structural outline contemporary
TRANSCRIPT
b STRUCTURAL OUTLINE OF:
PLURALISM OF CONTEMPORARY
URBARCHITECTURAL DESIGN u\
bY
M a r i j a n H r z i c
January 1980
The Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y
Center fo r Met ropo l i t an Planning and Research
Shr i ve r H a l l
Hornewood Campus
Ba l t imore Mary1 and 21 21 8
.
STRUCTURAL OUTLINE OF:
PLURALISM OF CONTEMPORARY
URBARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Mari jan Hrzic
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE: URBAN DESIGN-THEORY AND PRACTICE I N CROSSCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE .
1.1 Urban design philosophies i n the second half of the 20th centurv
1.1.1. theories and approaches t o urban design.
1.1.2. recent approaches t o urban design of the Yugoslav authors
1.1.3. summary of cr i t iques
1.2 contemporary urbarchitecture
1.2.1 language of modern urbarchitecture
1.2.2. language of postmodern urbarchitecture
1.2.3. "Where we are a t now''
1.3 models i n urban design process
1.3.1. design making processes and urban design
1.3.2. systems approach
1 . 3 . 3 . pattern language
A Reference B i bl iography
CHAPTER TWO: ,URBAN DESIGN-BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
2.1 envi ronmen ta l knowi ng
2.1 -1. environmental perception, cognition and evaluation
2.1 2. environmental meaning and symbolism
2.1.3. formal design and the theory of perception
2.2 environmental behavior
2.2.1. physical and sociocultural context
2 . 2 . 2 . value systems and l i f e s t y l e
2.2.3. s u b j e c t i v e urban morphology
2.3 behav io ra l research methods
2.3.1 . s o c i a l science technique
2.3.2. measuring the v i s u a l environment
2 . 3 . 3 . some examples i n p r a c t i c e
A Reference B i b l iography
CHAPTER THREE: TOWARD PLURALISM-ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO URBAN DESIGN I N YUGOSLAVIA
3.1 s o c i a l and phys i ca l space i n Yugoslavia
3.1 . I bas ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o c i o - c u l t u r a l and phys i ca l con tex t
3.1.2. p l u r a l i s m o f contemporary urban form i n Yugoslavia
3 . 1 . 3 . images and symbol ism o f urban form - f u t u r e perspec t ive
3.2 . e c o l o g i c a l approach t o urban design
3.2.1. p lann ing and urban design i n Yugoslavia
3.2.2. o rgan iza t i on o f space/time and meaning i n contemporary Yugoslav urbanism
3.2.3. implementat ion and e v o l u t i o n o f design ideas
3.3 modeling the design process
3.3.1. choice c r i t e r i a i n modeling t h e process
3.3.2. p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n design process
3.3.3. rep resen ta t i on o f design ideas
A Reference Bib1 iography
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE STRUCTURAL OUTLINE
STRUCTURAL OUTLINE OF:
PLURALISM OF CONTEMPORARY
URBARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
PREFACE
Th is r e p o r t represents a sketch o f a research p l a n begun i n t h e autumn
o f 1979 a t t h e Center f o r M e t r o p o l i t a n Planning and Research o f The Johns
Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y i n Bal t imore.
severa l years s tudy of u r b a r c h i t e c t u r e i n a cross-cu l t u r a l perspec t ive . The
ideas conta ined here have been tes ted bo th i n my own design p r o j e c t s and
i n s tudy and conversat ions w i t h co l leges i n my count ry and throughout the
wor ld.
It i s a t t he same t ime a con t inua t ion of
Al though n o t l i m i t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r audience, t h i s work i s in tended
p r i m a r i l y f o r those i n the f i e l d o f u r b a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r a c t i c e . I t s compre-
hensive na tu re i s necess
found i n Croat ian.
It i s n o t my i n t e n t
t a t e d by t h e s c a r c i t y o f r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l t o be
on here t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e new body o f knowledge
(an under tak ing beyond my a b i l i t y ) b u t r a t h e r t o concentrate on a s t r u c t u r a l
format i n t o which e x i s t i n g ideas can be organized.
o rgan iza t i on w i l l p resent those who c rea te our phys ica l environment w i t h a
g r e a t e r a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o t h e means t o answer t h e complex quest ions w i t h
which our profess ion i s conf ron ted today.
It i s hoped t h a t such
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INTRODUCTION
we need an architecture and urban design that i s hwnan, as wet2 as e f f i c i e n t , mindful of histor.ic continuity, as well as technically advanced.
Wolf von Eckardt , 1979
... m a n ? Nuts. No, the word '%umanrr i s one of those words we a l l agree with, l i k e "motherhood. '' I ' m not against motherhood. Or children! Or honesty! Look! I ' m not building f o r orangutans or elephants. I ' m building for people, by the very jobs I get. . .
Phi 1 i p Johnson, 1973
I t vould be fashionable t o blame planners and archi tects f o r so much brand new environmental pollution. the fa i lure o f others t o be active participants ... But they have come by the ir power through
I hope t o in teres t social and behavioral s c i en t i s t s and the c l i en t s for n m environemtns toward awareness of an involvement i n specifying the hwnan properties any new environment i s t o respond to . . .
. ..there is more t o be gained from, it i s thought, being exp l i c i t , stating intent ions, searching f o r irregulari t ies , making measurements, than from pronouncing s t i l l another aesthetic manifesto.
Constance Penn , 1970
Nobody these days w i l l believe anything tha t i s spontaneous or artist ic. Everything i s s c i e n t i f i c . Wissenschaft, which of course i t ' s not. role of the a r t i s t t o show what the town should be l i ke . architecture i s a crutch. ..
Sociologists pretend that sociology i s a I t ' s j u s t abracadabra. I t i s the
Sociology i n
Phi 1 i p Johnson , 1973
Correlation between urbarchitectural practice and the resul ts of
behavioral research e i ther doesn't exis t or i s inadequate a t best.
s i t u a t i o n needs t o be changed t o draw together common elements of
environmental psychology, social anthropology, urban sociology and urban
design. To achieve th i s goal, a dialogue must be established between social
s c i en t i s t s and designers. The continued growth of in te res t i n establishing
such a dialogue among the former i s countered by the constant level of
d o u b t among the l a t t e r .
This
True, there does ex is t a body of research i n the f i e ld o f man-environment
studies made by architects.
attempt t o bridge the f i e lds are instead transformed; they are no longer
architects (see the i r bibliographies, or the i r buildings - i f they ex i s t ) .
