of sudden death.

Toxicityis attributed to several alcohols such as isoamyl alcohol, isobutanoland


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methanol. The process of producing Kanyanga issimilar to that of making

OugandanWaragi and comparable toZimbabwean Kachasu. Kachasu is usually

brewed using maizemeal but bulrush or finger millet meal, various fruits and

bananapeels may be used as alternative sources of carbohydrates. The

carbohydratesource is added to warm water in a pot with a holedrilled on the side,

which is used later during distillation of thespirit. The mixture is stirred into slurry

and allowed to simmerfor a few minutes before a pot is removed from the fire.

Sugarand yeasts are added after the slurry has been cooled to ambienttemperature.

The hole in pot is sealed with clay and mixture allowedto ferment for 47 days at

ambient temperature (Brett, Nyampingidza,&Gurira, 1992). At the end of fermentation,

the seal onthe hole is broken and a narrow pipe connected. The pipe transversesa

water-jacket containing cold water, which acts as a condenser.The fermented brew is

distilled over a small fire and theclear distillate is collected from the end of the pipes

into bottles.The alcohol content of Kachasu can range from 9% to 41%. The sellingand

consumption of Kachasu in Zimbabwe has been illegalsince 1971 because the spirit is

alleged to be toxic as its drinkinghas been associated with ill health and death.

(Gadaga, Mutukumira,Narvhus, & Feresu,1999). Contrary to Kanyanga and

Kachasu,Waragi has been industrialized. Small brewers sell their

traditionallyproduced Waragi to large distillery. The distillery then distils itto produce

a high quality bottled commercial product with up to40% (Mwesigye&Okurut, 1995). A

similar scheme could be introducedto upgrade and control the quality of Kanyanga

and to producea safer and regulated distilled spirit.

Cassava roots are peeled, washed, cut into pieces and sun-driedfor one day. They are

then heaped together and covered by plantainleaves or straw and left to ferment for 5

days. The end of the fermentationis marked by the appearance of moulds on the

surface of cassavapieces and the softness of the root. An appealing flavor isdeveloped

during fermentation. The fermented pieces are sun-driedafter scrapping off the mould

after which, the cassava pieces arepounded in a wooden mortar with a pestle and

sieved to get slightlydark colored flour called INYANGE. The production is

summarizedin Fig. 4. This cassava product is made into a paste (ubugali) by stirring

it with boiling water over a low heat. It is eaten with legumes,isombe and meats.

Moulds involved in fermentation are responsiblefor the color and the flavor of the flour


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(Hahn, 1989; Musuku, 1995;Nzigamasabo A., 2007; Rwamudanga, 1988). They

include Aspergillusoryzae, Aspergillusfumigatus, Penicilliumcitrinum,

Penicilliumchrysogenum, Rhizopusstolonifer and Mucor spp. Yeast

Geotrichumcandidum has been identified during the first hours of Inyange

fermentation.Since some identified fungi are of public health concernin regards to

mycotoxins production, this metabolite need to be analyzedbefore and after scrapping

off moulds as well as in Inyangeflour. By this way, public health may be protected.

Processing cassavaroots into Inyange had been found to be nutritionally higherthan

IKIVUNDE but it retains higher anti-nutrients (cyanide andphytic acid).Inyange is

comparable to OugandanMokopa. In mokopa processing,the peeled and sliced cassava

roots are first surface-driedfor 12 h and then heaped together, covered with straw or

leavesand left to ferment in air for 34 days until the pieces becomemouldy. The

fermented mouldy pieces are sun-dried after themould has been scraped off. The

processed and dried pieces arethen milled into flour, which is prepared into a fufu

calledkowan in Uganda. The growth of mould on the root pieces increasesthe protein

content of the final products three to eighttimes. This fermentationmethod is also very

popular in other parts of East Africa suchas Tanzania, Rwanda, and Zaire (Hahn,

1989).

Some processing steps are similar to INYANGE: cassava rootsare peeled, washed, cut

into pieces and soaked in an earthenwarevessel for 5 days until they become soft or

abundant froth appearsat the surface of water vessel. The fermented roots are then

takenout and sun-dried on mats, racks, or roof houses. Drying takes 3days to 1 week

after which, the dried cassava pieces are thenpounded and sieved to yield white flour

called IKIVUNDE. Thisprocessing technique is generally done for bitter type cassava

and the detoxification is efficient. The Lactic Acid Bacteria,Lactobacillus plantarum,

Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus fermentumand Leuconostocmesenteroides have

been found to beresponsible for the fermentation process, although, L. plantarumwas

found to be the predominant microorganism during the fermentation(Nzigamasabo,

2007). The yeast Geotrichumcandidumhas also been identified in Ikivunde

fermentation. The fermentationhad been found to reduce its anti-nutrients (cyanide

and phyticacid) and its nutritive value (Nzigamasabo&Hui Ming,2006a,b). Ikivunde is

equivalent to Congolese (DRC) Cossettes.They are obtained by soaking or immersing


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fresh bitter cassavaroots (whole or peeled) in a stream or stationary water for at

leastthree days to allow them to ferment until they become soft. Thefermented roots

are then taken out, peeled and sun-dried. Dependingon the weather, sun-drying takes

25 days. The dried cassavaroots are called cossettes, which are pounded/milled to

yield fermentedcassava flour which is prepared into a paste called fufu. The cassava

are then poured in a trough and pounded while hotuntil a thick smooth paste is

obtained. The gelatinized cassavamass is then rounded, shaped and wrapped in

plantain leaves previouslyflamed. The shelf life of Ubuswage is 78 days dependingon

the weather; the life span is shorter in hot season.Ubuswage contain the least cyanide

but they require more laborfor processing and preparation than do other prepared

food fromcassava (Ruraduma et al., 1987; Rwamudanga, 1988). The productionof

Ubuswage is summarized in Fig. 5. Ubuswage is equivalentto Congolese Chikwange.

Myondo and Bobolo in Cameroon,Mboung in Gabon, Mangbele in Central African

Republic belongto this group. Similar products are consumed in Congo, Soudanand

Angola. Cassava roots are peeled, steeped in water and leftfor 35 days to ferment

until they become soft. Fibers are removed from the pulp, which is heaped on a rack

for further fermentationsor covered with leaves and pressed using heavy objects to

drain offexcess liquid. The pulp is then ground on a stone or pounded in amortar. The

fine pulp is wrapped in leaves of plantains or species belonging to the family

Zingiberaceae, tied firmly with fibers frombanana leaves and steamed in pots.

Chikwange is a very stiff paste,much stiffer than fufu. The size, shape and the texture

of thechickwange food vary among countries. They are produced underhygienic

conditions and contain the least cyanide compared with other fermented cassava

products.


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Capturing the Spectrum of Household Food andBeverage Purchasing Behavior: A Review

SIMONE A. FRENCH, PHD; SCOTT T. SHIMOTSU, MPH; MELANIE WALL, PHD; ANNE FARICYGERLACH, MPH

Summary:

The household setting may be the most important level atwhich to understand the

food choices of individuals andhow healthful food choices can be promoted.

However,there are few available measures of the food purchasebehaviors of

households and little consensus on the bestway to measure it. This review explores

the currentlyavailable measures of household food purchasing behavior.Three main

measures are described, evaluated, andcompared: home food inventories, food and

beverage purchaserecords and receipts, and Universal Product Codebar code

scanning. The development of coding, aggregation,and analytical methods for these

measures of householdfood purchasing behavior is described. Currently,annotated

receipts and records are the most comprehensive,detailed measure of household food

purchasing behavior,and are feasible for population-based samples.Universal Product

Code scanning is not recommendeddue to its cost and complexity. Research directions

toimprove household food purchasing behavior measuresare discussed.

The variability of household food and beverage purchasesis an important issue to

consider in reliably capturinghousehold food purchasing behaviors but little is

knownabout this area. Variability in household food and beveragepurchases occurs at

multiple levels. Variation withinand between households in the frequency with which

theyshop at the supermarket or grocery store, or other foodstores, and in the

frequency with which they purchasefood and beverages from restaurants, fast-food

places,and other types of stores that sell food will affect thenumber of weeks of food

purchase data needed to estimatefoods or food groups. Households vary in the types

offoods they purchase, at the item level (eg, potato chips),and at the category level (eg,

prepackaged snack foods).The number of days or weeks needed to provide foodandbeverage purchase estimates may vary depending on thetarget food or beverage

item.A comparison with dietary recall estimates is instructive.The number of days of

dietary recalls needed toestimate an individuals total energy intake is muchfewer than

that needed to estimate intake of specific foodsor specific nutrients, because total

energy intake is lessvariable than intake of any specific food (37-41). Eachlevel of


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variability needs to be understood to better determinethe number of days or weeks of

data needed toprovide reliable estimates of the home food purchases.

Articles were located using a computerized search of thedatabases MedLine,

PsychInfo, and ISI Web of Sciencefrom 1990 to 2007. Key words included home, food,

UPC,barcode, food purchase, scanners, household food, receipts,tills, shelf inventory,

pantry, register tapes, andfood inventory. In addition, reference lists from key

publishedarticles were reviewed for relevant articles. Inclusioncriteria for this review

were that the research had toinclude a measure of foods and beverages currently

availablein the home or purchased. The measure could be anon-site observation by

trained research staff or by thehousehold participant, or it could be a self-report by

thehousehold participant to the research staff. Food sourcescould be grocery stores,

other food stores, restaurants andother eating out food sources.

Home Food Inventories (HFIs)HFIs have been used to describe the cross-sectional

availabilityof certain foods and beverages in the home environmentat a single point in

time and are completedeither by the participant or by a trained research staffperson.

Inventory studies have either attempted to captureall of the foods in the home, or else

have focused oncertain subsets of food types (eg, fruits and vegetables orhigh-fat

foods). Seven studies (six American, one Italian)were located that used HFIs (see the

Table). To captureall of the foods and beverages in the home environment,Crockett (13)

developed an 80-item shelf inventory aspart of an evaluation of a community-based

nutritionintervention. The HFI was mailed to a random sample of50 households

recruited from a telephone directory.Foods were checked as present or absent in the

household.Quantities were not recorded. Eating out foods wasnot measured. A

research staff person visited the home tocomplete a second HFI within 3 hours of the

participantscompletion of the HFI. Using the researcher-completedHFI, sensitivity and

specificity of the foods at the itemlevel were calculated (26) and found to be high

whencomparing the household and researcher completed inventories(0.86 and 0.92,

respectively).A similar study examined the validity of an HFI amongolder adults with

type 2 diabetes (15). The HFI includedall food and beverage items in the household.

Eating outfoods was not measured. Food items were coded aspresent or absent, and

no quantitative information wascollected.

Alarge proportion of individual daily food choice occursin household food

environments, and caninclude foods purchased at grocery stores,


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supermarkets,restaurants, fast-food places, coffee shops, conveniencestores, and

department stores. Household foodpurchasing behavior is important to measure

because itcontributes to understanding potential important influenceson individual

energy intake and dietary quality,and possibly excess weight gain and obesity (3-6).

Householdfood purchasing behavior is an intermediate level ofinfluence between the

neighborhood retail food environmentand individual dietary intake. It may exert

directeffects on individual intake through food exposure andavailability (3-8), and

indirect effects through its role as amediator of the neighborhood retail food

environment(4-8). Community, household, and individual level influencesand

interventions can be better understood ifhousehold food purchasing behavior can be

described andmeasured with fidelity.

