studies in art education: a journal of issues and research ...€¦ · studies in art education: a...

Copyright 2013 by the National Art Education Association

Studies in Art Education: A Journal of issues and Research

2013,54(21,141-157

"Art, as anotherway of knowing,

allowed...practicing

and preserviceeducators to

move outsidetheir comfort

zones, takerisks, and learn

to view theworld through

multiple framesof reference."

Engaging the Pink Elephant inthe Room: Investigating Race andRacism Through Art Education

N A J U A N A p . L E E

University of Georgia

This mixed-methods practitioner inquiry aimed to facilitate

transformative learning of individuals' racial attitudes. The focus

ofthis research was to investigate what influence participating in a

semester-long social justice art education studio course may have

on preservice and practicing art educators' implicit (unconscious)

and explicit (conscious) racial attitudes and understandings

toward self and others. This research also aimed to develop

transformative art education pedagogy and understand its role

in the critical examination of issues surrounding race and racism,

and its impact on transforming racial attitudes. The findings ofthis

study indicated that exploring racial issues through transformative

art education pedagogy can facilitate positive attitude change and

help educators to become more comfortable with the topic of race

and the idea of working with diverse populations.

Author NoteThe basis of this study was a doctoral dissertation completed at theUniversity of Georgia, 2011.

Correspondence regarding this article may be addressed to the author [email protected] or najchrisleegicomcast.net

Studies in Art Education I Volume 54, No. 2 141

Teachers play a key role in students'academic success by determininggrades, evaluating behavior, and recom-

mending students for higher-level academic

programs. As a result, understanding teach-

ers' dispositions toward racially diverse pop-

ulations and how those dispositions shape

expectations and treatment of students is

a critical component in ensuring equality

(equal treatment) and equity (fair and just

treatment) in education. Hence, the ways

in which future and practicing teachers are

prepared for a diverse society is key in devel-

oping their ability to be effective teachers in

diverse classrooms.

In reviewing the empirical studies of preser-vice and practicing teacher beliefs and attitudestowards multicultural learning, several commonthemes arose that are of concern. In general, thestudies reviewed suggested most teachers feltinadequatelyexposedtocultural diversity and ill-prepared in their teacher preparation programsfor working with diverse student populations(Bakari, 2003; Cho & DeCastro-Ambrosetti, 2006;Sleeter, 2001; Van Hook, 2002). Additionally,many teachers who participated in multiculturalcourses tended to exhibit high levels of resis-tance towards developing culturally responsivecurricula. Furthermore, a substantial numberof these studies also indicated that teachers'racial attitudes affected their efficacy beliefsabout student achievement and impacted howthey treated and viewed Students of Color.Lastly, several studies reviewed also providedvery little empirical evidence to support claimsthat participation in multicultural professionaldevelopment courses or multicultural teacherpreparation courses improved teachers' atti-

tudes and beliefs about racially and culturallydiverse populations or the implementation ofa multicultural curriculum (Bakari, 2003; Cho &DeCastro-Ambrosetti, 2006; Sleeter, 2001; VanHook, 2002).

Singleton and Linton (2006) argued that thefirst step in addressing these problems is tobreak the silence by "ushering in courageousconversations about race" (p. 1). This study wasdesigned with this tenet in mind. Grounded intransformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1997,2000), this mixed-methods practitioner inquiryaimed to facilitate transformative learning ofindividual's racial attitudes.

Purpose of the ResearchThe focus of this research was to investigate

what influence participating in a semester-longsocial justice art education studio course mayhave on undergraduate and graduate students'implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious)racial attitudes and understandings toward selfand others. This study also aimed to developtransformative art education pedagogy, under-stand its role in the critical examination of raceand racism, and its impact on transforming racialattitudes.

Theoretical FrameworkThis research was guided by a synthesis of

transformative learning theories (Mezirow, 1997,2000; O'Sullivan, 2003). In addition, three criticaltheories also influenced this study's perspectiveon the issues of race: racial formation theory (Omi& Winant, 1996), critical social theory (Giroux,2005), and critical race theory (Ladson-Billings &Täte, 1995). Racial identity development theory(Helms, 1990;Tatum, 1992) informed the frame-work developed for analyzing and understand-ing the participants' responses to race-related

142 Lee / Investigating Race and Racism

content. Additionally, the social cognitiontheory of shared reaiity (Sinclair, Hardin, Lowery& Colangelo, 2005) and the neuroscience theoryof race-based emotional responses (Amodio,Devine & Harmon-Jones, 2007) guided thisstudy's stance on the malleability of automaticand unconscious racial prejudice, as well as therole of affectivity In reducing racial bias. Whilean in-depth discussion of each of these theoriesis beyond the scope of this article, two transfor-mative learning theories and one social neu-roscience theory, which heavily underpin thisstudy, deserve further discussion.