Thus alienated from the i r profession, they do not succeed i n contributing
t o the interaction of these disciplines i n such a way as t o influence urban
design practice.
The problem i s t h a t those professionalists who
Another negative impetus t o synthesizing these f ie lds is the diversity
o f sources and the i r widespread dispersal. There have been some attempts
t o draw t h i s scattered material together. These attempts have resulted i n
- e i ther rather massive volumes (for example see Rapoport) or anthologies of
related b u t disconnected a r t i c l e s (e.g., Jon Lang) . The results of these
archi tects-cum-behavioral sc ien t i s t s present the designer w i t h a smorgasbord
o f information and conclusions, b u t while the ideas may be good, wi thout a
change i n the tradit ional education of urbarchitects, they are not useful.
The vocabularies and the ways of t h i n k i n g behind them are too diverse t o
permit communication.
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The architect-cum-behavioral s c i en t i s t has become a behavioral s c i en t i s t
who places a heavy emphasis on urbarchitecture.
produce urbarchi tec t s who w i 11 have an awareness and emphasi s on the behavioral
sciences.
new emphasis.
The goal desired here i s t o
What i s advocated here i s an approach t o urbarchitecture and a
Only i f ihe archi tect avoids becoming infatuated w i t h the f i e ld of
behavioral science can his e f for t s of synthesis be useful i n urbarchitectural
practice. Up t o the present time there have been few such attempts. This
scarcity of work therefore makes any attempt i n t h i s direction worthwhile,
even should the resul ts achieved f a l l short of the desired goal.
The ideas presented here will be as simple as the subject permits.
The structure of the study takes a t r i p a r t i t e form.
o f the structure will be used t o help the reader visualize the interaction
o f se t s o f items.
independently of any other s e t , t h o u g h each se t i s an integrated p a r t of the
whole.
material may be found heading each of the 27 members of the f i r s t generation
o f subsets.
Graphical representation
Each s e t or subset is selfcontained and may be read
There are a l s o two generations of subsets. S h o r t summaries of the
This graphic scheme also provides two guides for reading the material.
One i s a ste-by-step progression for those who have time t o read the en t i re
body.
suggested t h a t the l a t t e r read the summaries of subsets i n order t o g a i n a
perspective of the en t i re prob em, and then t o concentrate on the items
dealing w i t h the i r particular nterest .
The other i s for those of more limited time and interest . I t i s
In the f i r s t of the three se t s , architectural philosophies and the i r
embodiment i n contemporary urbarchitecture are discussed and critiqued.
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The second se t deals w i t h u rban form, placing emphasis on the behavioral
sciences.
In the l a s t p a r t , pluralism of approaches t o urban design i n a Yugoslav
context will be discussed.
. ***
An ef for t has been made t o search for the appropriate l i t e r a tu re that
can serve as a working tool for those architects who agree on the necessity
o f developing new approaches t o urban design. This bibliography i s made up
of books I have come i n t o contact w i t h o r have read i n the course of my
work and thus ref lects an architectural bias.
additional emphasis will be placed upon books i n the social sciences.
In the course of further study
The selected bibliographies presented here i s divided under six of
nine main headings.
primarily of Yugoslav authors , and so these bibliographical d a t a will be
completed in Yugoslavia d u r i n g the next phase of research.
Under the three final headings ci ta t ions are composed
None of the items cited i n this bibliography were drawn from professional
journals due t o the necessity t o l imit this report.
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CHAPTER ONE
URBAN DESIGN - THEORY AND PRACTICE
I N CROSSCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
urban design philosophies i n the second ha l f of the 20th century
. contemporary urbarchitecture
models i n urban design process
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. URBAN DESIGN-THEORY AND PRACTICE I N CROSSCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
1.1 Urban design ph i losoph ies i n t h e second h a l f o f t he 20th century.
1.1.1. theo r ies and approaches t o urban design
11 11 . 1112. u r b a r c h i t e c t u r e i n the 1960's and 1970's
1113.
recen t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o urban design theory
urban form i n design ideas
Concise and i n t r o d u c t o r y analses o f t h e o r e t i c a l cons idera t ions are
organized i n th ree p a r t s .
I n the f i r s t p a r t , recen t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o urban design ideas w i l l be
commented upon. The f o l l o w i n g authors w i l l be c i t e d : Schulz, Zevi ,
Rasmussen, Rowe, Pevsner, Scu l l y , Mumford, Corbusier, Giedion, Hiberseirner,
Hi tchcock, Wittkower, Banham, Joedicke, Gropius, T a f u r i , Prak, Alexander,
Lefebvre, Harvey, Jacobs, Doxiad is , Blumenfeld, Goodman, Ruskin, S i t t e .
I n the second p a r t , t he tumultuous events o f t he s i x t i e s and sevent ies,
presented i n t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l works o f young a r c h i t e c t s , w i l l be discussed.
The f o l l o w i n g authors w i l l be c i t e d : Broadbent, Jencks, Stern, Ventur i ,
Ph. Johnson, R. K r i e r , Friedman, Eisenman, Graves, R. Smith, B o f i l , Ross,
Tange, Blake, Honikrnan, S t e r l i n g , Saarinen, Smitsons, I sozak i , Eycke,
Erhhardt , Giurgola, Hejduk, Cook, Moore.
I n t h e l a s t p a r t , t he d iscuss ion i s r e l a t e d t o t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g
ideas about urban form. The f o l l o w i n g authors w i l l be c i t e d : Lynch,
Appleyard, Bacon, Ha lpr in , Kepes, Cul len, Browne, Burke, T h i e l , Rudofsky,
Simonds, Brower.
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1.1.2. recent approaches t o urban design of Yugoslav authors
1121. urban social space
7122. urban form
1123. reconstruction of his tor ic centers
Urban design t h o u g h t i n Yugoslavia lacked systematic organiza t ion until
The situation is changing, and valuable research i s emerging .
recently.
particularly i n three f ie lds : urban sociology, urban form, and reconstruction
o f histor ic c i t i e s .
Until the resul ts of th i s and other research are implemented, Yugoslav
urbarchitecture will continue t o be dominated by the international s tyle
(which has grown deep roots i n the t h i n k i n g of Yugoslav archi tects) on the
one hand, and on the other, by imported fashion garnered from international
journals which monopol ize the market of architectural information.
1.1.3. summaries of cri t iques
1131 . tradit ional cri t iques of the contemporary c i ty
11 32 . 11 33.
architectural cr i t iques o f modern movement
behavioral cri t iques of b b a n design
In a l l cri t iques general dissatisfaction i s more or less expl ic i t ly
expressed w i t h the s ta tus o f urbarchi tecture today.