To reflect this broader conceptualization, we use theterm household food purchasing

behavior. Householdfood purchasing behavior refers to all foods and

beveragespurchased by a household from all sources, includinggrocery stores,

restaurants, convenience stores, coffeeshops, and department stores. One reason for

this moreinclusive definition of household food purchasing behavioris the household

shift from purchasing foods fromgrocery stores and eating home-prepared meals to

purchasingprepared foods from full-service and fast-foodrestaurants, coffee shops,

and other stores. This has beena major trend in the United States during the past

2decades (1,2,9,10). In 2000, almost half of US householdfood dollars were spent at

eating out food sources (11). Itis estimated that by 2010, 53% of US household

fooddollars will be spent at eating out food sources (11). About57% of US adults eat

away from home on any given day. Food eaten away from home comprises about 25%

ormore of daily energy intake.Household food environments have been measured

inprevious research using home food inventories, food purchaserecords, grocery store

receipts, and bar code scanners(12-24). Despite the important role that eating

outplays in individual-level food choices and dietary quality,no household-level

measure is available to determine theproportion of home food purchases or to gather

informationabout the types of foods and beverages purchasedfrom eating-out sources.

Quantitative informationabout the amounts of food and beverages purchasedhas not

been captured by current home food inventoriesor receipt measures. Purchasing

patterns (ie, food sourcesand types) and variability over time for purchases of keyfood

categories have not been captured with previousmeasures. These are important


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dimensions to measure sothat the patterns and sources of food and beverage

purchasingthat relate to individual dietary quality and bodymass index can be

identified, quantified, and measuredreliably and validly. Thus, although household

food purchasingbehavior is a key concept to understand individualfood choices, very

little research has been done todevelop reliable and valid measures of household

foodpurchasing behavior.

The author of this research paper reviewed the currently available measures of

household food purchasing behavior, including home and eating out food sources. We

included studies that measured only food availability or food purchases, studiesthat

attempted to validate home food availability or purchases, and studies that examined

associations between food purchases and individual dietary intake. Measurement

issues, strengths, and limitations of each measure, and research recommendations

are discussed following the review of the different types of household food purchasing

behavior measures. Our review has minimal overlap with a recently published review

of home food inventories and self-report checklists to assess food availability in the

home (12). That review included only home food inventories, and did not include

receipts and scanning studies. It also includedmeasures of the perceived home food

environment. We did not include studies of the perceived home food environment or

studies that refer to indefinite time periods, usual availability, or perceived frequency

of availability. Eighteen studies were included in the review and are summarized in it.

Articles were located using a computerized search of the databases MedLine,

PsychInfo, and ISI Web of Science from 1990 to 2007. Key words included home, food,

UPC, barcode, food purchase, scanners, household food, receipts, tills, shelf inventory,

pantry, register tapes, and food inventory. In addition, reference lists from key

published articles were reviewed for relevant articles. Inclusion criteria for this review

were that the research had to include a measure of foods and beverages currently

available in the home or purchased. The measure could be an on-site observation by

trained research staff or by the household participant, or it could be a self-report by

the household participant to the research staff. Food sources could be grocery stores,

other food stores, restaurants and other eating out food sources.


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Traditional biotechnology for new foods and beveragesJeroenHugenholtz

Summary:The food and beverage industry is re-discovering fermentation as a crucial step in

product innovation. Fermentation can provide various benefits such as unique flavor,

health and nutrition, texture and safety (shelf life), while maintaining a 100% natural

label. In this review several examples are presented on how fermentation is used to

replace, modify or improve current, artificially produced, foods and beverages and how

also fermentation can be used for completely novel consumer products.

The process of fermentation was traditionally leveraged by the human population to

increase the shelf life of perishable agricultural produce such as milk, vegetables and

meat. This has resulted in a vast variety of fermented foods and beverages that is still

the main part of the human diet in many under-developed countries and in most

countries in South-East Asia. In North America and Europe which have extremely

efficient and rapid distri- bution systems and an overall availability of cooling and

freezing systems, most of the traditional fermented products, with the exception of

fermented dairy (yoghurt and cheese) and meat (sausages) have been replaced by fresh

agricultural produce, making the process of fermentation obsolete.

With the use of novel genomic technologies more detailed insight has been given in

some traditional fermentations such as sourdough [34], kefir [1], kimchi [35,36], cacao[37 _], yoghurt [38] and sau- sage [39] fermentations. Also several lesser-known fer-

mented products have been characterized using these genomics tools [40,41 _]. It has

clarified for instance which microorganisms are most active in these fermentations

and how they are adapted to their specific environments. This type of experimental

data is crucial when considering to up-scale these processes or when applying these

microorganisms on other substrates. Such data will also be used to build

comprehensive models of each fermentation process with the ultimate goal to

accurately predict the outcome of (novel) fermentations. The struggles and challengesfaced by the modelers are discussed in another chapter of this special Food

Biotechnology issue [42]. However, some early successes of the Systems Biology

approach are also reported [43 _,44,45] providing possible solutions for process

improvement and also providing the essential insight for much more extensive use of

the fermentation technology in the food and beverage industry.


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This trend away from fermentation seems to have come to a recent stop and is now

gradually reversing. More and more people (and food companies) are regain- ing

interest in traditional and more natural foods and there is a growing dislike for the

processing and energy-input that is needed to maintain freshness of agricultural

crops. In addition, the food and beverage industry is continuously trying to innovate

within the constraints of sustainability and naturalness. All these recent devel-

opments are leading to increased interest and activity in fermentation technology by

all consumer goods indus-tries, big and small. This trend is not really visible in the

scientific literature and (not yet) in the patent literature, so some referencing will be

made to company-websites as support of statements made in this contribution.

Fermentation, nowadays, is all about bringing unique signature flavors and other

benefits to consumer products in a 100% natural way. This is done using, mainly, two

different approaches. The easiest is to turn a traditional, home-grown, product into a

large scale process. Examples are the dairy product, kefir which is a traditional liquid

fermented dairy product using a mixture of lactic acid bacteria, yeast and fungi for the

fermentation of milk, resulting in a yoghurt-like, slightly alcoholic product which has

traditionally been consumed by millions of people in, especially, Eastern Europe and

supposedly conveys spectacular health benefits to the consumer. The fermentation

process is, typically, conducted at home on, or close to, the stove and using small left-

overs of previously produced kefir or a small kefir granule purchased at the local

grocery store, as inoculum. Only recently, the larger dairy companies have managed to

upscale this process to an industrial scale using active and stable starter cultures just

as is the daily practice for mainstream dairy products such as yoghurt and cheese.

