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8/10/2019 Strong Roots

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! "##$ b% Ja&e H. Da'is

(his boo& )a% be co*ied or re*rinted in +hole or in *artfor free distribution +ithout *er)ission fro) the *ublisher.

Otherwise, all rights reserved.

Sabbadna dhammadna jinti,(he -ift of Dha))a sur*asses all -ifts.

Co)e and See/

Dh*.01$ )% trans.


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Table of ContentsT O MY S OURCES .............................................................................................IIFOREWORD .......................................................................................................VINTRODUCTION .................................................................................................

Part OneDEEP TRANSMISSION AND OF W!AT "................................................................

Def$n$ng t%e To&$'(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((1)t%e &ro'ess of trans*$ss$on a'ross %+*an 'onte,ts

Tra-$t$ons De&en-entl. Co/Ar$s$ng 00Tea'%$ng $n Conte,t 0 Co**on !+*an$t. 21

Inter&ret$ng !$stor (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((2)s$n'e t%e 3+--%a

Pass$ng 3as4ets Along 51 A 6C+*+lat$7e Tra-$t$on8 59 A 6S4$llf+l A&&roa'%8 0

Trans/lat$on(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( :

t%e &ro'ess of $nter&retat$on an- $ts a+t%ent$' 'o*&let$onI*balan'e )2Re'$&ro'$t. 9; To t%e So+r'e :


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Part T


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(he Blessed 2ne said3 4A *erson of inte-rit% is -rateful 5ac&no+led-es the hel* -i'en to hi). (his -ratitude thisac&no+led-)ent is second nature a)on- fine *eo*le.6 "

ImyaDhammnudhamma- pariyattiy

Buddha !jemi

(hrou-h this stud% of the Dha))ain accord +ith the Dha))a I

honor the A+a&ened 2ne


Dhamma !jemi


honor the (eachin-


Sangha !jemi


honor the Co))unit%


"tpitar# !jemi

(hrou-h this stud% of the Dha))ain accord +ith the Dha))a Ihonor )% Mother and 7ather

Imya

Dhammnudhamma- pariyattiy $%ariye !jemi

(hrou-h this stud% of the Dha))a

in accord +ith the Dha))a Ihonor )% (eachers

" Kata889 Sutta :A.II.0#; trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.


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To M So+r'es(o Karen and Da'id Da'is )%

(o the Venerable Pa?@it r )a 2' d cari%a Sa%ada+ Pa?@it bhi'a sa the K%as+a Sa%ada+ a&&ha?a and(h )ana% K%a+ Sa%ada+ Dha))i& bhi'a sa +ho caredfor )e in Bur)a and nurtured )e in the stud% and *ractice ofDhamma-&inaya>

(o Ste'en S)ith and Michele McDonald +ho ha'e been friends:mitt; to )e in so )an% -ood thin-s : 'alay( dhamm;>

(o J.E.:(.; (ho)as +ho hel*ed )e to deconstruct )%

inter*retation of the order of thin-s : dhamma;> and toEd)und Brelsford +ho hel*ed )e to reconstruct )%inter*retation for )%self and others in *articular b%introducin- )e to the +or& of eor-e Steiner>

(o Jose*h oldstein Michael Fuc&er Gebecca Bradsha+ andAlan Da)*o- +hose carin- and insi-htful su--estions hel*edto steer this +or& clear of a nu)ber of *hiloso*hical and*olitical *itfalls>


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(o the Venerable Va ira8 ?i Hla M%int K%a+ Andre+2lend &i Mu Soen- raha)e hite %nne Bousfield and Khin Hlain- +hose shared interest in the intricacies and

ironies of inter*retin- the Dhamma for esterners and +hoseconfidence in )e hel*ed to ins*ire this boo&>(o the Venerable Bhi&&hu Bodhi the Venerable Khe)adi*a

Bhi&&hu and Alan Cle)ents> their careful readin- and incisi'ecriti ues -reatl% i)*ro'ed the final *roduct>

(o JinL Hastin- and Ker)it Blac&+oods +ho hel*ed )a&e thisboo& accessible to a broader audience>

(o %nette Gu))el +ho s*onsored )% career at MarlboroColle-e if not )% senior thesis> to eraldine Pit)an de Batlle+ho read throu-h this )anuscri*t as an under-raduatedissertation :to its -reat benefit; )ore ti)es than I did> to(o) (oleno +ho introduced )e to the funda)ental debatesin the *s%cholo-% of reli-ion> and to Go% ri-ht +ho hel*ed)e to thin& criticall% about Steiner=s assertions and the stud%of lan-ua-e in -eneral>

(o the *eo*le of Pa?@it r )a S sana ei&tha K%as+aMonaster% Vi*assana Ha+ai=i the Insi-ht Meditation Societ%the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies and Marlboro Colle-e+ho ha'e su**orted and challen-ed )e in )% efforts to be aninter*reter and to be a trul% hu)ane bein- : manussa;>

(o )% close biolo-ical &in as +ell as all )% hanaiemQ;sa; and

dhamma fa)il%>(han& %ou/ ekj;zU :;tc\pfqv \/ Sdhu/

:with palms t#gether at my %hest in gratitude and respe%t ;


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Fore


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7$ Fore


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Fore


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7$$$ Fore trainin- the )ind in concentration> and thede'elo*)ent of transfor)ati'e +isdo). Nonetheless all hun-erfor the truth of ho+ thin-s are and +ant to &no+ ho+ to

culti'ate the beautiful ualities of ethical beha'ior a+areness&indness co)*assion and +isdo).Si)ilarl% the )odern )editation student )a% re uire

creati'e techni ues for +or&in- +ith the )ental and e)otionalconditionin- uni ue and s*ecific to our era. Man% students findan i)*asse +hen difficult e)otions earl% childhood trau)a anddee* seated feelin-s of lo+ self +orth arise in )indfulness*ractice. (he use of )odern )eta*hors and of su**orti'e*ractices such as )editations on lo'in- &indness andco)*assion create for )an% *eo*le an inner attitude ofo*enness and acce*tance +hile at the sa)e ti)e fosterin-


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, Fore


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Fore


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Intro-+'t$on

So*e B+est$ons

Ho+ does a hu)an *ractice chan-e and ho+ can it *ossibl%sta% the sa)e in the *rocess of trans)ission bet+een 'er%different culturesU As one (hera' da Buddhist )ethod of)indfulness )editation is i)*orted fro) Bur)a to the nitedStates for instance ho+ is the *ractice reborn and ho+ areA)ericans transfor)edU If *eo*le arri'e at certain eL*eriencesthrou-h intesi'e a**lication of )indfulness ho+ are theirunderstandin-s *resented throu-h and sha*ed b% different

lan-ua-esU

In considerin- these uestions each *art of the follo+in-discussion )ust address so)e as*ect of inter*retation. I focus onoral and +ritten discourses referrin- to these collecti'el% as


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0 S TRON? ROOTS

+hen sin-ers of the 4Star S*an-led Banner6 eLtol the 4 and ofthe free and the ho)e of the bra'e.6 Meditation teachers )ust

use social and lin-uistic )echanis)s to co))unicate +ithstudents to offer -uidance and ins*iration. (hus in anal% in- thetrans)ission of )indfulness )editation fro) Bur)a to thenited States +e are eLa)inin- the *rocess of renderin- 'ariousteLts in the ter)s of different social conteLts.

Such understandin- and inter*retation is a ubi uitous *art ofhu)an acti'it%. Acade)ic scholars use the ter)


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Intro-+'t$on 2

establish the Mah si )indfulness )ethod as the *ri)ar% *racticetau-ht at IMS.

2ne of the Mah si Sa%ada+=s leadin- teachin- disci*les theVenerable Sa%ada+ Pa?@it bhi'a sa : " ; has *la%ed a)a or role in culti'atin- the seeds of this tradition in A)ericansoil. Man% of the senior teachers fro) North A)erica as +ell asEuro*e and Australia trained under Pa?@ita in Bur)a and at aseries of three )onth lon- )editation retreats that he tau-ht inthe W#s at IMS. It +as Sa%ada+ Pa?@ita +ho *ro*osed and

then *ersonall% su*er'ised )% o+n ter) of fifteen )onths as a)on& i))ersed in the lan-ua-e and culture of Bur)a stud%in-(hera' din theor% and the lan-ua-e of the P Qi teLts anden-a-inin intensi'e lon- ter) *ractice of satipa))hna. (his+orld +as o*ened u* for )e in the first *lace b% t+o of theA)erican teachers +ho studied +ith Pa?@ita Ste'en S)ith andMichele McDonald.

(here are a nu)ber of different st%les and )ethods ofVi*assan or Insi-ht Meditation bein- tau-ht in the nited Statestoda%. In order to )ana-e so)e de*th of anal%sis the sco*e ofthis stud% is li)ited to one *articular -rou* of teachers and*ractitioners. I focus on the Mah si tradition )ainl% forcon'ience, I &no+ it best. