Study Guide for Human Physiology Exam 1:

I. Chapter 1: Introductiona. Physiology

i. “ the study of biological function—how the body works, from molecular mechanisms within cells to the actions of tissues, organs and systems, and how the organism as a whole accomplishes particular task essential for life”

ii. Physis= nature, logos= studyiii. How the body works; the function of cells,

tissues and organsiv. In study of physiology, cause-and effect

sequences are emphasizedb. Anatomy

i. Geography of the human bodyc. Body Systems and Organs

1. Skeletal Systema. Bones, Cartilageb. Movement and support

2. Muscular Systema. Skeletal musclesb. Movements of the skeleton

3. Circulatory/Cardiovascular Systema. Heart, blood vessels, lymphatic

muscles b. Movement of blood and lymph

4. Integumentary Systema. Skin, hair, nailsb. Protection, thermoregulation

5. Digestive Systema. Mouth, stomach, intestine, liver,

gallbladder, pancreas

b. Breakdown of food into molecules that enter the body

6. Urinary Systema. Kidneys, ureters, urethrab. Regulation of blood, volume and

composition7. Endocrine System

a. Hormone-secreting glands, such as pituitary, thyroid, and adrenals

b. Secretion of regulatory molecules called hormones

8. Immune/Lymphatic System a. Bone marrow, lymphoid organsb. Defense of the body against invading

pathogens9. Reproductive System

a. Gonads, external genitalia, associated glands, and ducts

b. Continuation of the human species 10. Nervous System

a. Brain, spinal cord, nervesb. Regulation of other body systems

11. Respiratory Systema. Lungs, airwaysb. Gas exchange

d. Organsi. A structure composed of at least two, and

usually all four, primary tissues. The largest organ in the body, in terms of surface area is the skin

e. Systemsi. Organs that area located in different regions of

the body that perform related functions are grouped into systems.

f. Homeostasis:i. keeping the body in balance.

ii. Homeo= same; stasis= stableiii. “Homeostasis is best conceived as a state of

dynamic constancy in which conditions are stabilized above and below the set point.

iv. Homeostasis is the “Set Point”v. Negative and Positive Feedback Mechanisms

vi. Homeostasis maintained by two general categories of regulatory mechanisms, intrinsic and extrinsic.

g. 4 Homeostasis components1. Stimulus2. Sensor3. Integrating Center4. Effector

h. Stimulus:i. Causes a change in balance. (cold wind)

i. Sensor:i. Notices the stimulus, sends information out

afferent pathway. (Thermometer)j. Integrating Center:

i. receives information from sensor, establishes the “Set point”, analyzes information out of the efferent pathway. (Thermostat)

k. Effector:i. the organ that carries out the directions given

by the integrating center. (Heater) ii. “act antagonistically to defend the set point

against deviations in any directions”l. Scenario: “Last summer, 8 year old Charlene was

walking barefoot on the sidewalk. She stepped on a sharp piece of glass and her immediate reaction was to lift up her foot”

1. Stimulus = sharp glass2. Sensor = nerves, pain receptors3. Integrating Center= CNS, Brain/Spinal

Cord4. Effector: muscle, quadriceps

m.Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Controla. Intrinsic Control:

i. local area, nearby.ii. Example: overworked muscles

need oxygen and waste removal.

1. Signals nearby blood vessels

2. Vasodilation of vessels3. Blood flow increases 4. Homeostasis achieved.

b. Extrinsic Control: i. “outside” of the area

ii. Nervous and endocrine systems involved

iii. Example: Overworked muscle needs oxygen and waste removal.