Mezirow's (1997, 2000) transformativelearning theory posited that three key com-ponents facilitate transformative learning inadult students. First, students must develop anawareness and be willing to critically examineassumptions—both their own and the assump-tions of others. Secondly, students recognizetheir frames of reference through critical reflec-tion and engage their imaginations in order tounderstand and reframe problems from a differ-ent perspective. Lastly, this theory supports thenotion that critical dialogue plays a key role inmaking learning meaningful to students, whichpositions learners to engage in critically reflec-tive thinking. O'Sullivan (2003) expanded theseideas to also include engaging the affectiveprocesses and developing an understandingof the dynamics of power relationships, espe-cially as they pertain to race, class, and gender.This social justice orientation adds a necessarycomponent to the theoretical framework aimedat facilitating learners building on transactionallearning (learning through doing, collabora-tion, inquiry, critical reflection), and movinginto transformational learning (a profound shiftin beliefs, attitudes, interpretations, habits ofmind, perspective).

The social neuroscience theory of activationand control of affective racial bias has positedthat racial bias resides in the amygdala, a "smallalmond-shaped set of nuclei located bilater-

ally in the medial temporal lobes" (Amodio,Devine, & Harmon-Jones, 2007, p. 3) ofthe brain.The amygdala has been described as "a criticalstructure for vigilance, arousal, learning, andthe orchestration ofthe fight-or-flight response"(Amodio, Devine, & Harmon-Jones, 2007, p. 4). Itis also the hub of our emotional responses. Thistheory has posited that those who are highlymotivated internally to be racially unbiasedare much more successful than those who areexternally motivated. This internal motivationoften has been determined by how personallymeaningful one feels it is to be racially unbiased.

These particular theories positioned thisstudy to take the following stance: first, thattransformational learning can occur in art edu-cation and this type of learning shifts studentsbeyond transactional learning into a space oftransformational learning. Second, racial atti-tudes can be influenced and changed by engag-ing both the affective and cognitive processes.This theory also has supported the idea that ifindividuals make an emotional and personalconnection to the social issues of race, they maypotentially be able to unlearn bias. Lastly, arteducation is positioned to effectively addressthe issues of racial bias because visual thinkingand expression in art facilitates the explorationof emotional associations, provokes emotionalresponses, and influences the way individu-als feel and think about an Issue. This meaningmaking is a critical component to unlearningracial bias (Amodio, Devine, & Harmon-Jones,2007) and is essential to facilitating transforma-tional learning (Mezirow, 1997, 2000).

Paradigm and MethodologyIn consideration ofthe research questions for

this current study, a mixed methods approachwas justified as offering both the benefits ofquantitative and qualitative approaches forresearch. This mixed-method study followed asequential transformative design and reflecteda transformative paradigm, which utilized apractitioner inquiry approach. For an elabo-

Studies in Art Education I Volume S4, No. 2 143

Table 1.0Elaborated Visualization of the Sequential Transformative Mixed Methods Design

QUANPhase I

Instrument/Method Participants

Order ofMethod

Relevant MixedMethodsPurpose Rationale Research Question Addressed

Implicit AttitudeTest (IAT)

Explicit AttitudeMeasure

19 preservice arteducators wlio enrolledin ARED 5130/71.10Spring 2010 andvolunteered toparticipate

Primary DevelopmentSequential

QUAN

• Aims to measure implicit/explicitracial attitudes pre/post course andassess whether an attitude change hasoccurred post course. Guide the structure of the MCAEcourse and qualitative data collection

• What are the implicit and explicitracial attitudes of the preservice andpracticing art educators' whoparticipated in this study?

QUALPhase II

Instrument/Method Participants

Order ofMethod

Relevant MixedMethodsPurpose Rationale Research Question Addressed

Interviews

WrittenReflectionResponses

Visual ArtResponses

ClassroomObservations

ResearcherJoumai

19 preservice arteducators who enrolledin ARED 5130/7130Spring 2010 andvolunteered toparticipate

Secondary Complementarity • Qualitative data ¡iima to furtherSequential understanding of participants' racial

attitudesQUAL • Different methods aim to establish

triangulation• Researcher journal allows fordocumentation of subjectivities• Interview, written reflections, andvisual artworks provide multipleperspectives

• How do these art educators express,through oral, written and visua!responses, their racial/culturalattitudes and understandings of selfand others in relation to theirexperiences in a social justicemulticultural art education studiocourse?• In what ways and to what extent dothe qualitative data {oral, written, andvisual responses) help to explain thequantitative data (implicit and explicitracial attitude responses) and viceversa?• What influence does participating,engaging and learning in an arteducation studio course focused onsocial justice issues of race and racismhave on preservice and practicing aneducators' racial attitudes?

Elaborated Visualization of the Sequential Transformative Mixed Methods Design. Credit: N. P. Lee (2011 ).Unpublished dissertation.

rated visualization of the sequential transforma-tive mixed methods design (including researchquestions), see Table 1.

Participants and data sources. This studytook place at the University of Georgia, locatedin Athens, Georgia. The university is locatedin the Northeastern portion of the state, andgraduating educators serve the rural Athens-Clarke county area. As of 2009, the averagemedian income was $28,488, with 64.3% of theracial makeup of the city of Athens identifyingas White and 25.1% as Black. Latino/a popula-

tions make up 5.5% and 3.6% identify as Asian(Advameg, Inc., 2011).

Georgia's educational workforce, much likethe nation as a whole, is predominately (76.6%)made up of White teachers (Georgia ProfessionalStandards Commission, 2006). Although thesample group used in this study was small (19participants), limiting the generafizability of thestudy, the racial makeup of the participant poolwas highly reflective of typical preservice teacherenrollment at many universities in the UnitedStates, as well as the educational workforce in

144 Lee / Investigating Race and Racisnfi

the United States. Furthermore, although thisstudy took place in the Southeast region of theUnited States, prejudice and racism is often con-sidered a national problem.

Nineteen out of 22 students enrolled in thecourse in which the research was conductedvolunteered to participate in the study. Twoparticipants self-identified as Black, one asMultiracial, one as Asian, and the remaining stu-dents identified themselves as White. Two of theparticipants were also male. Students ranged inage between 19 and 35 years old. Five studentshad previously taught art in K-12 settings, and 5students were also graduate level students.

The instruments utilized in the quantitativephase of the study included a pre/post coursepaper-format Implicit Attitude Test adaptedfrom a study by Lemm, Lane, Sattler, Khan andNosek (2008) and a pre/post course ExplicitAttitudeTest adapted from Hinojosa and Moras's(2009) study. The qualitative portion included apractitioner research case study. The qualitativemethods used included an interview with eachparticipant, collection of participants' writtenreflection responses to assigned readings, andvisual art responses to studio assignments. Italso included classroom observations of theparticipants throughout the semester and theuse of a researcher journal.

Transformative Art EducationPedagogy

The learning objectives of this courseincluded developing students' studio skillswhile simultaneously facilitating an under-standing of themselves racially, culturally, andhistorically. Another goal was to help themgain a deeper understanding of cultural diver-sity and transform their understanding of therole of race in education while they developedculturally relevant approaches to teaching arteducation. Furthermore, this course was alsointended to better prepare art educators toserve diverse populations and assist them in

becoming more comfortable with the topic ofrace. Throughout the course, students criticallyinvestigated, examined, and problematized thenature of race in education. Through arts learn-ing, they began to better understand how race,identity, and racism complicate the relationshipbetween teachers and students. Engaging inthis transformative learning process in art edu-cation facilitated a change in these students'racial attitudes. Moreover, these students cameto understand that effective teaching involvesmore than teaching strategies, the planning ofthe curriculum, and subject matter knowledge.It also includes the beliefs and attitudes of aneducator and the ways in which these disposi-tions shape an educator's teaching approach inthe art classroom.

Significance of addressing racial bias in astudio art course. Exploring complex issues,such as race, through artmaking, allows educa-tors the possibility of "capturing the ineffable,the hard-to-put-into-words" (Weber, 2008, p.225). Because visual expression allows one toexpand his or her understandings beyond thelimitation of words, artmaking provides an oftenoverlooked means of knowing and an under-used research avenue for exploring a phenom-enon. Maxine Greene pointed out that learningin the arts facilitates "wide awakeness" (Greene,2000, p. 35). This concept has suggested thatarts learning can facilitate an individual devel-oping a higher plane of consciousness, a morealert state of awareness and a keener sense ofself-reflection. A person who is at this level ofawareness is capable of understanding them-selves and the world through multiple perspec-tives. This positions one to move beyond limitedperspectives of one's own life history and expe-riences. By becoming "wide-awake" (p. 4), one isable to situate oneself in the world and discovera connection between self and other. Greenepointed out that by "learning to look throughmultiple perspectives, young people may behelped to build bridges among themselves;


attending to a range of human stories, they maybe provoked to heal and to transform" (p. 167).

Teaching dispositions and strategies. I aimedto engage these students in dialogue about dif-ficult racial subjects in a way that acknowledgedthe validity of their questions and simultane-ously demonstrated the process of examininga question about race without passing judg-ment on the person(s) who inquired. Listeningcalmly, attentively, and non-judgmentallyto students' questions modeled appropriatebehavior for classroom discourse. Thoughtfullyresponding to difficult questions also had theeffect of immediately reducing tensions in theclassroom. I tried, through my actions, reactions,and dialogue, to set a tone that welcomed openinquiry. This approach facilitated the conversa-tions in the classroom rather than shutting themdown prematurely.

Artwork as a data source. Using artwork asa data source presented unique challenges.Because this course also functioned as an intro-ductory studio art course, students enteredthe course with varying levels of skills in print-making, digital photography, and ceramics. Itwas unclear what role technical ability withina medium played in the success of studentartwork to convey their understanding of racialissues. Furthermore, because some studentswere more advanced in their artmaking skills,this data was not analyzed as an indicator ofprogressive levels of racial understanding foreach individual participant. Instead, writtenreflections, artworks, artist statements, exhib-ited behaviors/thoughts shared during in-classdiscussions and interviews that exemplifiedparticular racial attitude typologies (Naïve,Informed, Ally) were analyzed and utilized inthis study (Lee, 2011). These typologies werenot intended to represent bounded categories.Rather, participants may have exhibited only afew traits within a specific category, more thanone trait across different categories, or may

have moved in and out of different categoriesthroughout the semester.

Naïve racial attitude typologies oftenincluded negative behaviors, dialogue, orthoughts that reflected both active racism(engaging in discrimination or violence againstPeople of Color) and more subtle passive racism(avoiding contact with other groups outsideof one's own racial group). Informed emergenttraits tended to include behaviors, dialogue,and cognitions that indicated a shift towardsintellectualization of racial issues, while sub-merged affective responses to these issues arestill apparent. For example, informed individualsmay unwittingly support a color-blind ideologyor tend to look to People of Color to explainracism and offer solutions. Ally racial attitudetraits supported behaviors, discourse, and think-ing that are well-balanced and realistic views ofrace and the effects of racism. These individualshave developed or are in the process of devel-oping an understanding of actions that can betaken to effectively fight racism.

Written reflections. For example, emer-gent traits of naïve racial attitude develop-ment (see Figure 1) were expressed, in part, inthe written reflections (see Table 3 for promptthemes). Students responded to written reflec-tion prompts that aimed to assess the level ofcomfort participants had in discussing issues ofrace at the onset of the course. The first reflec-tion prompt included the following questions:How comfortable are you with discussing thetopic of race? Are there particular topics that aremore comfortable/less comfortable for you todiscuss? Do you think it is important to be com-fortable talking about race as an art teacher?Why or why not?

Thirteen students out ofthe 19 participantsindicated that they were somewhat comfort-able discussing race, with 2 students statingthat they were uncomfortable with the topic.The remaining 4 students indicated that theywere very comfortable discussing issues of race


and diversity. Of the 4 students who stated theywere very comfortabie, 2 seif-identified as Biack,one as Multiracial, and one as White. However,while only 2 students admitted to being uncom-fortable with the topic of race, many studentswho initially indicated that they were comfort-able with this topic also revealed through theirresponses a certain level of discomfort withspecific racial topics or discussing racial issues ingroups that included individuals outside of theirown race. Additionally, some of these partici-pants' remarks also indicated a color-blind ide-ology that supported a belief that racial issuespertain only to People of Color. For example, thefollowing quote highlighted how one partici-pant stated she felt comfortable with the topicunless it focused on the history of racism. It alsoindicated her struggle to come to terms withhow the history of racism is relevant in her life.She wrote:

I think the only difficult thing to talkabout when it comes to race is the issueof racism as it pertained to slavery. When Ihear of people talking about the hostilitybetween Whites and Blacks and how somepeople believe it is still carrying on today,I'm not sure what to say. I wasn't aroundbefore anti-discrimination laws were putinto effect. It's not really a topic I can reallyrelate to, so I prefer not to discuss it toomuch.

Another participant responded similarly,writing:

There are few topics I am uncomfortablediscussing within race, and reallythe only time I would be completelyuncomfortable is if someone was directlyaccusatory of me rather [than] Whitepeople in general—I have personallydone nothing to anyone, and can't beheld responsible for what my great-great-grandparents may have done.Additionally, some participants stated that

they did not understand why race was such acharged topic. Others felt that because they

were White, a discussion about race did notpertain to them or made them uncomfortable.One participant stated: "So as to my comfortlevel, I don't mind discussing it, but I sometimesget annoyed with it being such a "hot topic"because I don't see why it should be."

Another participant responded, "Because Iam not a minority, I do not feel as comfortablediscussing racial issues."

One replied: "growing up, I never regularlyparticipated in conversations that involved raceor ethnicities, and when the topic did occasion-ally arise I was always shocked that these kindsof topics needed to be discussed."

Additionally, the common theme emergedthat suggested that many (13) of the White par-ticipants struggled with color-blind ideology asstated by this participant:

[I] developed an attitude of "colorblindness" that I believed to be thesuperior attitude towards the topic. Itwasn't until I started to take educationalclasses in college that 1 realized thatthis attitude was not in fact the mostenlightened view of race. In fact, this "colorblindness" may have been merely my wayof hiding and dealing with the feelingsof guilt and ignorance that have beeningrained into my White suburban culture.In response to this reflection, another student

made this comment:

I can definitely see what you mean aboutgrowing up thinking "color blindness" wasthe best way to look at race/ethnicity. Iwent to a private school, full of mostlyWhite kids, but there were a few Latinosand Koreans, and five or six Black kids. Butin my small school, that felt normal. I don'tever remember having issues with any ofthe above people looking different, butthat could also just be because we neverreally addressed the issue of race in myschool. Talking about it now, in college,seems strange because I think that theseconversations should have happenedwhen I was younger, to help me develop


a more appropriate attitude towards thesubject of race.

Furthermore, some of the participantsshared a common concern about the potentialfor offending others with their comments aboutrace. Several felt that a lack of experience withpeople outside of their racial group was a factorin their inability to feel comfortable talkingabout racial issues. Ofthe 19 participants, 13White participants, 1 Black participant, and 1Asian participant indicated that they had verylimited and cursory experiences with individu-als outside of their own racial group or that mostof their interactions were with White individuals.

One wrote: "I grew up In the country inMississippi where most of my experience ofracial issues was a divided line between races.We didn't cross that line much, nor did we talkabout it."

Another added:

I just feel like I don't want to step onanyone's toes by saying something thatsounds disrespectful. Saying that.... I amnot quite sure where that line is becauseofthe small town I grew up in. In myhometown not many Whites and Blacksassociated with each other, and to bequite honest, I really don't know why. Ifeel terrible saying all ofthat, but it wasjust the way I was raised along with everyother friend of [mine] from my hometown.In response to the prompt regarding how

important it is for an art educator to be comfort-able talking about racial issues, the vast major-ity ofthe class stated that it was very important.One participant wrote:

As an art educator, it has always been mygoal that my students come away fromtheir experiences with the ability to viewtheir world in ways that are different thanbefore.

Being [an] art teachers allows us THEPERFECT opportunity to have meaningful dis-cussions about our world and how we see it,as well as how we are "seen" in it.... we provide

students with a safe environment (free of judg-ment) to hold these discussions, they will havesome of the most meaningful dialogues youcan imagine- it also allows the students whoare interested in creating art with social/politi-cal messages an avenue to explore those topics.Our students feed off of our energy, and we canhave either a positive or negative affect in howsuccessful they are In navigating their world.

However, a few students felt that race wasnot a topic that should be explored by art edu-cators unless a racial confrontation occurred inthe classroom that warranted such a discussion.For example, one participant wrote:

I think it is very important for a teacherto be able to talk about race, but only ifthe subject comes up. I feel that thereshould be no need to bring up the subjecteveryday, but there will be times when itbecomes an issue.

The responses to this first written reflectionprompt indicated that although many par-ticipants initially stated they were comfortablewith the topic of race, their discourse revealedvarying levels of discomfort. Those studentswho indicated a lack of experience with diversepopulations also indicated the highest levelsof discomfort and concern with offendingothers in discussions about race. Additionally,while several students had been previouslyintroduced to race-related topics such as color-blindness and Whiteness in prior universitycourses and recognized the role it played intheir understanding of race, others indicateda lack of understanding of themselves as racialbeings, a disconnect between their lives and ahistory of racism, and questioned the relevanceof discussing racial issues at all, much less inthe art classroom. This perspective reflected alimited understanding of racial experiences andits role in the I ives of Students of Color. Such atti-tudes suggested that these participants viewedthe world through their own biased racial lens


and evaluated the value of understanding racebased on their own limited racial experiences.

Studio artwork. There were three visual artresponses collected from the students in thiscourse. The first was a mixed media responsefocused on reflecting the students'understand-ing of themselves as racial beings (see Figure1). The second visual response explored theuse of clay and digital media as a reflection ofthe students' understanding of race viewedthrough multiple perspectives (see Figure2). The third visual response was created ina medium chosen by the student and aimedto reflect their comprehensive understand-ing of the role of race in education and society(see Figure 3). Peer critiques of students' workoccurred at the beginning (idea stage), middle(creating stage), and final (completion stage) ofartmaking. The critique strategy involved smallgroups of students talking about each other'swork. Instructor critiques were one-on-one andalso occurred at the beginning and final stagesof artmaking. These critiques aimed to facilitatestudents addressing the racial aspects of theart project by encouraging them to think abouthow their art reflected their understanding ofthe racial topics being discussed in the course.

For example, the second studio experienceinvolved ceramics hand-building techniquesand focused on exploring the human figure inclay and digital photography. Springgay andFreedman (2007) explained that "to locate thebody in the threshold of meaning making" (p.120) situates one "to understand that to be abody is to be continuously in relation with otherbodies and the world"(p. 120). By creating worksthat incorporated the human figure, studentsproblematized how society marks individuals asdifferent. This studio experience also aimed tohighlight how the cultural se/fis oriented to theother and how society conceptualizes the bodyas difference.

This project was titled. Beauty, Self and theOther. Students began by reading select chapters

Figure 1. This mixed media piece explores one student'sracial history. Credit: Stevie (Stephanie) Turner.


left: Figure 2. Thisstudent's artwork visuallyexamines society'sdiscomfort with the topicof race.Credit: Morgan Rountree.

Below: Figure 3.A student's final artproject examining Asianstereotypes.Credit: Jasmine Hwa.


in books that focused on artworks addressingthe concept of beauty and racial identity (Harris,2003; Pinder, 2002; Willis, 2009). Students alsoanalyzed and critiqued the 1994 lithographytitled. Wigs (portfoiio), by Lorna Simpson. Herinstallation piece examined the ways in whichAfrican American women "conform to, or rebelagainst, prevailing White standards of beauty bybraiding, dying, weaving, and processing theirhair" (Walker Art Center, 1999). Students alsovisually analyzed and talked about two sculp-tures created in 1997 and 1998 by Alison Saar:Blonde Dreams and Chaos in the Kitchen. Both

of the pieces also explore hair as a marker ofracial identity and the role that hair plays in thelives of African American women. Students alsoparticipated in small group discussions afterwatching a special segment of the Tyra Banks'sshow, titled Good Hair, and a short documen-tary titled A Girl Like Me, on the UnderstandingRace Web site (www.understandingrace.org).Both videos examined standards of beauty forAfrican American women. After reviewing theseartworks and videos and discussing both, stu-dents were given essential questions to guidethe development of their artworks.

Some students chose to explore this topicthrough the use of clay while others chose towork with digital photography. The participantsresponded visually to a particular topic dis-cussed in class and tied it to an essential ques-tion. For example, one student responded tothe video A Giri Like Me and visually expressedher response to the essential question, "Whatare the hidden messages sent to People of Colorabout the standards of'beauty' in America"? Thestudent created a brain out of clay; its surfacemorphed into a mass of ideal White femalebodies. It rests on a cut-paper silhouette of ayoung Black girl's profile (see Figure 4). In herartist's statement she wrote:

Throughout the media, makeup counters,and hair salons. Whiteness dominatesstandards of beauty. Society tells us that

Figure 4. This clay piece explores how Whitenesscan dominate ideals of beauty, affecting theperceptions of Children of Color.Credit: Brittaney McDermott.

women of color need to take any measurepossible to be light-skinned and straight-haired or they will risk being stereotypedand fetishized... these rigid, anglicizedbeauty standards have [even] affectedyoung children's perceptions ofthemselves.


Findings and Implications of the StudyThe findings indicated that the course was

effective in improving the majority of the partic-ipants' implicit and explicit racial attitudes andsuggested that learning through art aided par-ticipants in the development of dispositions thatpotentially promoted their unlearning of racialbiases. The results from the quantitative mea-sures indicated that participants' racial attitudeswere malleable and did improve during partici-pation in the course. The Implicit Attitudes Testscores indicated that a significant (f(18) = 2.28,p< .05) positive change in attitudes occurredwhen comparing the pre-test and post-testscores (see Table 2). Additionally, the ExplicitAttitude Test results indicated a positive changeregarding racial misconceptions. Most (17/19)of the participants expressed that their culturalcompetencies and comfort levels regardingworking with racially diverse populations andthe topic of race had improved.

The transformational process of changingparticipants' racial attitudes was an iterativeprocess. Students' written reflections indicatedthat they often moved in and out of the threetrait typologies (Naive, Informed, Ally) developedin this study. However, the overall trend duringthe course of the semester was a movementtoward "Ally" traits. This trend was seen whencomparing six key written reflection prompts,reflections one through four, seven, and the finalreflection, to the participants' responses as cat-egorized by their racial trait typology (see Table3). Each prompt aimed to assess the participants'racial attitudes at the beginning, middle, andend of the semester.

Analysis of students' visual artworks, artiststatements, written reflections, and interviewsindicated a deeper involvement and racialunderstanding in the course due to the creationof their artworks. This deeper, more personalinvolvement, in conjunction with the improve-ment of the scores on the racial attitude post-tests and students' direct statements, suggest

that making an emotional connection to a topicthrough artmaking can aid in facilitating a racialattitude change. Additionally, the artworksindicated a greater depth of understandingof racial issues than did the written reflectionsand in-class discussions. For example, severalstudents indicated a lack of understandingregarding issues of Whiteness when writingabout this topic. A few even stated within theirwritten reflection that they were confused ordid not fully understand the concept, yet theircompleted artworks and artist's statements indi-cated a burgeoning understanding of this topic.This may have been due to multiple factors.One factor may have been that the artmak-ing process allowed for a more introspectivereflection on the topics discussed in-class. Byemotionally connecting to racial issues throughartmaking, students entered a transformationalspace of learning that engaged them in deeperpersonal refiection, allowed them to share in thefeelings and experiences of others and questiontheir long-standing belief systems (Mezirow,1997, 2000; O'Sullivan, 2003). Another factormay have been that the artmaking processprovided a period of gestation. This period oftime may have provided students the opportu-nity to absorb, process, and digest the new andoften unfamiliar information they had learned,resulting in increased understanding. Duringthe interviews, most (15/19) of the participantsstated that creating the artworks helped themto process the information from the course read-ings and discussions. Because most art educa-tors are visual learners, this may suggest thatartmaking provides another way of demonstrat-ing one's development of critical and higherorder thinking skills, as well as providing a spacefor transformational learning to occur.

Another finding from the study supports theidea that how the class is taught is equally, if notmore, important than what is taught. Creating asafe environment for students is key, especiallywhen discussing a highly sensitive topic such


Table 2.0IAT Participant Scores

n=l9

1

2

3

4*

5

6

7*

8

9*

10*

11

12

13

14

15*

16

17

18

19

Black/Good

15

19

16

18

12

14

19

17

19

24

15

19

23

14

11

19

20

20

22

Pre-test Scores

White/Good

29

20

20

20

29

22

30

16

21

20

14

22

19

17

15

20

20

18

11

zscore(B/G)

- 0.775

0.379

- 0.486

0.091

- 1.641

- 1.063

0.379

-0.197

0.379

1.822

- 0.775

0.379

1.534

- 1.063

- 1.929

0.379

0.668

0.091

1.245

* Iadicates five instances where students'

z-score(W/G)

1.832

- 0.033

- 0.033

- 0.033

1.832

0.381

2.039

- 0.862

0.174

- 0.033

- 1.276

0.381

- 0.240

- 0.654

- 1.069

- 0.033

- 0.033

- 0.447

- 1.898

Black/Good

18

20

17

15

18

23

14

18

18

23

18

28

23

26

10

20

23

20

27

Post-test Score:

White/Good

28

21

23

19

27

20

16

23

13

25

21

20

18

24

11

20

16

21

16

assoeiations of Black with perceptions of "good'

zscore(B/G)

-0.438

0.011

- 0.663

- 1.114

- 0.438

0.687

- 1.339

- 0.438

- 0.438

0.687

- 0.438

1.812

0.687

1.362

- 2.239

0.011

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

z-score(W/G)

1.832

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 0.775

- 2.098

- 0.024

- 0.946

0.206

- 0.946

' declined post-course

IAT Participant Scores. Credit N. P. Lee (2011 ). Unpublished dissertation.


Table 3.0Overall Changes in Racial Attitudes

Written Reflection Prompt/Semester Date Naïve

«/percentage (+/- .01)

Naïve/ Informed/Informed Informed Ally Ally

Reflection 1 Theme:Comfort level with topic of race andthe importance of being comfortablewith the topic.(January 11 th)

Reflection 2 Theme:Experience and interactions withindividuals from a different racialgroup than one's own.(January 18th)

Reflection 3 Theme:Importance of understanding racialhistories and self-assessment of one'scurrent level of cultural proficiency.(January 25th)

Reflection 4 Theme:Understanding White privilege and itsrole in one's life.(February 1st)

Reflection 7 Theme:Understanding how one's race affectsthe perspective through which theyview the world.(March 8th)

Final Reflection Theme:Assessment of comfort levels andsense of social agency.(April 27th)

12 3 4 0 063.16% 15.79% 21.05% 0.00% 0.00%

12 3 4 0 063.16% 15.79% 21.05% 0.00% 0.00%

0 11 7 1 00.00% 57.89% 36.84% 5.26% 0.00%

3 4 6 6 015.79% 21.05% 31.58% 31.58% 0.00%

0 6 2 7 40.00% 31.58% 10.53% 36.84% 21.05%

0 6 2 4 70.00% 31.58% 10.53% 21.05% 36.84%

Overall Changes in Racial Attitudes. Credit: N. P. Lee (2011). Unpublished dissertation.


as race. In order to facilitate open and honestdialogue, students need to feel as if they willnot be judged for their racial misunderstand-ings or labeled as a racist for their opinions.This means setting a tone for the course thatnurtures inquiry, encourages vulnerability, andensures safety for all students in the course.Multiple perspectives must be respected andvalued. Teacher educators who choose toaddress such potentially volatile topics shouldtake great care to remain constantly mindful ofthe heightened emotional state such conversa-tions can create. As such, a good first step is toestablish and discuss the ground rules for class-room dialogue. Secondly, teacher educatorsshould explain to the class that each studentparticipating will have a different level of racialunderstanding and all levels of understand-ing are welcome. This helps to set the tone forencouraging open inquiry without judgment.Lastly, the topic of race is broad and complex.Thus, choosing specific readings, events, art-works, artist, videos, and/or subject matter toguide a conversation about race provides theteacher educator with a tangible foundationfor researching multiple perspectives on a par-ticular racial issue. Such preparation can betterprepare the instructor for responding thought-fully when potential difficult topics arise in con-versations about race.

Throughout the course, it became appar-ent that both Students of Color and White stu-dents held racial biases toward others as wellas their own racial groups, employ color-blindlanguage and ideology, and perpetuate stereo-types. Much of the literature to date focusesspecifically on strategies aimed at helpingWhite preservice educators become more pre-pared for working with diverse populations.The transformative nature of this study not onlyinfluenced how participants understood racebut also brings to light the misconception of allWhite teacher candidates as potentially lackingin their ability and willingness to examine racial

issues. This is not to say that Students of Colorand White students have the same needs whenlearning about race, in fact, their needs are oftenvery different. Rather, regardless of students'racial experiences, interactions, and under-standings, learning together in an environmentwhere students' needs differ is a critical compo-nent in helping students to appreciate multipleperspectives and develop empathy for others.While race may typically position one group toexperience life very differently from another,potentially allowing for one group to developbetter insights of racial issues, it is not the onlyfactor that determines one's willingness to criti-cally examine race and readiness to engage inantiracist actions. Many White preservice teach-ers are interested, willing, and able to criticallyexamine race.

Lowenstein (2009) reiterated this point,warning that conceptualizing White preser-vice educators as "deficient learners" (p. 163)of diversity issues can affect these students'engagement in multicultural education courses.Lowenstein also pointed out that it is criticalthat teacher educators remember that whileWhite preservice teachers may be lacking intheir diversity experiences and knowledge,this does not automatically mean that they arelacking in their willingness or ability to becomeculturally responsive and racially literate teach-ers. Furthermore, Lowenstein suggested thatteacher educators who conceptualize all "teachercandidates as competent learners who bring richresources to their learning" (p. 187) are, in effect,practicing the very tenets of culturally respon-sive teaching they espouse.

ConclusionThe results of this study indicated that preser-

vice and practicing teachers were not immuneto negative racial attitudes as indicated in theirinitial Implicit Attitude and Explicit Attitude testscores (see Table 2 and 3 respectively). However,learning through art facilitated positive attitude


change as indicated in the participants'improvedracial attitude scores at the end of the course,their written reflections, interview responses,and their art pieces. The artmaking experienceshelped the students explore the topic of race in away that was both personal and meaningful. Art,as another way of knowing, allowed these prac-ticing and preservice educators to move outsidetheir comfort zones, take risks, and learn to viewthe world through multiple frames of reference.In making artworks as a way of exploring under-standing, these art education students visuallyengaged with the complex issues of race. Thedata collected from the artmaking experiencesemphasize that not only does artmaking allowone to move beyond the limitations inherentin language, creative expression is inextricablylinked to both cognitive and affective processes,which fosters a transformative learning experi-ence (Mezirow, 1997, 2000; O'Suilivan, 2003).While this introductory studio art course wasmodified specifically to focus on race for the pur-poses of this study, the results from this studysuggest that introducing race as a topic of discus-sion and artistic reflection may also be beneficialto students in higher-level studio courses. Futurestudies are needed to determine outcomesfrom participation in higher-level studio courses

designed for art educators and art educationprograms that provide more than one art edu-cation studio course as part of their program ofstudy. Such studies may help to support the ideathat in teacher education programs, art can playa critical role in addressing social justice issuessuch as racism. Ladson-Billings (2006) wrote.

Race is the proverbial "elephant in theparlor."We know it's right there staring usin the face—making life uncomfortableand making it difficult for us to accomplisheverything we would like to do—but wekeep pretending it isn't, (p. x)

By examining racial issues, educators canbegin to understand how and why students'worldviewsmaybedifferentfromtheirown.Thisrealization can be a starting point for educatorsto begin to develop ways in which to effectivelybridge the cultural differences between them-selves and their students. The participants inthis study were able to begin to view the worldthrough multiple perspectives, develop insightinto their own racial identity, and understandthemselves in relation to others. As a result,these participants also began building a foun-dation of cultural proficiency and racial literacythat is key in effectively responding to the needsof all students in the art classroom, equally andequitably.

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