Another example is the traditional drink of Kvass which is a result of fermentation of

kitchen left-overs mainly consisting of bread bits. This fermented product is also

traditionally made at home with a final composition depending on the type of left-overs

used and the nature of the locally evolved microbial culture. This traditional beverage

is now also marketed by larger companies, also outside the originating country,

Russia. The main challenge of these companies is to prepare this family drink with a

constant quality and, especially, without alcohol. This is basically done by using

controlled fermentations with standardized starter cultures and similar fermentation

conditions (short, low temperature) as used for non-alcoholic beer production. Several


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more examples can be found of food and beverage companies launching new or

improved fermented products based on traditional biotechnology.

Fermentation can deliver many benefits to foods and beverages. Besides unique flavors

and textures as exemplified in traditional fermented products such as yoghurt, cheese,

soy sauce and kimchi, many novel benefits, especially with respect to health, can be

conveyed via fermentation technology. All this can be achieved via Effect of lactic acid

bacterial fermentation on fungal growth in pear juice. The pear juice fermentations

with Weillonella confuse strain Lactobacillus plantarum strain and Lactobacillus

plantarum strain were conducted at 308C for 48 hours before the, forced, fungal

infection was applied. A spontaneous fungal-infected pear juice was used for infection.

A non-fermented pear juice (d) was also infected with the same fungi, as a control

Subsequently, incubation was continued for 3 more days. The fermentation with

strain Lp16 shows clear anti-fungal protection. The three lactic acid bacteria were

selected from the study of Crowley et al.

With the use of novel genomic technologies more detailed insight has been given in

some traditional fermentations such as sourdough kefir kimchi cacao yoghurt and

sau- sage fermentations. Also several lesser-known fermented products have been

characterized using these genomics tools. It has clarified for instance which

microorganisms are most active in these fermentations and how they are adapted to

their specific environments. This type of experimental data is crucial when consideringto up-scale these processes or when applying these microorganisms on other

substrates. Such data will also be used to build comprehensive models of each

fermentation process with the ultimate goal to accurately predict the outcome of

(novel) fermentations. The struggles and challenges faced by the modelers are

discussed in another chapter of this special Food Biotechnology issue [42]. However,

some early successes of the Systems Biology approach are also reported [43 _,44,45]

providing possible solutions for process improvement and also providing the essential

insight for much more extensive use of the fermentation technology in the food and

beverage industry.

Over the past 10 years, the process of fermentation has become recognized as a

relative easy and one hundred percent natural technology to raise vitamin levels in

foods and beverages. Numerous examples, especially involving dairy applications, have


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been presented showing natural enrichment with riboflavin [4], folate [5], vitamin B12,

vitamin K2 [7] and sometimes several of these vitamins, simultaneously [8,9]. The

latest developments in this area are discussed in another chapter of this Special issue

. On the basis of the successful applications in dairy products [46], vitamin

enrichment in many other fermented food products should be possible. Using the high

folate-producing Lactobacillus plantarum strain described by Hugen- schmidt and

co-workers [11 _], many novel fermented consumer products seem possible since

many traditional fermented products involve the use of Lb. plantarum and this lactic

acid bacterium can be found on almost any agricultural crop including animal

produce. Vitamin for- tification has been described for a large number of traditional

fermented foods such as soy sauce [12], kimchi [13], and several others [14]. The work

by Santos and co- workers, just show that this process could also be used for novel

fermented consumer products, in this case fermented melon, where both the lactic

acid bacteria Lactobacillus reuteri and Lb. plantarum showed much higher folate pro-

duction on melon than on other natural substrates.

The developed world is facing a major threat in the overall health of its population. In

many countries, already more than half of the population is overweight and the

number is growing at an alarming rate. These overweight people do not just lack

discipline in that they eat too much and have too little exercise, but often have

reached a serious state of illness (obesity) that needs medical attention. Food andbeverage industries (are trying to) show their responsibility in these health issues and

are putting major R&D efforts in developing consumer products that lead to reduced

overall food and energy intake. One focus of this R&D is to reduce carbohydrate

calories in food and beverages. Fermenta- tion, almost by definition, will contribute to

calorie reduction by converting sugars into organic acids or ethanol, although the

maximum calorie reduction that can be reached in such fermentation processes

cannot be more than 25%, since organic acids contain 3 kcal/g versus 4 kcal/g for

sugar. Another approach of the food and beverage industry is to develop consumer

products or ingredients that lead to early satiation of the consumer. The satiation

factors can convey their activity at different moments in the sequence of eating and

digestion, from sensing the product before consumption, to physically bulking the

stomach or by release of signals at a later location in the digestive tract.


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Efficient or enjoyable? Consumer values of eating-out and fastfood restaurant consumption in Korea

Cheol ParkDepartment of Management Information Systems, Korea University, Jochiwon-Eup, Yongi-Gun,Chungnam

339-700, South Korea

Summary:The Korean fast food industry has grown rapidly since the 1988 Seoul Olympic

Games.There are now 1500 fast food restaurants in Korea. This study investigated the

relationshipsbetween consumer values of eating-out and the importance of fast food

restaurant attributes inKorea. Using a questionnaire, 279 fast food restaurant patrons

were surveyed. The resultsshowed that consumer values of eating-out divided into two

factors; hedonic and utilitarian.The hedonic value of eating-out had positive

correlation with mood, quick service, cleanliness,food taste, employee kindness, and

facilities, the utilitarian value centered on reasonable price,quick service, and

promotional incentives. Also, the hedonic value more influenced buyingfrequency than

the utilitarian. This study presents empirical evidence showing that Koreanconsumers

choose fast food restaurants more by hedonic, not utilitarian, values of eating-

out.Consequently, fast food restaurant marketers in Korea should consider hedonic

aspects as themost important factors in attracting customers. Limitations and further

research issues aresuggested.

