Subject Index

Italized numbers refer to figures

Abelson, Philip H. 342 Acid rain

at the Cretaceousrrertiary boundary 391

impact of sulfur emission 219 impact on trees 219

Actinide series 23 Africa

mean annual precipitation since last glacial maxima 189

Age determinations 163-169 isotopes 165 major events in the universe's

history 169 polarity 165, 166, 167 pollen 165 varve counting 163,164

Air 196-197 argon 196,196 carbon dioxide 196 chemical inventory 196-198 helium 196-197,196 hydrogen 196 krypton 196-197,196 methane (at surface) 196 neon 196 nitrogen 196-197 nitrous oxide (at surface) 196 oxygen 196 xenon 196-197,196

Albrecht, Pierre 342 Aluminum

cosmic abundance 28, 28 Ampferer, Otto 104 Anderson, Carl 4

discoverer of positron 4 Angular momentum 15,20

in solar nebula 39 Archean

continental margin 125 Argon-40

cosmic abundance 28, 28 generation from postassium-40

201 Aristotelian system 3 Asimov, Isaak 269

conditions to generate an ocean 269

logic of water 269 Asteroids 49

mass 46 orbits in relation to Sun 47

Atlantis II Deep account on its discovery 137

Atmosphere 183-237 boundaries (troposphere, strato­

sphere, mesosphere, thermo­sphere) 183-185

general circulation 183-185 global circulation 184 internal structure 184

Baltica 113-115 wandering during thc Paleo-

zoic 113-115 Barrow, G. 120 Barrow facies series 120 Baryons 5

cosmological density 25 decoupling from radiation 21

Basic magmatism 128 boninites 128, 128 continental tholeiites 128 intraplate alkali basalts 128 komatiites 121-123,128 ophiolites 127-128,128

Bauxites (generation) 142-143 Bernal, J.D. 342 Big bang scenarios 15-19,21,24-25 Biogeochemical evolution 342-392

Ca2+ 344 cycles and events 342-349 Mg2+ 344 Si2+ 344

Biomineralization 350--370 enzymic activity 353-356 malformation through environ­

mental stress 356 morphology of snail shells 354

Black hole 14-15 Hawking's evaporation concept

35 Black Sea 134

catch basin 147 history of anoxia 148 molecular exchange across a pyc-

nocline 134 rate of denudation 147 rates of sedimentation 149 redox potential 134 riverine discharge over the past

20,000 years 148 varves 148 vertical eddy diffusion 134 weighted percentage of total river-

ine discharge 147 Blumer,Max 342

oil pollution in the sea 385-387

Bosons gravitino 20--21 gluons 8-9 Higgs 8-9 hyperphoton 11 intermediate vector 8 photon 8 X 9

Boundary phenomena 130--139 air-sea-earth-life boundary

130--131,130 air-sea exchange 131 mid-water stratification (pycno­

cline) 132 refraction and reflection of light

130 Breger, Irving A. 342 Brindley, George W. 342

Ca2+ cybernetics 343 crustal Ca2+ 343

Calcification 356-362 amino acid composition in shell

carbonates 357, 358 growth rings 359-360 internal structure of biocarbona­

tes 358-362, 358 thin-sections of otoliths 360

Calcium cosmic abundance 28, 28

Calcium in the sea evaporites 345 isothermic evaporation of sea

water at 25° C 345 static evaporation of sea water at

25° C 345 Carbon

abundance in crust 303 chemistry in interstellar clouds 302 cosmic abundance 28, 28 a13c in geological materials 304 fractionation of carbon iso-

topes 303,303 origin of carbyne chains 305 phase diagram 302, 304, 304

Carbon balance in the sea 263-266 amount transferred to geological

column 266, 266 buffer factor 265 14C variation in deep water samp­

les 266 inventory 263-266 tritium profiles 266

418

Carbon monoxide mapping of interstellar clouds

37-39 Carbonate platforms 121 Cellular calcium

Ca2+ transport via ATP 347 Charon 41 Chemical bonding 79,81 Chemoclines 136-139

carbonate compensation depth 138

carbonate compensation depth in world ocean 139

lysocline 136 oxiclines 138

Chinese cosmology Dao, Yin and Yang, Wu Xing 13

Chlorofluorocarbons photolysis in stratosphere 213 tropospheric chemistry 212

Clay minerals 90--93 classification 91 ion exchange capacity 92-94 origin 92-94

Cloos, Hans 104 Clusters (see galaxies) CO2's past

alpine glaciers 225-227 land feedbacks 226-227 polar ice cores 225-227 sea feedbacks 226-227 tree rings 225-227