1. Chemoreceptors in carotid arteries are signaled

2. Signal to brain and nervous system

3. Commands to vasodilation to entire muscle

4. Homeostasis achieved. n. Negative feedback:

i. Major physiological response to stimulus. Always opposes the stimulus and wants to return to the “Set point”

ii. Examples:1. Body Temperature at 37 C

a. Body sweating2. Blood Sugar at 100 mg/dL

a. insulin to bring it back down, glucagon increase blood sugar level

3. Heart Rate at 70 BPM a. If high or low, body brings it back to

normaliii. “Because negative feedback loops respond

after deviations from the set point have stimulated sensors, the internal environment is never absolutely constant. Homeostasis is best conceived as a state of dynamic constancy in which conditions are stabilized above and below a set point. “

o. Positive Feedbacki. Lesson common method, set point is ignored.

ii. Response intensifies the stimulus, does not encourage homeostasis

iii. “Homeostasis is ultimately maintained by negative feedback mechanisms, but the effectiveness, however, is increased by positive feedback mechanisms that amplify the actions of a negative feedback response.

a. Example:i. “Blood clotting, for example,

occurs as a result of a sequential activation of clotting factors; the activation of one clotting factor results in

activation of many in a positive feedback cascade.

ii. In this way, a single change is amplified to produce a blood clot.

iii. Formation of the clot, however, can prevent further loss of blood, and thus represents the completion of a negative feedback loop that restores homeostasis.

iv. Examples:1. Blood clotting2. Parturition

II. Chapter 2: Chemistry

a. Basic chemistry you should knowi. Atoms, chemical bonds, molecules, functional

groups of organic moleculesb. Atoms

i. Smallest units of the chemical elements, too small to be seen individually even with the most powerful microscope.

c. Nucleusi. Located at the center of an atom, contains two

type of particles, protons and neutrons.d. Protons

i. Bear a positive chargee. Neutron

i. Carry no charge, neutralf. Mass Number

i. Mass of a proton is equal to the mass of a neutron, and the mass of the protons and neutrons in an atom is the mass number.

ii. Example: Carbon atom, 6 protons and 6 neutrons, has atomic mass of 12.

g. Atomic Numberi. The number of protons in an atom is given as

its atomic number.ii. Carbon has 6 protons, and thus atomic number

of 6.h. Electrons

i. Outside of the positively charged nucleus are negatively charged subatomic particles called electrons.

ii. Because the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons, atoms have a net charge of zero.

i. Isotopes

i. A particular atom with a given number of protons in its nucleus may exist in several forms that differ from one another in their of neutrons. The atomic number of these forms is thus the same, but their atomic mass is different. Different forms are called isotopes.

j. Chemical Bondsi. Molecules are formed through interaction of

the valence electrons between two or more atoms. These interactions such as the sharing of electrons produce chemical bonds.

ii. The number of bonds that each atom can have is determined b the number of electrons needed to complete the outermost shell.

k. Covalent Bondsi. Result when atoms share their valence

electrons. Because the electrons are equally distributed (no charge) between two atoms, these molecules are said to be nonpolar., and the bonds between them are nonpolar covalent bonds.

l. Non-polari. Electrons are equally distributed (no charge)

between two atomsm.Polar

i. When electrons are pulled more toward one atom than the other, the end of the molecule toward which the electrons are pulled is electrically negative compared to the other end.

ii. Such a molecule is said to be polar (has a positive or negative “pole”

n. Ionic Bonds

i. Result when one or more valence electrons from one atom are completely transferred to a second atom.

ii. Thus the electrons are not shared at all.o. Ions

i. Atoms or molecules that have a positive or negative charge.

p. Cationsi. Positively charged ions

ii. Cations = because they move toward the negative pole, or cathode, in a electric field.

q. Anioni. Negative charged ion

ii. Anion=moves toward positive pole, or anode, in an electric field.

r. Ionic Compoundsi. Cations and anion ions attract each other and

form ionic compounds, s. Organic compounds

i. Molecules that contain the atoms of carbon and hydrogen

t. Functional Groupsi. Hydrocarbon chain or ring of many organic

molecules provides a relatively inactive molecular “backbone: to which more reactive groups of atoms are attached. Known as functional groups of the molecule, these reactive groups usually contain atoms of oxygen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, or sulfur.

ii. Often responsible for the unique chemical properties of a molecule.