Due to global travel, communication, and media, cultures are converging andtheglobalizing of markets has led to a common culture worldwide. The fast food

restaurant is one typical form of global business (Emerson, 1990). As Korea is

notexceptional in this stream, fast food industry is growing up rapidly in recent

years.The total market size of the foodservice industry is estimated to be about

$16.2billion with an annual growth rate of 13%. In Korea, the fast food industry

hasgrown rapidly since 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. There are currently 1500 fast

foodrestaurants throughout the country. Many Korean adolescents are

becomingincreasingly more westernized and workers pursue greater convenience when

eating.Presently, there are four major fast-food restaurants chains in Korea:

Lotteria,McDonalds, KFC and Poppeyes. Lotteria, the Korean brand, ranks the first

bymarket share despite fierce challenges by foreign fast food competitors.Why was the

fast food industry in Korea grown so growing rapidly, and why isLotteria domestically

the most successful? There are some unique cultural differencesin Korean fast food


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consumption. For example, Koreans tend to consider fast foodrestaurants as

representative of western culture. In addition, they are recognizedbeing not only an

efficient and economic eating environment but also as an exoticplace for social

interaction and entertainment. There are negative viewpoints as towhether or not the

global standardization of restaurant operations is fit for Korea.This study focuses on

the unique points related to the adoption and use of fast foodrestaurants in Korea.

Fast-food restaurants should develop customer-orientedmarketing strategies based on

culture-specific characteristics to survive in fiercecompetition. Therefore, a better

understanding of Korean fast food restaurantbehavior is necessary in developing

effective marketing strategies. However,consumer behavior in connection to fast food

has received only limited attentionor study within the hospitality and food services

studies More specially, culturalresearch on consumption of fast food restaurant is

virtually unavailable. This studywas undertaken to explore the relationship between

consumer values of eating-outand consumption of fast food restaurant in Korea. Some

unique findings will beidentified through this work. There are various motivations for

eating out; economizing, efficiency, fun, tasteand social interaction. Eating out gives

consumers experiential values. Therestaurant is a place where we experience

excitement, pleasure and a sense ofpersonal well being argues that consumers

areincreasingly coming to value efficiency, calculability, predictability and control,

due to changes in lifestyle, demographic factors and technology in

restaurantconsumption.Values represent important and desirable end goals. A general

view of valuesguided this research, recognizing both (1) a utilitarian outcome resulting

from theconscious pursuit of an intended consequence and (2) an outcome related

more tospontaneous hedonic responses. The former is called a utilitarianvalue and the

latter a hedonic value. Utilitarian consumer behavior has been described as task-

related and rational. The hedonic value ismore subjective and personal than its

utilitarian counterpart and results more fromfun and playfulness than from task

completion.

Factor analysis of consumer values of eating-outFactor analysis, using the principal

component method with a Varimax rotationof factors, was performed to identify

characteristics of consumer values of eatingout.Cronbachs alpha was used to assess

the reliability for each factor. Thefactor structure and reliability coefficients for each

factor are summarized inTable 1.The factor structure of consumer value of eating-out


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consisted of two aspects,hedonic and utilitarian values. The two-factor solution

explained 56.7% of thevariance in the correlation matrix. The eigenvalue of the

hedonic value factor was2.44, and for the utilitarian value factor was 1.54. The

reliability coefficient for thehedonic value factor with 4 measurement items was 0.733;

the utilitarian value factorwith 4 measurement items was 0.637.

Significant positive correlation was obtained between the hedonic value andattributes

importance of fast food restaurant except price in Korea. However, therewas

insignificant correlation between the utilitarian value and attributes importanceof fast

food restaurant except in terms of price, rapid service, and promotionalincentives.The

results suggest that the greater the hedonic value is in eating-out, the highermood,

quick service, cleanness, location, promotional incentives (e.g. coupons,discount price,

or events for customers), taste of food, variance of menu, employeekindness,reputation, and facilities importance of fast food restaurant will be. Thegreater the

utilitarian value of eating-out one has, the higher price, rapid service, andpromotional

incentives importance of fast food restaurant will be.

People eat out because of the benefit they derive from food and restaurants. Consumer

values of eating-out can be defined as value consumers derive from food, service, and

restaurants when eating-out. Consumers pursue these values to satisfy their hunger,

and need for convenience, pleasure, entertainment, social interaction, and the mood

transformation. Visiting a restaurant for its functional values-such as satisfying oneshunger, enjoying convenient food, or economical eatingis a goaldirected behavior; by

contrast, recreational and experiential visiting are hedonic orientations. Thus, the

utilitarian value of eating-out is defined as a value related to functional and

economical aspects of eating-out while the hedonic value represents consumer fun,

entertainment, absorbing, and novelty. Consumers are believed to view a service such

as a restaurant meal in terms of a set of attributes: (i.e. characteristics that make it

desirable), ascribing different levels of importance to each attribute. Consumers weigh

the overall value of an offering in terms of the degree to which each attribute is present

and the importance they see the attribute as having (attribute-value theory). When

consumers consider the convenience and price of an eating place, the utilitarian value

of eating-out plays an important role in restaurant evaluation and selection.

It is common that foods and beverages are studied jointly in research on influences of

context on consumer choice. Since foods and beverages are generally consumed


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together, this is not inappropriate. Yet, there is merit in studying food and beverage

choices separately if additional insight is gained by doing so. Some research on mainly

singular contextual influences on beverage choices exist and several studies have

focused on one single beverage (iced coffee in tea sugar-sweetened beverage and fruit

beverages. To our knowledge, there is a gap pertaining to the simultaneous analysis of

several food choice kaleidoscope mirrors for broader beverage consumption who

drinks what beverages, with what food, when and where? This work sets out to

contribute to a losing of this gap by describing beverage choices (e.g., water,

tea/coffee, soft drinks, beer, wine) and the contextual factors with which they are

typically associated (e.g., when, with which meals, with which meal items, where,

doing what, with whom). Beverage choice is of interest for several reasons. Hydration

status, which is linked to fluid consumption, is increasingly attracting attention, not