Collision 112 case study Rhenish Massif 112

Comets 46, 48-61 Comet Encke 61 composition 60 dirty snowball concept 60 Halley's comet 58, 60 Howard-Koamer-Michels comet

61 Coordination principles 82

closest packing of spheres 82-84 coordination polyhedra 86-88 packing of ionic structures 84-86 structure of table salt 85

Copernicus, Nicolaus 3 Cosmic background radiation 16-17

gamma-ray region 16-17 microwave region 16-17,21 radio region 16-17 X-ray region 16-17

Cosmic inflation 17-19 Cosmic pancakes

computer simulation 21 scenario 20--23

Cosmic rays 4 Cosmic year 1

growth rate of interstellar cloud 36-37

Cosmological models 16 Cosmological principle 17

steady-state model 12 Cosmology

big-bang singularity 14, 15 events in space and time 14

Crustal evolution 120--129 Crustal growth 276-277

geochemical evidence 276-277 Crystalline blueprints 309-314

abiotic formation of phospholipids 313,313

chirality 312 polymerization of amino acids, via

clays 311,311 template concepts 309-314

Dalton, John 285 Dark matter

physical and chemical nature 22-23

Darwin, Charles 340 Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)

historical account 159 Deuterium

origin 24-25 Diagenesis of organic matter 251-256

coal and anthracite 256 generation of natural gas 256 hopanes 255-256 humic acids, fulvic acids, humins,

and ulmins 255 kerogen types 255-256 oil formation 254-256 survivors and products 256

Diamond structure 89

Dirac's concept of matter-antimatter

symmetry 4 cosmology 33

Downriver to Jiangling 71-72

Earth 40--41, 46-51 geoid 73 impact melt sheet 103 interior structure 48 magmatism and cooling 103 major characteristics 47 oblate spheroid 73 polygonal tectonics 104 satellite imagery 69 structure related to physical pro­

perties 102 water planet 69

East Pacific Rise 138 black smokers 138 microbial and benthic communi­

ties 138 Eglinton, Geoffrey 342 Eh/pH stability diagram

relations among iron oxides 329 Einstein equation 4 EI Nino (see also ENSO) 185 Electromagnetic field

concept 4 Electron 6-7 Elements

number of artificial 24 origin 23-28 periodic table 23 relative solar/cosmic abundance

26, 28

synthesis in stars 25-28 Energy future

Suject Index

global CO2 emission 228-229 resources today 228-229

ENSO 185 climate incidents in 1982-1984

186 impact on plankton and fish 187 Kelvin waves 186 response of thermal structure of

equatorial Pacific 186 Rosby waves 186 Walker circulation 186

Epitaxis 310,310 catalysis 310

Erosion 143-144 hypsometric diagram of the

Earth's solid surface 143 rate 143-144

Eukaryogenesis - cell aggregation -multicellularity 349 autogenous vs. endosymbiotic ori-

gin of the eukaryotic cell 349 budding 350 endocytosis 350 exocytosis 350 impact of extracellular calcium

concentration 351 membrane fusion processes 349

Eukaryotes origin 351-353

Evolution a documentation on gradualism

341 gradualism 340 lineages of animals and planktonic

algae as a function of temporal changes in calcium and pH 352

punctuated equilibrium 340 Extinction

CretaceouslTertiary event 376 curve of marine organisms since

Cambrian 370 familial extinctions in Permian

aquatic groups 371,371 Frasnian-Famennian event 377 meteorite impact hypothesis

378-380 meteorites vs. volcanoes 376-378 normal-background-mass extinc­

tion 370--379 origin and extinction curves of

Cretaceous ammonite genera 377

standing diversity with time for fa­milies of terrestrial tetrapods 376

Facies 155-163 crossbedding 156 definition 155-156 distribution on the floors of the