u. Characteristics of waterv. Water

1. High heat capacity—it changes temperature slowly (able to hold heat)

2. High latent heat of vaporizationa. Needs lots of calories needed to

evaporateb. Molecules highly attracted to each

other by hydrogen bonding. 3. Water is Polar

a. Polar= one side +, opposite side –b. Oxygen and two hydrogen’s on

opposite endsc. Water can be separated into

Hydrogen atom, and a hydroxyl iond. Hydrogen bonds happen between

water moleculesi. Hydrogen bonding is strong

enough bond to take water up a redwood tree

ii. Similar to how humans, blood is pumped up

4. Excellent solvent for all solutesa. Blood is mostly waterb. Professor Question: Baby v.s 70

year old. Who is made up of more water.

i. Answer: baby is 80 percent water, older person less water.

ii. Men have more water % than women because of adipose tissue, essential fats for pregnancy

5. Reactant or product in chemical reactions

a. Hydrolysis—water used to break chemical bonds. Hydro=water, lysis=to break or cut

b. Dehydration synthesisi. Water produced when build a

bond between 2 molecules6. Cushioning agent in your body

a. Cerebral spinal fluid, amniotic fluid. w.Acid

i. Donates a hydrogen ion (H+)ii. If you increases H+ ions the pH will go down

(more acidic)iii. Example: HCL is a strong acid

x. Basei. Accepts a hydrogen ion (H+)

ii. If you remove hydrogen ions, the pH will go up (more basic)

iii. Example: NaOH is a strong basey. Acid + base = Salt

a. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H20z. Buffer

a. Prevents dramatic changes in pH, balances

aa. Electrolytesa. Dissociate and conduct electricityb. Positive and negative ions conduct

electricityc. Osmolality= # solutes/ L solution

i. Measurement of electrolytes d. Molarity = #moles/ L solution

bb. Carbohydratesa. Sources from plantsb. Carbs and sugars suffix usually –ose,

-rides,

c. Carbon, Hydrogen, and oxygend. Examples: pasta, rice, body likes it,

favorite energy source1. Monosaccharaides

(mono-sac-cha-rides)—one sugar

a. Glucose, galactose, ribose

2. Disaccharides (di-sac-cha-rides)—two sugars connected with a bond

a. Lactose and sucrose3. Polysaccharides (poly-

sac-cha-rides)—many sugars

a. Glycogen, starch, and cellulose

b. Glycogen is a bunch of glucose, glycogen stored in skeletal muscle and liver

cc. Lipidsa. Insoluble in water

i. Nonpolar or hydrophobicii. Example: fats and oil

b. Simple Lipidsi. 3 free fatty acids plus 1

glycerolii. put them together through

dehydration synthesis to make triglyceride

c. Fatty Acidsi. Can be saturated or

unsaturated

a. Butter vs milkii. Fatty acids have cis or trans

double bondsa. Trans are bad newsb. Cause heart disease,

harden at room temperature, hydrogenation.

c. Increases LDL, HDL, plasma blood.

d. Complex Lipidsi. Phospholipid of cell membrane

e. Cholesteroli. Altered to become steroid

hormoneii. You need some cholesterol.

dd. Proteinsa. Amino acids connected by peptide

bondsb. Amino group and a carboxyl group

on sidesc. Functional groupd. Protein Structure

i. Primary structurea. order of amino acids

ii. Secondary structurea. Shape of protein,

alpha helix pleated sheet

iii. Tertiary structurea. Interactions of

helices and sheets. iv. Quaternary structure

a. Three dimensional figure

e. Proteins are delicate a. If we “hydrolyze”

them, break their bonds with water

b. If denature them by heating or changes in pH, then quaternary structure is lost

i. Protein is longer functions properly

ee. ATPa. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)b. When bonds are broken, energy is

releasedc. “ENERGY” of the bodyd. Mitochondria take glucose and make

ATPe. When last bond of P is broken,

energy is released and result is ADP and free P

i. Adenosine triphosphate

III. Chapter 3: Cell Structurea. Cytosol or Cytoplasm

i. Cyto=cellii. Gelatinous mass inside the cell

iii. Contains water, proteins, organellesiv. Some cells contain fat or glycogen

b. Cytoskeleton components

i. Gives the cell structure.ii. Proteins that keeps organelles in place

iii. Gives structures to cellsiv. Two Major Elements of Cytoskeleton

1. Microtubulesa. Largestb. Also give structure to cilia and

flagella2. Microfilaments

a. Smaller than microtubulesb. Also give structure to microvilli of

small intestinec. Actin and myosin of muscle are also

microfilamentsc. Organelle names and functions

i. Identify and know the definitionsa. Secretory vesicleb. Centriolec. Nucleolus

d.

d. Plasma membranei. Plasma Membrane and Structure:

ii. Phospholipidsa. Head is hydrophilic

i. Face outwardii. Loves water

b. 2 fatty acid tails are hydrophobici. Face inward

ii. Fear watere. Transcription

i. Protein Synthesisii. DNA - RNA

iii. Steps1. Starts in nucleus2. RNA polymerase binds to promoter3. DNA unwinds4. Read T, grab A. (A-U, G-C, C-G)

f. Translationi. mRNA to Protein

ii. Steps:1. Initiation complex forms

a. Small ribosomal subunit and mRNAb. First tRNA “transfers” arrives with

methioninei. tRNA=job is to move things

c. Then large ribosomal subunit2. Read second codon or triplet3. tRNA with matching anti-codon brings its

amino acid4. Peptide bond made between amino acids5. Ribosome moves down the mRNA6. Continue reading/building until “stop”

codon”7. Release factor comes8. Everything falls apart 9. Protein is Finished

g. Mitosisi. Cell division

ii. Subdivided into 4 stages1. Prophase

a. Chromosomes become visible, as distinctive structures

2. Metaphasea. Chromosomes line up single file

along the equator of the cellb. This aligning of chromosomes at the

equator is believed to be the result from the action of the spindle fibers

3. Anaphasea. Begins with centromeres split apart

and the spindle fibers shorten pulling the two chromatids in each chromosome to opposite poles.

b. Each pole therefore gets one copy of each of the 46 chromosomes.

c. Ana-phase4. Telophase

a. Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) results in the production of two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the original parent cell

b. Tel-o-phase

iii.

IV. Chapter 4: Enzymesa. Characteristics of enzymes

1. Proteins that catalyze a reaction

a. Increase rate of reaction2. Work with “lock and key “ model”3. Usually end in “ase”

a. Example: lactase dehydrogenase (LDH)

b. Removes hydrogen from lactic acid4. Diagnose disease with enzymes in blood

a. Ex: Creatine phosphokinase (CPK)5. Enzymes have optimal pH and

temperature6. Assisted by coenzymes and derived from

vitaminsb. Bioenergetics

i. Endergonic reactionsa. Requires energy input

ii. Exergonic reactionsa. Releases energy

iii. Energy made by enzyme; ATP synthasea. ADP + P (inorganic) ATP

iv. Oxidation-Reduction reactions are importanta. To gain H+ is to be reducedb. To donate H + is to be oxidizedc. OIL=Oxidized Is to Losed. RIG=Reduce is to Gain

c. Reduced/oxidized coenzymesi. FAD FADH2

ii. Suffinic Acid ---Fumaric Acid1. What is oxidized?

a. Succinic acid2. What is reduced?

a. FAD3. What atoms are removed?

V. Chapter 5: Cell Respiration/Metabolisma. 3 major nutrients

b. Catabolism/anabolismc. Glycolysisd. Citric Acid Cyclee. Electron Transport Chainf. Overall chemical equation for glucose metabolismg. Glycogenh. Lipid Metabolismi. Protein metabolism

VI. Chapter 6: Cells and Environmenta. 3 types of passive transportsb. 3 types of active transportc. Bull transportd. Basics of neurophysiologye. Ion concentrations out/in cellf. Why -70 mV resting membrane potential g. 4 ways of cell to cell signaling

VII. Chapter 7: Nervous Systema. Classes of neuronsb. Depolarizationc. Repolarizationd. Hyperpolarizatione. Steps to an action potentialf. Na/Sodium pumpg. Propagation of action potentialh. Myelination, nodes, conductioni. Steps of a synapsej. Neurotransmitter action

1. Ligand-operated2. G-protein operated3. Second messenger

k. Know basic neurotransmitter categories and as an example of each

l. ETSP/IPSP