only in connection with physical/sports performance, but because it contributes

positively to general health status and well-being. Beverage choice can also have a

significant impact on nutritional status and caloric intake, for example, as an

important source of micro nutrients (e.g., Calcium in milk; Committee to Review

Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium, 2010) or contributing excess

calories. In seeking to understand how people manage their daily energy intake there

is also increasing focus on beverages and solid foods providing different levels of

satiety for the same caloric content and contextual influences may contribute to

choosing one product format over another. Beverage consumption is also of interest,

because it may interact with and influence food choice, which only received little

attention so far. Alcohol consumption, a defining characteristic of many social

gatherings, is attracting greater scrutiny because in excess amount s it has negative

personal and societal consequences. Information about what beverages are chosen by

whom, when and where can be helpful for manufacturers, dieticians/health care

providers, health policy makers, etc. The aim of this research was to apply the food

choice kaleidoscope framework to describe meal-centered beverage consumption and

variation in beverage choices associated with a range of product, place and person

factors.


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The essential balance: Risks and benefits in food safety and

quality

Barbara Burlingame_, Maya PineiroFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, VialedelleTerme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy

Summary:Food composition analysis is concerned with both beneficial and harmful food

components in the human diet: nutrients, bioactivenon-nutrients, anti-nutrients,

toxicants, contaminants and other potentially useful and dangerous elements. The

concept of food safety inthe past excluded elements of nutrition such as known risk

factors for certain chronic diseases and nutrients in the form of fortificantsand

supplements. Concerns about genetically modified foods, functional foods, high levels

of nutrient additives and nutritionalsupplements are now being taken into

consideration in the risk and safety activities of both the Food and Agriculture

Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Food safety generally refers to the content of various chemicaland microbiological

elements in food. More consumer awareness of food safety and quality issues, along

withgovernment and industryaction, is bringing about a more preventive, food chain

approachsometimes called from farm to tablein many countries, so as toimprove

traditional food safety systems. FAO has adopted this food-chain approach and defines

it as recognition that the responsibilityfor the supply of safe, healthy and nutritious

food is shared by all involved, from primary production to final preparation

andconsumption. Compositional changes (representing either risks or benefits) in food

can be introduced at every link. Althoughdevelopments may be largely beneficial, food

composition needs to be monitored to ensure that no harm results to consumers.

Finally,collaborative international efforts are needed in order to resolve issues of food-

quality and safety across boundaries in a global worldtrade context. A holistic food

chain approach would recognize that responsibility for supplying safe and nutritious

food lies with allthose involved in food production.

Food safety issues are causing more concern than ever, ifa glance at headlines over

the past few years is anyindication: mad cow disease,1 Escherichia coli

contaminationof green vegetables,2 dioxin in the food chain3 andongoing concerns

about mercury and pesticides in food. Inthe context of work carried out by United

Nations agenciesand international organizations, food safety is theassurance that


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food will not cause harm to the consumerwhen it is prepared and/or eaten according

to its intendeduse (Codex Alimentarius, FAO/WHO, 2001). Food composition

encompasses both the beneficial and theharmful components of food. In the first

editorialpublished in the Journal of Food Composition and Analysisin December 1987,

Kent Stewart (1987) wrote, Thehuman diet is a primary vehicle for our interaction

withthe environment. It is the major source of nutrients and canbe a significant

source of human exposure to infectious,toxic, and pharmacological agents. Food

quality and safety, and risks and benefits in food composition studieswere again

raised by Stewart in subsequent editorials. Indeed, the analysis of the compositionof

food is concerned not only withth e nutrients inthe human diet, but concomitantly

and significantlywithanti-nutrients, toxicants, contaminants and otherpotentially

dangerous elements. Other editorials in Journalof Food Composition and Analysis

have also underlinedthis direction: Food composition can and should beinclusive of

all intrinsic, deliberately added, and incidentalcomponents, including environmental

contaminants,additives, and bioactive non-nutrientsPreviously, the concept of food

safety excluded elementsof nutrition, suchfood components that are known riskfactors

for certain chronic diseases (FAO, 2005c), andnutrients in the form of additives,

functional foods andsupplements. More recently, requests have been made

atinternational forums to include these elements in risk andsafety activities

(FAO/WHO, 2006). The impetus has comefrom concerns about genetically modified

foods, functionalfoods, high levels of nutrient fortificants and nutrientsupplements.

Thus, as the global food supply evolves,certain aspects of food safety and nutrition are

seen moreas a continuum than as separate fields of activity. In arecent editorial,

wrote, Is dietaryanalysis different from an exposure or risk assessment? Notreally. Is

a food composition database different from anadditive, contaminant or toxicant

database? No, notfundamentally. Do we miss assessment opportunities inclinical and

epidemiological researchby not havingextensive compositional databeyond

nutrientsin ourfood databases? Surely we do.

Is a food composition database different from anadditive, contaminant or toxicant

database? No, notfundamentally. Do we miss assessment opportunities inclinical and

epidemiological researchby not havingextensive compositional databeyond

nutrientsin ourfood databases? Surely we do.


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The terms food quality and food safety mean different things to different people.

Quality has a vast number of meanings and can encompass parameters as diverse as

organoleptic characteristics, physical and functional properties, nutrient content and

consumer protection from fraud. Furthermore, it can cover political and social issues

suchas wages paid to farm workers, geographical issues such as controlled

appellations, and religious issues such as halal and kosher. Safety is more

straightforward, relating to the content of various chemical and microbiological

elements in food. Food quality and safety take on greater scope as the global food

supply evolves. Even the concept of a nutrient has changed in recent years. In the not-

so-distant past, a nutrient was simply defined as a substance that an organism must

obtain from its surroundings for growth and the sustenance of life. Now, many

components of foods such as polyphenols, which are not necessary for life, are

characterized as nutrients by some. The same is true for isoflavones, coumestrol, non-

provitamin.A carotenoids and other phytochemicals. Those who do not characterize

hese compounds as nutrients are inclined to call thembeneficial bioactive components.

Yet there can be too muchof a good thing, and benefit can turn to risk, even

forconventional nutrients. The ever-growing interest innutrients and related

substance, and the increasingamounts used in foods (as fortificants, antioxidants,

etc.)and supplements, led to an international request for FAOand WHO to convene an

expert workshop to developa model for establishing safe upper levels of intakefor

nutrients and related substances.A risk assessment model was adopted.Clearly, food

quality and safety issues need to beaddressed along the entire food chain. FAO has

adoptedthis approach, defined as recognition that the responsibilityfor the supply of

food that is safe, healthy and nutritious isshared by all involved from primary

production to finalpreparation and consumption. Compositional changes, forbetter or

for worse, can be introduced at eachan d everylink in the food chain.Adopting a food

chain framework goes beyond ensuringthe safety of food. It facilitates more generally

an approachto quality in agriculture and food safety and qualitysystems that will

comprise government, industry andconsumer involvement. This implies potential

future shiftsin the agricultural sectors in many countries. For example,plant breeders

are using genetic resources to increase thenutrient contents of foods at-source.

Farmers are alsoexploring new farming and technology choices to meet demands for a

safe and healthy diet in response to newregulations and standards, changing global


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consumptionpatterns, improved market access and value-added opportunities,as well

as increasing concerns over the sustainabilityof existing agricultural systems.

Since 1963, an international food code has been in placeto ensure food safety

worldwide. Codex Alimentarius, orfood code, jointly administered by FAO and the

WorldHealthOrganization, sets harmonized standards for food.These include specific

food standards, guidelines, codes ofpractice and recommendations on hygiene; food

labelling;food safety risk assessment; contaminants in foods;sampling, analysis,

inspection and certification procedures;maximum limits for pesticide residues; food

additiveprovisions; and maximum limits for veterinary drugs infoods. It serves as the

basis for many national foodstandards. Codex has established such well-known

safeguardsas the Best if used before food label anddefinitions for low -fat and light

food. Evolving constantly,it is now meeting the new challenges of organic farmingand

biotechnology. For example, a Codex task force iscurrently drawing up guidelines for

assessment andrecommendations on labelling standards for geneticallymodified

ingredients. Codex considers independent scientificadvice from suchbodies as the

Joint FAO/WHOExpert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), the JointFAO/WHO

Expert Meetings on Microbiological RiskAssessment (JEMRA), the Joint FAO/WHO

Meetingon Pesticide Residues (JMPR), the Joint FAO/WHOscientific expert

consultations on Foods Derived fromBiotechnology and the expert consultations and

technicalworkshops on human nutrition (see list in Documentationon Food Safety and

Quality Issues at the end of thiscommentary).

At the Seventeenth Session of the Committee onAgriculture (Rome, 2003), FAO

presented its Strategyfor a food chain approach to food safety and quality:

Aframework document for the development of futurestrategic direction. In this paper

the food chain approachis clearly definedy as recognition that the responsibility for the

supplyof food that is safe, healthy and nutritious is sharedalong the entire food

chainby all involved with theproduction, processing, trade and consumption of food.


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Factors that influence beverage choices at meal times. An

application of the food choice kaleidoscope framework

S. Mueller Loose, S.R. Jaeger

Summary:Beverages are consumed at almost every meal occasion, but knowledge about the

factors that influencebeverage choice is less than for food choice. The aim of this

research was to characterize and quantifyfactors that influence beverage choices at

meal times. Insights into what beverages are chosen by whom,when and where can be

helpful for manufacturers, dieticians/health care providers, and health policymakers.

A descriptive framework the food choice kaleidoscope (Jaeger et al., 2011) was

applied toself-reported 24 h food recall data from a sample of New Zealand consumers.

Participants (n = 164)described 8356 meal occasions in terms of foods and beverages

consumed, and the contextual characteristicsof the occasion. Beverage choice was

explored with random-parameter logit regressions to revealinfluences linked to food

items eaten, context factors and person factors. Thereby this study contributedto the

food choice kaleidoscope research approach by expressing the degree of context

dependency in theform of odds ratios and according significance levels. The

exploration of co-occurrence of beverages withfood items suggests that beveragemeal

item combinations can be meal specific. Furthermore, this studyintegrates

psychographic variables into the person mirror of the food choice kaleidoscope. A

measure ofhabit in beverage choice was obtained from the inter-participant

correlation.

The study of contextual influences on food/beverage choices why does who eat what,

when and where? is of high importanceto better understand the complex interplay

of food choicedrivers. Researchers have used diverse paradigmsin the study of the

factors that shape food/beverage choice. In the research into contextual influences

onfood/beverage choices more attention is now being directed tothe joint influence of

multiple contextual factors. Although bulk demonstrated that interactions between

contextual factorsare important in shaping consumer behavior, this aspect of

contextualinfluences have not been prioritized by researchers, anddrew attention to

the need for research thatmore fully integrates and jointly examines the factors

alreadyidentified. focused on the situationalcontext of social surroundings as a


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moderator for the suitabilityof different meal options. Authors jointly assessed the

influence of temporal and social factors onthe stated intention to eat convenience food.

presented discrete choice experimentation as one optionfor jointly examining product,

context and person factors in foodchoice decisions. While most of these prior studies

relied on measuringintentions in a theoretical context isan example of a more

externally valid approach for studying thejoint influence of several context factors on

food choice. To investigatebeverage choices in bars with different ambiences,

theycreated experimental settings by systematically varying the furnitureand

music/videos shown. Participants enter the bar, experienceits ambience(s) and then

make beverage choices. Theauthors describe their approach as immersive and seek

to capturethe moment of consumption as this, they suggest, is wherecontextual

influences congeal to exert their joint influence.Although very different, these two

empirical approaches have incommon the need to define, a priori, the contextual

factors tobe studied. Research into contextual food choice factors requires

knowledgeabout what factors may interact, and approaches that enabledata mining to

search for interactions can, hence, be useful. Thefood choice kaleidoscope approach

serves this purpose. It offers a framework forthe joint and structured investigation of

product, place and personas sources of variation in food choices. The term

kaleidoscopewas coined as a metaphor for observing food choice events

throughdifferent lenses. To use the food choice kaleidoscope the researchermust

decide which mirrors (i.e., which food choice factor) to apply.A single or alternatively

multiple mirrors can be applied at once tothe food choice data to understand

contextual factor of mealconsumption.In data were obtained from 24 h food

recalldairies where participants for each meal recorded beverages andfood components

consumed, time, location, presence of other people,etc. While reliant on self-reports,

which can be biased, everydayfood consumption in its natural context is captured.

Becausethe data can be analyzed quantitatively, there is scope to determinethe

relative importance for food/beverage choices from maineffects and their interactions.

demonstrate this approach and directly confirm Belks findingsthat interactions

between contextual factors are important infood/beverage choice decisions.

The food recall data were obtained from a sample of 164 NewZealand consumers,

recruited to take part in studies about flavorpreferences in foods and beverages. The

inclusion criteria for theseprojects meant that all participants were between 18 and 50


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yearsold and of European decent. Males and females were equally representedin the

sample, which included people from a range ofparental ancestries, household incomes,

household sizes andemployment statuses (see Table 1 for more details). However,the

sample was not representative of the general New Zealandpopulation. Voluntary

consent to taking part in the study was obtainedin writing.

The coding frames developed by Jaeger et al. (2011) and alsoemployed by Bava et al.

(2012) were used. Food items were codedto 24 categories (beef, bread, cakes/biscuits,

cheese, chicken, chips,condiments, dairy, dessert/chocolate, eggs, fish/shellfish,

fries,fruit, hot carbohydrates, miscellaneous, other meat, pasta, potatoes,rice, salad,

sausages, spices/herbs, vegetarian proteins, vegetables).Beverages, initially coded in

20 categories, werecondensed to seven categories for detailed study (water, hot

beverages,milk, carbonated beverages, juice, wine and beer) (seeTable 2) while other

beverages were not considered further dueto low incidence rates (2.8% of total). Meals

were categorized asbreakfast, lunch, dinner, dessert, snack, and other. The latter

comprisedeight types of eating occasions (morning tea, afternoon tea,supper, brunch,

treat, entre, religious purpose meal and late nightsnack), but only 7% of all

observations. The context categories formeal name, time of day, with whom meal was

eaten, where mealwas eaten and activity while eating were merged where necessaryto

facilitative quantitative analysis.1Because of the repeated nature of food diaries with

severalobservations for the same participant, multilevel models with randomand fixed

effects were fitted (Guo& Zhao, 2000; Rabe-Hesketh&Skrondal, 2012). Logistic

regression with random intercepts (e.g.,binary dependent variable beverage

consumption yes/no and independentvariable meal type binary categories) enabled

testing ofstatistical significance of over- or under-representation of a beveragecategory

at different meals. Thereby the random interceptcaptured the combined effect of

omitted participant specific(time-constant) covariates that cause some participants to

be morelikely to combine beverage with certain food.Odds ratios are an outcome from

logistic regression analyses(Rabe-Hesketh&Skrondal, 2012). They represent a measure

of effectsize, describing the strength of association or non-independencebetween two

binary data values. e.g. specific beverageconsumed (yes) relative to other beverages

(no) for specific mealoccasion (yes) relative to other meal occasions (no). In other

words,the odds ratio is the ratio of the odds of an event (yes, no) occurringin one group

to the odds of it occurring in all other groups. An oddsratio of 1 indicates that the


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event under study (e.g., consumption ofhot beverage) is equally likely to occur for

breakfast and for allother meal occasions. An odds ratio greater than 1 indicates

thatconsuming hot beverages is more likely to occur at breakfast thanfor all other

meal occasions (e.g., an odds ratio of 1.5, means thatlikelihood is increased by 50%).

Conversely, an odds ratio less than1 indicates that the event is less likely to occur in

that context.The inter-cluster correlation q estimated in the random-interceptlogit

model provided an indication to what degree beverageconsumption was correlated over

time. Lack of correlation wouldindicate that repeated observations for participants are

independentf each other. Then the knowledge of one food diary entrywould not provide

information about other entries. In other words,the participants had very changeable

consumption patterns and nostrong habits. The other extreme, where the inter-cluster

correlationtakes a value close to one, reveals participants with zero individualvariation

in meal-centered beverage consumption patterns.In this case participants would

always consume the same beverageand have a portfolio size of one. When interpreting

the estimates itshould be considered that a high correlation indicates that a

largeshare of participants either never or almost always consumes acertain beverage.

Accordingly, we would expect correlations tobe higher for beverages with lower

penetration, for which a largeshare of participants never consume this beverage.

Although precisequantification of the impact of habits on consumers foodand

beverage choice is still missing (Mueller Loose & Jaeger, inpreparation), there is

evidence that habit plays a strong role forfood consumption (Meiselman, 2012;

Ouellette & Wood, 1998;Tak et al., 2011) and that food choice is largely based on

simplechoice heuristic rules (Scheibehenne, Miesler, & Todd, 2007). Wewould

therefore expect a considerable degree of inter-cluster correlationfor meal-centered

beverage consumption.

An open-ended questionnaire similar to that used by Jaegeret al. (2011) was

implemented. Participants recorded the foodand beverage items consumed in up to six

meals per 24 h period.A meal was defined as any instance where a food item was

consumed,and excluded instances when a beverage was consumedindependently of

food. For each meal, participants recorded thename of the meal, (e.g., breakfast), the

time it was consumed,and its six main food components (e.g., toasted muesli, milk,

banana).


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The relationship between technical efficiency and industrialconcentration: Evidence from the Indonesian food and beverages

industry.MamanSetiawana,b,*, GrigoriosEmvalomatis c, Alfons Oude Lansink c

Summary:

This paper investigates the relationship between technical efficiency and

industrialconcentration in the Indonesian food and beverages sector. Firm-level data

obtained fromthe Indonesian Bureau of Central Statistics (BPS) ar

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