oceans 157 hiatus 156 influence of stratified waters 157

Suject Index

Fermions definition 6

Fersman, A. 342 Fisher, Richard 32-33 Fladen Ground Experiment 133, 133

depth and time profiles of tempe­rature, phosphate, chlorophyll, zooplankton, bacteria 133

North Sea 133 Flandrian transgression 73

isostatic rebounding 73 Fluidized beds 330 Forces

baryonic 11 electromagnetic 7-8 grand unification 9 gravitational 8 strong nuclear 8 weak nuclear 7-8

Gaertner, Rudolph v. 342 Gahn, J. G. 288 Galaxies 1

distribution of 22 dwarf 20 Local Group 32, 33 origin 20--23 strings and filaments 21-23 Tully-Fisher relation 32-33

Gamma rays 5,16-17,26-27 Gauge field theories 9, 16 Geosynclines 158-160

classical concept 160 eugeosyncline 160 miogeosyncline 160

Giant voids (see galaxies) Glaciation

aereal extension of the last Eur­opean glaciations 224

climate calendar in permanent ice 222-223

development of ice age (scenario) 223-225

glaciation of the Tibetan Plateau 221,223

ice cover of Arctic today and 18,000 years ago 220

impact of tectonic pulses 225 Milankovitch radiation curve

219-221 oxygen isotope distribution in long

ice cores 221 Global carbon cycle

principal reservoirs and fluxes 205

rate of deforestation 205 Global CO2 cycle

air CO2 concentration at Mauna Loa since 1958 206

annual fossil fuel CO2 input into air 207

CO2 content of fossil air (ice) since 1750,206

destruction of biosphere since 1820 209

fossil fuel combustion since 1820 209

general CO2 scenario 210 land vegetation 207-208 marine sediments 209-210 methane: sinks and sources 211 nitrous oxide: biogenic emissions

211-212 sea 209 soil organic matter 208 variation of CO2 content in latitu-

de and time 206 Global riverine transport 144--147

annual flux of sediment and salt in Black Sea 144

discharge of detritus into world ocean 144

Oceania 145 path from high mountains to ocean

depths 145 salt and freshwater runoff 144 South America 145 Tibetan plateau 144

GLOMAR CHALLENGER 110 Gluons (see bosons) Goldschmidt, Victor Moritz 79 Golgi complex 362 Grand unifications (GUT's) 10--11 Gravitation 73

universal constant 11 Gravity 8-9

anomaly maps 73 epirogenic uplift 73-74

Greenhouse gases 201-219,202, 203,229 cloud-albedo feedback 230 contribution to radiation balan-

ce 201 expected content in CO2 and

greenhouse gases till 2100 231 expected global warming

229-232 ice-albedo feedback 231 ocean circulation changes 231 radiative forcing of the earth-at-

mosphere 203 sea level changes since 1900

230 sources and sinks in troposphere

216,217 temperature changes since 1900

230 Greenstone belts 121

komatiitic-tholeiitic series 121-129

Groups mathematical theory 9

Hadrons 5-6 Hallam, Tony 342 Harden, H. 288 Heat flow 77-79

convection cells 78 flow figures with time 80--81 global pattern 78 mantle convection 78