The tradit ional cr i t ique attacks the uncontrolled development of modern
metropolis.
tecture, and human scale. These topics will be discussed under the headings:
abstract urbarchitecture i n modern metropol i s , organic urbarchi tecture, and
"New Towns dream . ' I
Preference i s instead given t o "garden c i t i e s , " organic archi-
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Architectural cri t iques i n recent years are devoted t o the a n n i h i l a t i o n
o f the modern movement, which has dominated architectural theory since the
early 1920's. These topics will be discussed under the headings: "complexity
and contradition i n architecture," "form follows fiasco," and "collage ci ty ."
Behavioral cri t iques w i t h man i n mind are scathing toward archi tects ,
polluters o f the physical environment (who , i f we can believe Eckhardt,
design 5 percent o f the bui l t environment). This cr i t ique propagandizes
design for people and lays foundations for new design approaches. These
topics will be discussed under the headings: limitations i n urban design
theory today, potential contributions o f social sciences and implications
for design education.
1.2. Contemporary urbarchitecture
1.2.1 . language of modern urbarchi tecture
121 1 . 1212. European perspective
1213. Yugoslav perspective
Personal research, notes and photographs w i 11 be presented i n t h i s
worl d perspective
section.
and the perception of people w h o experience the design environment will
also be discussed here.
i n l a t e r sections.
Disparity between the repeatedly stated intentions o f modernists -
The reasons for this disparity will be discussed
1 .2 .2 . language of postmodern urbarchi tecture
1221 . worl d perspective
1222. European perspecti ve
1223. Yugoslav perspective
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While d iscuss ing i n the prev ious s e c t i o n the language o f modern
a r c h i t e c t u r e (which i s w e l l known t o a l l a r c h i t e c t s ) , we here d iscuss
something f a r more ambiguous, t h a t area l abe led post-modernism.
t u r a l post-modernism, which e x i s t s today more i n the w r i t i n g s o f i t s
proponents ( the I n c l u s i v i s t s ) than i n ac tua l bu i l d ings , i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c i n g
polemics among a r c h i t e c t s .
A rch i tec -
1.2.3. "Where a re we a t nowtt
1231 wor ld perspec t ive
1232. European perspec t ive
1233. Yugoslav perspec t ive
P l u r a l i s m of s t y l e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the e ra discussed i n prev ious
sec t ions i s presented here w i t h numerous examples, ranging from those which
are w e l l known t o the general p u b l i c t o those which a re o n l y recognizable
t o l o c a l p ro fess iona l groups.
1.3. Models i n urban design process
1.3.1. dec i s ion making processes and urban design
1311. r a t i o n a l i t y
1312. bound r a t i o n a l i t y
1313. incrementa l ism
The theo r ies o f dec i s ion making suggest ideas which can i n s p i r e models
i n t h e design process.
t h e i r cumulat ive o p e r a b i l i t y .
dec i s ion making w i l l be presented i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s sec t i on i n
In format ion process ing technology con t r i bu tes t o
A s h o r t summary o f d i f f e r e n t approaches t o
which models o f urban design w i l l be discussed.
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1.3.2. systems approach
1321.
1322. systematizing urban design processes
1323.
holism and r a t i o n a l i t y i n system ideas
systems approach examples i n urban design
Many urbarchitects and planners, inspired mostly by the work of
Christopher Alexander (Notes on the Synthesis o f Form), began t o use
the systems ideas in an attempt t o grasp large, complex problems which
they are unable t o continue handling intuitively.
t o synthesize these nicely solved problems and exhaustively presented plans
i n t o form.
The main dilemma i s how
1 . 3 . 3 . pattern 1 anguage
1331.
1332.
1333.
concept o f wholeness o f the environment
concept o f wholeness o f pattern language
concept o f evolution o f pattern language
The whole section i s dedicated t o the analysis o f Alexander's new
theory o f architecture and i t s archetypal language which enables everyone
t o create independently order and wholeness in environment as well as t o
comment on experiments t h r o u g h which this theory i s implemented.
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.
.
1.1 Urban design philosophies in the second half o f the 20th century
A Reference Bibliography
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Alexander, Chr is topher , Notes on the Synthesis of Fomn, Cambridge, Mass. Harvard Universi ty Press, 1970.
The Timeless way o f B i z d i n g , New York, Oxford Univers i ty Press, 1979.
Allsopp, Bruce, A Modem Theory of Architecture, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul L t d . , 1977.
Bacon, Edmund; Design of Ci t i e s , London, Faber & Faber, 1974.
Banham, Reyner, The Aspen Papers: Tuenty Years of Design Theory From the International Design Conference i n Aspen, Edi tor and commentary , R. Banham, New York, Praeger , 1979.
Theory and Design in t he First Machine Age, London Archi tec tura l Press, 1967.
Blake, Peter, God's Own Junkyard: The Planned Deterioration of America ' s Landscape, New York, Holt , Reinhart and Winston, 1964.
Form FoZZows Fiasco: Ffny Modern Architecture Hasn ' t Worked, Boston/Toronto, L i t t l e , Brown and Co. , 1977.
Choay, Fransoise , Urbanizam, Utopija i S t v m o s t , Pri jevod Gradjevinska .Knjiga, Beograd, 1978.
Doxiades , Konstantinos , Architecture i n Transit ion, New York, Oxford Univers i ty Press, 1968.
Ecistics: An Introduction t o the Science of Human Sett lements, New York, Oxford Univers i ty Press, 1968.
Eckardt, Wolf von, Back t o the Drawing Board: Planning Livable C i t i e s , Washington, D . C . , New Republic Books, 1978.
Friedman, Yona, Towurd a S c i e n t i f i c Architecture, Cambridge, Mass. , M. I .T. Press, 1975.
Giedion, S i g f r i d , Architecture and the Phenomena of Transit ion: The Three @ace Conceptions i n Architecture, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Univers i ty Press, 1971.
The Eternal Present. New York, Pantheon Books, 19
A Contribution on Constancy and Change,
Mechanization Takes Comand, A Contribution t o Anonymous History, New York, Oxford U n i v . Press, 1955.
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Space, Time and Architecture, The Grmth o f a N e w Tradition, Cambridge, Harvard U n i v . Press, 1967.
Goodman, Paul and Pe rc iva l , Communities: Means of Livelihood and Ways of L%fe, New York, Vintage Books, 1960.
Greenough, Horat io , F o m and Function: Remarks on A r t , Desig-n and Architecture, Berkeley, Univers i ty o f Cal i fo rn ia Press, 1947.
Gropius, Walter, ApolZo in the Democracy: The Cultural Obligation of the Archi tect , New York, McGraw Hill , 1968.
The Nm Architecture and the Bauhaus, Cambridge, Mass. , M.I.T. Press, 1965.
Scope of TotaZ Architecture, New York, Collier Books, 1962.
Harvey, David, social Jus t ice and the C i t y , Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Univers i ty Press, 1973.
H i 1 berseimer , Ludwig , Contemporary Architecture: I t s Roots and Trends, Chicago, P. Theobald, 1964.
Hitchcock, Henry, Architecture: Nineteenth and m e n t i e t h Centuries, Harrnondworth, England, Pengu in Books, 1971.
The International S t y l e : Architecture Since 1922, (by H. Hitchcock .and Ph . Johnson), New York, Norton, 1966.
Jacobs, Jane , The Death and L i f e o f Great American Ci t ies , New York, Random House, 1961.
Jeanneret-Gris , Charles (Le Corbusier) , Towards a flew Architecture, New York, Praeger , 1974.
The Athens Charter, New York, Grossman Publ ishing, 1973.
The C i t y of Tomorrow and I t s Planning, New York, Payson 81 Clarke, 1976.
hhniere de penser l' urbanisme, Boulogne, ed. de A.A. , 1945.
The Modulor: A Harmonious Measure t o the Hwnan Scale, Universally AppZicable t o Architecture and Mechanics, London, Faber 8I Faber , 1956 .
Jencks , Charles , The Language of Postmodern Architecture, New York, Rizzol i , 1977.
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Joedicke, Jurgen, A History 1959 . of
Johnson, P h i l i p , h!z+tings, New
Lefebvre, Henr i , La Revolution
Modern Architecture, New York, Praeger ,
York, Oxford Univ. Press, 1966.
Urbain, Par is , 1970.
L i s s i t z k y , E l . , An Architecture for a World Revolution, Cambridge, Mass. , M.I.T., 19 .
Lynch, Kevin,'Yhe Image of the C i t y , Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1960.
Mumford, Lewis, The &iZture of Cit ies , New York, Harcourt , Brace, Jovanovich, Inc. , 1938.
The C i t y in History, New York, Harcourt , Brace, Jovanovich, 1961.
The Urban Prospect, New York, Harcourt , Brace, Jovanovich, 1968.
The Highway and the C i t y , New York, Harcour t , Brace, Jovanovich, 1963 .
Norberg-Schul t z , C r i s t i a n , Existence, space and Architecture, New York, Praeger, 1971 . Intentions i n Architecture, Cambridge , Mass . , M . I .T . Press, 1965 .
Perin, Constance, with Man in Mind, Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1970.
Pevsner, S i r I l i ko laus , A History of Bui ld ing Types, Pr inceton, N.J., Pr ince ton Univ. Press, 1976.
The Anti-rationalist , London, A r c h i t e c t u r a l Press, 1973.
Prak , Luni ng , The Language of Architecture: A Contribution t o Architectural Theory, The Hague, Par is , Mouton, 1968.
Rapoport, Amos, Human Aspects of Urban Fom, New York, Pergamon Press, 1977.
Rasmussen, E i l e r , Experiencing Architecture, cambridge, Mass. , M.I.T. Press, 19 .
Rowe, Col in , CoZZage C i t y , (C. Rowe and F. Koet te r ) , Cambridge, Mass. ,
Rudof s k i ,
M.I.T. Press, 1978.
The Mathematics of the Ideal ViZZa and Other Essays, Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1976.
Bernard, Architecture Without Architects: An Introduction t o yonpedigreed Architecture, New York, Museum of Modern A r t , 1964.
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Ruskin, John, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, New York, T h e Noonday Press, 1977 .
Saarinen, Eliel , The C i t y : I t s Growth, I t s Decay, I t s Future, New York, Rei nho l d Pub1 i s h i ng Corporati on, 1943.
Scully, Vincent, Modern Architecture: The Architecture of Democracy, New York, G . Braziller, 1965.
S i t t e , Cami 11 o , C i t y PZanning According t o Artistic Principles, New York , Ranilorn House, 1965.
Smi tson , A1 ison , Without Rhetoric: An Architectural Aesthetic, 1955-1972, (by Alison and Peter Smitson), Cambridge, Mass. , M.I.T. Press, 1974.
Tafuri Manfred0 , Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capi ta l i s t ic Development, Cambridge, Mass. , M.I.T. Press, 1976.
Venturi , Robert, CompZexity and Contradiction i n Architecture, New York, Museum o f Modern Art, 1966.
Zevi , Bruno, Architecture as Space: How t o Look a t Architecture, New York, Horizon Press, 1957.
Toz(tards an Organic Architecture, London, Faber & Faber, 1950.
The Modern Language of Architecture, Seattle, University of Seattle Press, 1978.
The principal works o f the s tudy o f the theory o f contemporary
urbarchi tecture are the fol lowing semi nal books :
Alexander, Christopher, Notes on the Synthesis of Fom. The Timeless Way of Building.
Blake, Peter, Form FoZZows Fiasco.
Jeanneret-Gri s (Le Corbusier) , Towards a Nezc, Architecture.
Lynch, Kevin, The Image of the C i t y .
Mumford, Lewis, The C i t y i n History.
Rowe, Colin, CoZZage C i t y .
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Venturi, Robert, CompZexity and Contradiction Zn Architecture.
Zevi , Bruno, Architecture as Space.
.
-1 7-
Y
1.2. Contemporary urbarchi tecture
A Reference Bib1 iography
-1 8-
r
Appleyard, Donald, The Conservation of European Ci t ies , Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1979.
PZmning a PZuraZistic City: Guayana, Cambridge, Mass. , M.I.T. Press, 1976.
Conflicting Real i t ies i n Ciudad
Bachmann, Paul , N e w Directions i n m i s s Architecture, New York, G . Brazil ler, 1969.
Banham , Reyner , The Architecture of the We22 Tempered Enuironment, London , Architectural Press, 1969.
Los AngeZes, The Architecture of Four EeoZogies, New York, Harper & Row, 1971.
The N e u &utaZism: Ethic o r Aesthetic? New York, Reinhold, 1966.
Boyd, Robin, N e w Directions i n Japanese Architecture, New York, G . Braziller, 1969.
Bull rich , Franci sco , N e w Directions i n Latin American Architecture, New York , G. Braziller, 1969.
Cook, John, Converscztions with Architects, (J. Cook and H. Klotz), New York, Praeger, 1973.
Doxiades, Konstantinos, The N e u WorZd of Urban Man, (by K. Doxiades and T. Douglas), Philadelphia, United Church Press, 1966.
Urban RenewaZ and the Future of the American C i t y , Chicago, Public Admi n i strati on Servi ce , 1 966 .
Eisenman, Peter, Five Architects (Eisenman, Graves, Gwathemey, Hejduk, Meier) , New York, Oxford University Press, 1975.
Johnson, PhiZip: f i i t ings, Introduction by P. Eisenman, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979.
Fewerstein , Gunther, New Directions i n Geman Arehitecture, New York, G. Braziller, 1969.
Galantay, Ervin, Nm Toms: Antiquity t o the Present, New York, G . Braziller, 1975.
Giurgola, Ronald, Luis I. Kahn, Philadelphia, Westview Press, 1975.
Gregotti, Vittorio, New Directions i n ItaZian Architecture, New York, G. Braziller, 1969.
Hilberseimer, Ludwig, Mies van der Rohe, Chicago, P. Theobald, 1956.
-1 9-
Hitchcock, Henry, Temples o f Democracy: The State Capitols of the U.S.A., New York, Harcourt , Brace, Jovanovich, 1976.
Latin American Architecture Since 1945, New York, Museum o f Modern A r t , 1955.
Jencks, Charles, Adhoeism. The Case for &provisation, (by C. Jencks and N. S i l v e r ) , New York, Doubleday, 1973.
Architecture 2000. Prediction and Methods, New York, Praeger, 1971.
Le Corbusier and the Tragic View of Architecture, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Univ. Press, 1973.
Daydream Houses of Los AngeZes, New York, R i z o l l i , 1978.
Movements i n Modern Architecture, New York , Rizzo l i , 1971.
Bizarre Architecture, New York, G . B r a z i l l e r , 1980.
Joedicke, Jurgen, D,ie Weissenhofsiedlung, S t u t t g a r t , K a r l Kramer, 1977.
Johnson, Phi 1 i p, Architecture 1949-1965, New York, Hol t, R i nehar t and Winston, 1966.
.Mies van der Rohe, New York, Museum o f Modern A r t , D i s t r i b u t i o n by New York Graphic Society , 1978.
Landan , Roys t o n , N e u Directions i n Br i t i sh Architecture, New York , G . B r a z i l l e r , 19 .
Moos , Stan i s l aus , Le Corbusier, EZements of a Synthesis, Cambridge , Mass , M.I.T. Press, 1979.
Pevsner , N i kolaus , An OutZine of European Architecture, London, John Murray, 1951.
Pioneers of Modern Architecture, Hammondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1978.
Rasmussen, E i l e r , London: The Unique C i t y , Hammondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1960.
Towns a d Buildings Described i n Drawings and Words, Cambridge, Mass., M . I . T . Press, 1969.
Ross, Michael Beyond Metabolism. The New Japanese Architecture, New York, A r c h i t e c t u r a l Record Books , 1978.
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Scu l ly , Vincent, American Architecture and Urbanism, New York, Praeger, 1969.
The Shingle StyZe Today: Or, the Historian’s Revenge, New York, G. B r a z i l l e r , 1979.
Smith, Ray, Supermanism: N e u Directions in Post Modem Architecture, New York, Dutton, 1977.
Smitson, A l i son , Urban Structuring: Studies of Alison and Peter ,%zitson, London, Studio V is ta , 1967.
Ordinariness and Light: Urban Theories 1952-1960 and Their Application in a BuiZding Project 1963-1970, London, Faber & Faber, 1970.
Team Ten Primer,
Stern, Robert, New Directions in American Architecture, New York, G. B r a z i l l e r , 1969.
George Howe: Toward a Modern American Architecture, New Haven, Yale Univ. Press, 1975.
Johnson, P h i l i p : Ritings, Commentary by Robert A. M. Stern, New York, Oxford Univ. Press, 1979.
Tange, Kenzo, Tse, Prototype of Japanese Architecture, (K. Tange and N. Kamazoe) , Cambridge, Mass. , M. I .T. Press, 1965.
Kenso Tange, 1946-1 969. Architecture and Urban Design, (ed i t e d by Hdo Kultermanse) , New York, Praeger Pub. , 1970.
Ventur i , Robert, Learning from Las Vegas. The Forgotten Symbolism of Architecture Form, (by R. Ventur i , D. S. Brown and S. Tsenauer), Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1977.
Ven iwi and Rauch. The PubZic &&?dings, London, Academy E d i t i o n s , 1978.
Wit tkower, Rudolf, PaZZadio and PaZZadimism, New York, G. B r a z i l l e r , 1979.
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1.3. Mo'dels in Urban Design Process
A Reference 6 i b l iography
-22-
Alexander, Christopher, Notes on the synthesis of Form, Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard U n i v . Press, 1970.
The Timeless Way of BuiZding, New York, Oxford U n i v . Press, 1979.
A Pattern Language, New York, Oxford U n i v . Press, 1977.
Oregon Experiment, New York, Oxford U n i v . Press, 1975.
Broadbent, Geoffrey, ed. , Design Methods in Architecture, (ed. by G. Broadbent and A, Ward), New York, G . Wittenborn, 1969.
Carson , Daniel , Man-Environment Interaction, Part III. MuZtivariate Methods. Hugo BardeZ; Computers and Architecture. VZadimir Basjanec, Stroudsburg, Penn. , Dowden, Hutchinson 81 Ross , Inc. , 1974.
Foley, David, "An Approach t o Metropolitan Spatial Structure." i n M . Weber, ExpZoration Into Urban Structure, Philadelphia, U n i v . o f Pennsylvania Press, 1971 .
Ferguson , Francis Architecture, C.ities and Systems Approach, New York, G . Brazil ler, 1975.
Hrzic, Marijan, Mode2 sistemskog izbora Zokacija u proces u rekonstrukcije povijesne jezgre, Beograd, Komunikacije 78, Knj iga 111 , 1978.
Lang, Jon, "A Model o f the Designing Process." i n J . Lang and C . Burnett ed. , Designing for Hwnan Behavior, Stroudsburg , Penn . , Dowden , Hutchinson & Ross, Inc.
Lindblom, Charles, The PoZicy-Making Process, Englewood Cl i f f s , N.J. , Prentice-Hall, 1980.
Martin, Leslie, Urblm space and S t m e t w e , (by L . Martin and L . March), Cambridge Univ. Press, 1975.
Mayerson, Martin, PoZitics, PZanning and the FubZic Interest , ( M . Mayerson and E . Banfield), Glencoe, The Free Press, 1955.
McLoughl i n , B . J . , RegionaZ and Urban PZanning. A Systems Approach, London , Faber and Faber, 1969.
Moore, Gary, Ed. , "Emerging Methods." i n EnvironmentaZ Design and PZanning, Cambridge, Mass, , M.I.T, Press, 1973.
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Roberts, M., T o m PZanning Techniques, London, Hutchinson Educational, 1974.
Simon, Herbert, Administrative Behavior. A Study of'Dec<sion-Making Processes in Administrative Organization, New York , The Free Press, 1976.
.
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.
CHAPTER TWO
URBAN DESIGN - BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
environmental knowing
environmental behavior
behavioral research methods
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. URBAN DESIGN-BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
2.1 Environmental knowing
2.1.1 . environmental perception, cognition and evaluation
21 11 . environmental perception
21 12. environmental cognition
2113. environmental evaluation
The prerequisite t o any systematic analysis of the interaction between
man and his environment i s t o define the mechanisms which link them.
Beginning by describing the sensory characterist ics of people, the following
discussion will deal w i t h visual perception i n de t a i l , b u t emphasizing the
multimodal aspect of perception too . These topics will be discussed under
the headings: multisensory aspects of perception, elements of visual
information i n the c i ty , movement and perception.
Cultural background, social c lass , profession, age, e tc . a l l influence
the formation of cognitive structures, and so they vary for the same physical
environment.
o f cognitive processes.
representation of information, orientation and l eg ib i l i t y of urban form,
met hodol ogi ca 1 consi derati on.
These variables will represent the major p a r t of the analysis
These topics will be discussed under the headings:
A t the end of th i s section, the goal i s t o present the ways i n which
These topics will be discussed people experience and evaluate the c i ty .
under the headings :
o f standards , environmental preferences and migrat ion , cultural variabil i ty
o f environmental quali ty) , environmental evaluation i n the design process
the perception of environmental qual i t y ( v a r i a b i 1 i t y
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(the role of value systems in design, preferences in design processes,
evaluation of representations and judgment of design ideas) , and choosing a1 ternati ves .
2.1.2. environmental meaning and symbol ism
2121 . 21 22.
2123.
urban design and semiology
urbarchi tectural meani ng
expression and symbolism in urban design idea
The analysis of preferences o f one environment over another, will be
continued by posing the question o f meaning and symbolism o f urban form.
The environment is a form of nonverbal communication.
on how they read the environmental signals.
answer if and how the urban environment can be considered as a semiological
system. Items included here: environment as communication, function and
symbol ism of urban environment, cross cultural characteristics of the
symbol form; meaning in western architecture, connotative and denotative
meaning, metaphor; analysis o f symbolism, manipulation of meaning in design
process, designing the symbolscape.
People act depending
Here an attempt is made to
2.1.3. formal design in the theory of perception
2131. Gestalt
2132. expressive qualities
2133. principles of formal aesthetics
Here the emphasis is upon value systems and aesthetic judgment. A
discussion of proportions, rhythm, repetitions, coherency, and of other
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aspects o f formal aes the t i cs w i l l t r y t o e x p l a i n how t h e a e s t h e t i c p o t e n t i a l
i s created.
o rgan iza t i on which f i r s t a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n t i o n o f a r c h i t e c t s t o the
psychology of percept ion , and e s p e c i a l l y toward the G e s t a l t theory.
It was j u s t such quest ions o f express ive f a c t o r s i n formal
2.2 Environmental behavior
2.211 . phys ica l and s o c i o c u l t u r a l con tex t
2211 . typology, morphology and f u n c t i o n o f urban space
2212. behav io ra l s e t t i n g s
2213. p u b l i c and p r i v a t e domain
The s tudy of psycho log ica l processes, t h a t a re t r e a t e d i n sec t i on
2.1 i s t h e bas is f o r understanding human behavior i n t h e environment. Th is
behavior can be considered as a goa l -o r i en ted at tempt o f the organism t o
f u l f i l l the need which i t perceives and c o g n i t i v e l y organizes.
c u l t u r a l context , by imposing norms and va lue o r i e n t a t i o n s lead t o a
p a r t i c u l a r behavior pa t te rn . Along w i t h d e t a i l e d ana lys i s o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l , psycho log ica l and c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d i f f e r e n t urban surroundings,
t h e i r r e f l e c t i o n i n the phys ica l environment i s a l s o emphasized. The
morphology of urban space i s i n t e r p r e t e d through two opposing concepts o f
space - progress ive and t r a d i t i o n a l (F . Choaye) . *
The soc io-
2.2.2. va lue systems and l i f e s t y l e
2221 . value systems and li s o c i a l groups
2222. constants and va r iab
2223. va lue- fac to rs i n des o rgan iza t i on
'e s t y l e of var ious
es
gn space-time
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One of the problems facing drchitects today resul ts from the different
value systems of designers and the public.
i t i s unnecessary t o analyze values and l i f e s tyles of different groups i n
Thl’s experience teaches us t h a t
order t o understand the urban forms which the i r choices create. The dis-
cussion i n t h i s section will suggest t h a t l i f e s ty l e represents one of the
crucial factors i n physical design.
2.2.3. subjective urban morphology
2231. specific cognitive structuring
2232. designing for different groups
2233. congruence of the objective and subjective morphology
Subjective urban morphology (the subjective environment t h a t affects
behavior) i s a resul t of perceptual processest which have already been
discussed.
t o check whether designed elements coincide w i t h specific cognitive
structuring of particular groups.
morphology of a particular group can represent one of the design goals.
I t i s different for different groups, and thus i t i s important
The congruence of objective and subjective
2.3. Behavioral research methods
2.3.1. social science technique
2311. different types of techniques
2312. choice c r i t e r i a
2313. development of new techniques
The selected social science techniques for previously discussed problems
are presented here
-29-
Design processes c a l l on d i f f e r e n t types o f s o c i a l science research,
depending on one hand on t h e design con tex t and on the phase o f t h e design
process on the o the r hand.
methodological t o o l s r e l e v a n t t o the var ious aspects o f design, t h e type of
c r i t e r i a used i n choosing them i s e s s e n t i a l f o r any p roduc t i ve ana lys is .
As design research requ i res d i f f e r e n t se ts o f
The p l u r a l i s m o f design process today must be accompanied by the
development o f new techniques .
2.3.2. measuring t h e v i s u a l environment
2321. d i f f e r e n t types o f techniques
2322. g raph ica l methods
2323. representa t ions o f sequence exper ience
Techniques f o r ana lyz ing and desc r ib ing v i s u a l environment a re
d i f f e r e n t .
d e t a i l .
The most soph is t i ca ted o f them are based on symbol iz ing the elements o f
sequent ia l exper ience w i t h t h e he lp o f two dimensional drawings.
beginn ing they are incomprehensible, b u t by l e a r n i n g how t o use them i t i s
poss ib le t o imagine t h e sequent ia l exper ience i n t h e same way t h a t music ians
exper ience music through notes on a page.
Here, g raph ica l methods o f ana lys i s w i l l be discussed i n more
They are developed i n o rder t o descr ibe a c e r t a i n s p a t i a l pa t te rn .
I n the
-
2.3.3. some examples i n p r a c t i c e
2331 . wor ld perspec t ive
2332. European perspec t ive
2333. Yugoslav perspec t ive
-30-
Some examples of how t o implement social science techniques i n urban
and architectural design are selected and presented here. We will also
analyze i n greater detail some of the random attempts t o measure visual
experience on an urban and regional scale.
there were 15 such attempts i n the U.S.A.
about 15 years ago.
attempts i n Yugoslavia, especially on the urban level.
Lynch t e l l s us that before 1976
The f i r s t o f these was published
In the early seventies there were also some isolated
-31-
2.1 Environmental Knowing
A Reference Bi b l iography
-32-
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Cul len, Gordon, The Concise ToifMscape, New York, Van Nostrand, Reinhold Co., 1 9 7 L
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-34-
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-35-
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Alexander, Chr is topher , "Major Changes i n Environmental Form Required by Soc ia l and Psychologica l Demands," i n The Future of Cit ies , London, Hutchinson Educat ional , 1974.
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Carson , Danie l , ed. s3 Man Environment Interaction, Stroudsburg , Pa . , Dowden , Hutchinson & R O S S . , Inc., 1974.
Chermayeff, S o , Commnity and Privacy ( S . Chermayeff and C. Alexander) , Garden Ci%y, N.Y. , Anchor Books, 1975.
Downs, Roger, "Cogn i t i ve Mapping and In fo rma t ion Processing ,I' i n G. Moore, Environmental Knowing, 1976 . "Personal Construct ions o f Personal Construct Theory," i n G. Moore, EnvironmentaZ Knowing, 1976 .
Doxiades, Konstant inos, AnthropopoZis - C i t y for Human Development, New York, Norton, 1979.
Dubos, Rene, "The Soc ia l Environment," i n H. Proshansky, Environmentaz PsychoZogy, 1970.
"Man Adopting. His L i m i t a t i o n s and P o t e n t i a l i t i e s . " i n W . Ewald, Jr. , Environment for Man, 1971.
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"The B i o l o g i c a l Basis f o r Urban Design," i n K. Doxiades, AnthropopoZis, 1974 .
H a l l , T. Edward, The SiZent Language, New York, Anchor Books, 1973.
The Hidden Dimension, New York, Anchor Books, 1969.
"The Anthropology o f Space. H. Proshansky, EnvironmentaZ PsychoZogy, 1970.
Arm Organi z i ng Model . " i n
"Meeting Man's Basic Spa t ia l Needs i n A r t i f i c i a l Environments." i n Jon Larig, Designing for Human Behavior, 1976.
Honikrnan, B a s i l , ed,. , Responding t o socia2 Change, Stroudsburg, Pa. , Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1975.
Jacobs, Jane, "The Uses o f Sidewalks , ' I i n H. Proshansky, Environmentaz Psycholog;{, 1970.
K r i e r , Robert, Urban Space, New York, R i t o l l i , 1978.
Lenz-Romeiss, F. , The C i t y , Neu 5!"0wn o r Home Toun, London, P a l l M a l l Press, 19:73 .
Newman , Oscar , Defensible Space, Crime Prevention Through Urban Design, New York, C o l l i e r Books, 1973.
C o m n i t y of In t e res t , Garden City, Doubleday, 1980.
P iaget , Jean , Behaveior and Evolution, New York , Pantheon Books , 1978.
The Psychdogy of the Child, ( J . Piaget and B. I nha lde r ) , . New York, Basic Books, Inc. , 1969.
Proshans ky , Harol d , EnvironmentaZ Psychology (ed . , H . Pros hans ky , W . I t t e l s o n and L. R i v l i n ) , New York, Ho l t , R inehar t and Winston, Inc. , 1970.
"Freedom of Choice and Behavior i n a Phys ica l Set t ing," i n H. Proshansky, EnvironmentaZ PsychoZogy, 1970.
"The In f l uence o f the Phys ica l Environment on Behavior. Basic Assumptions." i n H. Proshansky, Environmental PsychoZogy, 1970.
Some
Rapoport, Amos, Human Aspects of Urban Form, New York, Pergamon Press , 1977 . "Environmental Cogn i t ion i n Cross-Cul t u r a l Perspect ive. I' i n G. Moore, EnvironmentaZ Knowing, 1976.
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Rudofsk i , Bernard, Stree ts fo r PeopZe. A Primer fo r Americans. Garden City , Doubl eday , 1969 .
Saar i nen, Thomas, EizvironmentaZ Planning, Perception and Behavior. Boston, Houghton M i f f l i n , 1976.
Seamon David, "Phenomenol o g i c a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Imagi n a t i v e L i t e r a t u r e . ' I
i n G. Moore, EnviromentaZ Knowing, 1976.
Sega l l , M. H. , "Some Psycho log ica l Theory and P r e d i c t i o n s o f C u l t u r a l D i f f e r e n c e s . " (H. S e g a l l , D. Campbell and 3. H e r k o v i t s ) , i n H. Proshansky, Environmental PsychoZogy, 1970.
Sommer, Robert , "Looking Back a t Personal Space." i n Jon Lang, Designiw for Human Behavior, 1974.
"The Ecology o f Pr ivacy . " i n H. Proshansky, Environmentaz PsychoZogy, 1970.
Stea, David, "Space, T e r r i t o r y and Human Movements , ' I i n H. Proshansky, Enuirownental Knowing, 1970.
St rauss, Anselm, " L i f e S t y l e and Urban Space," i n H. Proshansky, EnuironmentaZ Knowing, 1970.
Suedf ie ld , Russel , e d . , The Behavioral Basis of Design. SeZected Papers. 'EDRA 7, 1976.
Wolfe, Maxine, "The P h y s i c a l S e t t i n g as a F a c t o r i n Group F u n c t i o n and Process," (M. Wolfe and H. Proshansky), i n Jon Lang, Designing for Human Behavior, 1974.
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2.3. Behavioral Research Methods
A Reference B i bl iography
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Bechtel , Robert, "Experimental Methods i n Environmental Design Research. 'I i n H. Proshansky, Environmental Psychology, 1970.
"Human Movement and Arch i tec tu re . " i n H. Proshansky, Environmental Psychologij, 1970.
Br iggs, Ronald, "Methodologies f o r t h e Measurement o f Cogn i t i ve Distance." i n G. Moore, EnvirownentaZ no wing, 7976.
Cadwallader, M a r t i n , "Cogn i t i ve Dis tance i n In t rau rban Space." i n G. Moore, Environmental Knowing, 1976.
Carson, Danie l , Man Environment Interaction. Stroudsburg , Pa. , Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1974.
Cra ik , Kenneth, "The Comprehension o f t he Everyday Phys ica l Environment. I' i n H. Proshansky, Environmental Psychology, 1976.
Golledge, Reginald, "Methods and Methodologica l Issues i n Environmental Cogn i t ion Research." i n G. Moore, Environmental Knowing, 1976.
Goodrich, Ronald, "Surveys, Quest ionna i res and In te rv iews. " i n Jon Lang, Designing ,for Hwnan Behavior, 1974.
Grant, Donald, "Aims and P o t e n t i a l s o f Design Methodology." i n B a s i l Honi kman , i?esponding t o socia2 Change, 1975
Howard, John, "Some Thoughts on the Future." i n W. Ewald, Jr. , Environment f o r Man, 1970.
I t t e l s o n , Wi l l iam, T h e Use o f Behavioral Maps i n Environmental Psychology." ( W e I t t e l s o n , L. Rerd in and H. Proshansky) i n Environmentaz Psychology, 1976.
Lee, Sue-Ann, "Cogni t i ve Mappi ng Research . 'I i n B. Honi kman, Responding t o Social Charge, 1975.
Lynch, Kevin, ana aging the Sense of a Region, Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1976.
Growing up in Cit ies . Melbourne, Mexico C i t y , SaZta, ToZuca, and Warssawa. Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press, 1977.
Studies of Adolescence i n Cracow,
"A Walk Around the Block." (K. Lynch and M. R i vk in ) , i n H. Proshansky, EntrironmentaZ PsychoZogy, 1970.
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Michelson, William, BekvioraZ Research Methods i n E-nvironmentaZ Design, Stroudsburg, Pa. , Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross, Inc. , 1975.
Os t rander , Edward, "Behavioral Research f o r Design Appl ica t ion ," i n Jon Lang, Designing for Human Behavior, 1974.
Rapoport, Amos , "An Anthropological Approach t o Envi ronmental Design Research," i n B. Honikman, Responding t o socia2 Change, 1975.
Sanoff , Henry, "Measuring Attributes of the Visual Environment." i n Jon h n g , Designing fo r Human Behavior, 1974.
Suedfeld, Russel , ecl. , The Behavioral Basis of Design. SeZected Papers. EDRA 7 , 15176.
Winkel, Gary, "An Approach t o an Objec t ive Analysis o f Behavior i n Arch i t ec tu ra l Space." ( G . Winkel and R. Sasanoff ) , i n H . Proshansky, Environmental PsychoZogy, 1976.
Wohluill Joachim, "Searching f o r the Environment i n Environmental Cognition Research. G . Moore, Environmentaz Knowing, 1976.
A Commentary on Research S t ra tegy ." i n
Zannaras, Georgia, "The Relat ion Between Cognitive S t r u c t u r e and Urban Form." i n G . Moore, Environmental Knowing, 1976.
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CHAPTER THREE
TOWARD PLURALISM - ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO
URBAN DESIGN I N YUGOSLAVIA
social and physical space in a socialist selfmanagement context
ecological approach t o urban design in Yugoslavia
modeling the design process
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. urban design, and we submit t h a t they are inseparable from the i r ideological context...
Our in te res t here i s i n the ideological context of architecture and
. By means of an ecological approach t o pluralisms of u rban design, i n a soc ia l i s t selfmanageiment society, we hope t o create a theoretical basis for an environment which ref lects the social goa l s of developing a human, open, and f ree l i f e for everyone ...
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3. TOWARD PLURALISM - ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO URBAN DESIGN
3.1. Soc ia l and Physica l Space i n Yugoslav Context
3.1.1. Basic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o c i o - c u l t u r a l and phys i ca l con tex t
311 1. s o c i a l goals o f community development
3112. l o c a l community
3113. environmental v a r i a b i l i t y
3.1.2. P l u r a l i s m o f contemporary urban form i n Yugoslavia
3121. environmental i d e n t i t y
3122. typo logy and morphology o f urban form
3123. f u n c t i o n o f urban space
3.1.3. Images and symbolism o f urban form
3131 . image o f h i s t o r i c and contemporary c i t y
3132. meaning and symbolism o f c i t y form
3133. images i n p a s t design ideas
3.2. Eco log ica l Approach t o Urban Design
3.2.1. Meaning and urban des ign i n Yugoslavia
3 2 1 L t r a d i t i o n o f phys i ca l p lann ing and urban des ign
3212,. i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s o c i a l and phys ica l p lann ing t o urban des ign
321 3. contemporary urban des i gn po l i cy
3.2.2. Organ iza t ion o f space, t ime and meaning i n contemporary Yugoslav urbani sm
3221. new approaches t o urban des ign
3222. recen t works
3223. towards theory
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3.3.
3.2.3. Implementat ion and e v o l u t i o n o f des ign ideas
3231.
3232.
3233.
u rban iza t i on o f design ideas implementat ion
successive s tudy ing o f newly designed environment
eva lua t i ng and perspec t ive f u t u r e assumption
P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Design Process
3.3.1. Choice c r i t e r i a i n Modeling
331 1. general c r i t e r i a
331 2 . speci f i c c r i t e r i a
3313. p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the choosing
3.3.2. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n design process
3321. r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i s t , ( c l i e n t - l o c a l community)
' 3322. problems of p a r t i c i p a t i o n (sub jec ts -ob jec ts )
3323. problems o f i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c o l l a b o r a t i o n (sub j ect-su b j ec t )
3.3.3. Representat ion o f design ideas
3331 . graph ica l rep resen ta t i on
3332. verba l rep resen ta t i on
3333. development o f var ious techniques
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE STRUCTURAL OUTLINE
/I / I c
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