Helium cosmic abundance 28,28 origin 24-28

Helium-3 25-26 Helium-4 25-27 Hertzsprung, Ejnar 29 Hess, Harry 105 Higgs field 8-10

congealing 18,20--21 Homo sapiens

history of past four million years 383-386

419

philogenies of major hominid taxa 384

Hooke, Robert 285 Hot spots

Emperor Seamounts 127 Hubble constant 22,32-34 Human environmental impacts

385-392 Chernobyl 387-391 ENUWAR 391-392 oil spills 385-387

Hunt, John M. 342 Hydrogen

cosmic abundance 28, 28

Iapetus 113-114 Igneous rocks 95-96

Bowen's reaction principle 95,96 classification 96 texture 96

Igneous rocks and sediments 93 chemical composition 93

Interfacial water 251-256 air-sea interface 250--251,251 ion-filtration by charged-net clay

membranes 253 surface film 251 water-mineral interface 251-253

Intermediate vector bosons (see bosons) Interstellar

clouds 36-40 gas and dust 36-39 hydrogen 37 molecules, distribution of 37-39

10 74 tidal forces from Jupiter 74

Iron cosmic abundance 28, 28

Iron-56 routes of stellar synthesis 27

Isotopes origin 23-28

Jeans mass 20 Jupiter 24,40--41,46-48

interior structure 48 major characteristics 47 principal moons 54-55,56-57,59

Kononova, M. M. 342

Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent 199 Leibnitz, G. W. 288

420

Leptons 5-7 classification 6

Life 284-341 definition 284 from coacervate to progenote

332-333 metal-binding sulfur-rich domains

in proteins 331 Liquid state of water

arrangement via hydrogen bond 244

channel arrangement 245 H-bonded OH-groups in liquid

water 246 molecular association of water mo­

lecules 244,244, 247 two-dimensional model 246

Lisitsin, Alexander 342 Lithium-7 24-26 Lithosphere

elastic properties 73 Living cell 285-286

abiotic mechanisms 314-332 coacervates 324, 325 critical micelle concentration

321-323,321,322 enzymic life 327-332 genetic code 316 genetic line 315-320 immortal coding sequences

316-320 invariance principle in cytochrome

c 319 metabolic line 320-327 micelle formation 320 natural coacervates 325 physical and chemical properties

of phospholipid membranes 323

physical recognition 285 principal chemical ingredients

285 schematics of events 314

Magma emplacement rate of accreting plate margins

129 Magma ocean model 122,122 Magnesium

cosmic abundance 28,28 Magnesium-24 27 Manganese

presence in sea water 331 Manganese nodules 158, 331

accretion rate 158 Marine carbonates

carbon isotope distribution in deep-sea cores from Maastrich­tian to Quaternary 382

cements 372 a13c of carbonates across Creta­

caousrrertiary boundary 382 isotope distribution in pteropod

shells of Red Sea 380 non-skeletal 371-373 oolites 372

temporal changes in a13c 379-382

Marine sulfate age curves for a34s and sulfate

374 changes in a34s 373 a34s distribution in finger and toe

nails 374 marine S04 reservoir 374

Mars 40-41,46-47,278-279 cratering events 51 debris flow 278-279 history of air 278-279 history of water 278-279 interior structure 48 major characteristics 47 moons 56,59 type of soils 278-279

Matheja, Janek 289 Maxwell theory 8-9 Mayr, Ernst 340 Mercury 3,40,40 -41,46,48

interior structure 48 major characteristics 47

Mesons 5 Messier, Charles 33 Metamorphic rocks 98-100

classification 100 foliation 99 mineral facies 99

Meteorite bombardment 121 Meteorites 46 Meyer, Robert v. 199 Microwave background radiation 5 Miescher, F. 288 Milankovitch, Milutin 219

Milankovitch radiation curve 219-221

Milky Way 1,22,32-33 Miller, Stanley L. 342 MohoroviCic, A. 74

M-discontinuity 74 Moho 74

Monopoles 10, 18-19 Moon

cratering events 51 origin 49-53 progressive differentiation 50 rates of recession 51 terminal lunar cataclysm 40

Moon of all planets, except of Earth 45-49

interior structures 54-57 martian cratering events 51 surface features 54-57

Muon 6

Neon-20 27 Neptune 40,40-41,46-49

interior structure 48 major characteristics 47

Neptunium 23 Neutrinos 20-27

non-zero mass 21,23 telescope 5 weight watching 6

Suject Index

Neutron 6, 23-27 Newton 3

Nile law of gravitation 3

discharge rates 192 discharge rates across about 1400

years 190 Nitrogen 28, 198-202

atmosphere 197 bacterial fixation 198-199 cosmic abundance 28, 28 crust 197 hydrosphere 197 residence time in atmosphere

199,201 significance of metal ions (molyb­

denum, vanadium, iron 201 North Atlantic

sediment fluxes 161-162 Nuclides

origin 23-28 proton/neutron relationship 23 radiogenic 23-27 stable 23-24

Ocean current pattern in the Atlantic

258 distribution of water and land over

the Earth 257 global circulation 260-261,260 major chemical constituents 257 oxygen profile across North Atlan-

tic 259 satellite scanning pictures

261-263,262 upwelling - mineral nutrients -

primary productivity 259-263 volume and sphere depth 257 water distribution - chemistry -

currents 256-259 Ocean circulation

model simulation 158 Ocean current

conveyor-belt-like 267-269 Oceanic crust 106

OH

cycling of sea water 106 hypothermal alteration 106 ophiolite sequences 106

troposphere 212 Oort's cloud 59, 61

comet reservoir 39 in relation to solar system 46

Oparin, A. 1. 342 Organic matter

bulk chemical composition 342 Oxygen

abiotic vs. biotic origin 334-335 cosmic abundance 28, 28 photosynthesis 199-202 residence time in air 201 rise of O2 333-335 significance of metal ions (magne­

sium, manganese) 201 structure of chlorophyll a 200

Suject Index

Ozone column abundance (Iatidude,

month) 214 column abundance at South Po­

le 215 stratosphere 214--215 stratospheric chemistry 214--215,

214 troposphere 214--215

Paleotemperature Tertiary planktic and benthic fora­

minifera since Cretaceous 267 variations of 8180 over the past

500,000 years 268,268 Pangaea 104, 113-114

activity of oceanic tholeiites 127 Pauling, Linus 79 Petrogenesis 124--125

element fractionation 125 episodicity 124

Phosphatization 362-366 biochemical mechanisms

362-366 chemical concentrations during

mineralization 364--365,364, 365

structure of enamel and dentin 363

Phosphorus comparison of inorganic and orga­

nic polyphosphate structures 294

differences to neighboring ele­ments 289

double helix model of DNA 291, 292

electron diffraction pattern of membranes 296

high energy bond in A TP 302 inorganic phosphate structures

297 ion exchange characteristics of

membranes 296-298 membrane segment of beef heart

mitochondria 295 membranes as dynamic molecular

sieves 296-297 phospholipid membranes 293-

298 relation to silicon 288-289 schematics of membrane structure

298,299 segment of Periodic Table of Ele­

ments 290 structure and function 291-312 structure of ATP 300-301,300,

301 structuring of metal ions 294 triphosphates 298 uniqueness 288-289

Photon 4--5 viscosity 20

Physical field concepts 4 quantum theory 13

Planck epoch 19 Planetary atmospheres 232-237

comparison to volatile inventories on Earth 236

inner planets 235 outer planets 232 properties of the atmospheres of

solar system objects 234 ratios of absolute abundances in

gas species between planets 237

Planetesimals capturing events 40,40,46

Planets feeding zones 46 general characteristics 47 interior structures 48 origin 45-49 Titius-Bode scheme 46

Planets outside solar system 36 Plasma

origin 25 Pluto 40-41,48

major characteristics 47 moon 56,59 orbit and mass 41,48

Polar final warmings 218 large-scale planetary waves 218 polar vortex 218

Polywater 252 Positron 27 Precambrian shields 121 Prevital monomers 306-309

clay-catalyzed reactions 308 concepts of origin 306

Priestley, Joseph 199 Primitive mantle 123

fractionation of chemical elements 123

Primordial soup 305-306 traditional model 306

Project New Valley 191-192 Prokaryotes

origin 351-353 Promethium 23 Proton

decay in grand unification sche­mes 7

fusion of hydrogen nuclei 25-27 instability 10

Ptolemean system 3 Pyrite framboids 181-182

Quarks 5-7,18 classification 6 colors 6 flavors 5-6

Quasars (see radio galaxies) Quips (see rishons)

Radio galaxies 16, 17 Rain forests (tropical)

rate of deforestation 205 Red giants 26-27, 30 Red Sea hot brines 134

echo-sounding record 136

mid-water density stratification (Atlantis II) 134--136

thermo-halocline in central Red Sea axial trough 135

Rhenish Massif, c.f. Rhenish Slate Mountains 112-120

421

bordering regions 120 Caledonian and Variscan elements

113-120 facies succession in the Paleozo­

ic 160 geological and tectonic cross-sec­

tion along the River Rhine 118 geological cross-section near

Aachen 118 listric thrust faults 119 map of Variscan tectonics 119 petrographic and structural deve-

lopment 121 plate tectonic model 115

Rifting 104--120 asymmetry 109 continental drift 105 continental rifts 109 global plate tectonics 105 kinematic pattern of East-African

Rift system 112 listric fault system 109-111, 109 magma chamber 106 Mid-Atlantic Ridge 105 orogeny 113-120 seafloor spreading 105, 113-120 sequential stages of rifting and sea-

floor spreading 111, 111 subduction 113-120 tectonic graben 108 world rift system 107

Rishons 4--7 classification 7

Rockforming minerals 89-91 amphibole 90 feldspars 90 garnets 90 micas 90 olivine 90 pyroxene 90 quartz 90

Romankevich, Evgenii 342 Ronov, A. B. 342 Russell, Henry Norris 29

Sahel Zone monsoonal influence 193 rainfall distribution 193

Saturn 24,40-44,46-48,51,73 interior structure 48 major characteristics 47 principal moons 56-59,56,58

Scheele, Karl Wilhelm 199 Sea level changes

global 280 paleogeography about 275 and 75

million years ago 282-283,282 temporal relationships 281

Sea water 269-277 cosmic icicles 271

422

hydrothermal leaching 270-271 kettle-crust relationships 270 origin and evolution 269 release of H20 in crust and mantle

270-271 Sedimentary minerals

carbonates 94 clay minerals 90-93 halides 94 sulfates 94

Sedimentary rocks 96-99 classification of chemical sedi­

ments 99 classification of clastic sediments

98 Goldich's stability series 97 primary structures 96 principal endmembers 97

Sedimentation 149-155 desert storms 150 electron micrograph of fecal pellet

154 fecal pellets 153-155,154 macroflocs 155 marine snow 152 path of detritus in the open sea

150 settling rates of particles in water

column 152,153 Stoke's law 152 turbidites and mass flow (Mount

Tambora) 151 turbidity currents 150-151

Sial 102 Silicates 88

classification 88 Silicification

biochemical mechanisms 366-367

Silicon cosmic abundance 28, 28

Sima 102 Skeletal evolution 366-370

function of Ca2+ content in the sea 368-370

Smog and haze 215-219 acid rain 219 aerosols 216-219 sulfur emissions 219

Soda ocean 271-273 evolution towards halite ocean

275 geochemical balance calculation

273-277 isotope criteria 273 loss 279-280 meteoric water line 275 \80 budget of the sea 274-277 total mass of sediment 273 traditional scenario 271

Sodium-23 27 Solar nebula

homogeneous vs. heterogeneous accretion 40

Solar system 100-101 accretion disk 40

condensation of solar gas 101 heterogeneous accumulation mo­

del 100-101 homogeneous accretion model

100-101 major developmental steps 38,

39 origin and evolution 36-61 planetary evolution 101

Southern oscillation (see also EN SO phenomena) 186

Staining techniques

Stars

cellular tissues 286-288,328 change in coordination 286, 287

Balmer spectrum 29 carbon-oxygen- and silicon-bur-

ning phases 25-26 cosmic reactor 25 helium-burning phases 25-27 Hertzsprung-Russeli diagram 29,

30,31 hydrogen-burning phases 25-27 luminosity 28-29,30, 31 Lyman series 29 main sequence 29,30,30, 31 nebulae and clusters 33 nucleosynthesis 25-27 rapid and slow processes 25-27 sources of radiation 28-31 spectral classification 29

Stommel, Elisabeth 193, 196 Stommel, Henry 193,196 Strunz, Hugo 89 Subduction models 117,117

Andean-type 117,117 Mariana-type 117,117

Suess, Eduard 104 Sulfur

cosmic abundance 28,28 Sun 38,40,46,46-47

energy spectrum 43 flux rate 75 luminosity 41-44 main sequence 42 Maunder minimum 44, 44-45 neutrino emission 75 neutrinos 75 non-zero mass 75 physical characteristics 76 proton-proton chain 42 relation to planets 76 solar constants 76 structural units 74 structure 43 sunspot cycle 44,44-45 T Tauri star 75 WIMP's 75

Supercluster (see galaxies) Supergravity 8, 9 Supernova 38,39,39 Symmetry

CP violation 4 matter-antimatter 4 patterns 4

Suject Index

Tau 6 Taxonomic categories 335-341

biochemical evolution starting from a common ancestral sta­te 337

composite evolutionary tree 336 number of different genotypes

338 number of potential nucleotide se­

quences 338 number of species today 338 total number of species in the past

338 • Technetium 23 Teichmiilier, Marlies 342 Tides 74

Bay of Fundy 74 impact on earth rotation 74

Tissot, Bernard 342 Tohu (see rishons) Transactinide elements 24 Tree rings

carbon isotope fractionation 204 al3c variations in northern hemis­

phere trees since the year 1750 204,204

l3C/l2C trends 203 T Tauri wind 39,41-42,46 Tully, Brent 32-33 Tunguska event

hypotheses 61

Universe age 31-35 age estimates: recession of gala­

xies, evolution of the stellar con­tent of globular clusters, and iso­tope abundance ratios in meteo­rites 32-34

big bang theory 14-15 big crunch concept 14,15 chemical composition 28, 28 closed 15 flat or Einstein-de Sitter 15, 22 future 14, 15, 34-35 inflationary 18, 25 open 14-15 scale of versus time 15 vacuum fluctuation 12-14

Uranium-238 decay series 24

Uranus 40-41,46-48 interior structure 48 major characteristics 47 principal moons 58, 59

Vacuum definition 12-15 symmetric and asymmetric 18

Varves relation to sunspots 45

Va-vohu (see rishons) Venus 40-41,46-48

air 278 computer-drawn block diagram of

topography 277

Suject Index

crustal rocks 278 history of water 278 interior structure 48 landscape 277 major characteristics 47

Vernadskij, Vladimir Iwanowitsch 342

Virchow, Rudolf 285 Volcano weather 193-196

aerosols 194 El Chichon 194-195 impact on quality of wine 194 Krakatoa 194 Mount Agung 194 Tambora cataclysm 194

Wald, George 288 Waldsterben 215-219 Water and carbon dioxide 123, 126

factors in crustal evolution 126, 126

melting process in mantle and crust 123

Water's physical-chemical properties 247-250 H20 next to a nonpolar solute

249 hydration sphere near cations

248-249,248 hydrophobic effect 249-250 influence of solvent medium 247 proton transfer 246

Water structure 238-246 "cage" (clathrate) model 239-

240,239 crystalline model 239 crystalline packing order 241-

242 "flickering cluster" model 239,

239 hydrogen bonding 240-241 ice structures 242-243

phase diagram of water 243 physical properties 238

Weather 187-193 intertropical convergence zone

188-189,189 polar and tropic fronts 187

Weathering 140-143 activities of electrons and protons

140-141 function ofrainfall 141 minerals 140 origin of clay minerals 140 Tertiary bauxite event 142-143,

142 water and CO2 140

Wegener, Alfred 104 White dwarfs 27, 30

Young, W. J. 288

423

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f'. 250 - 800 m.y. _ 800 -1700 my _ > 1700 m.y.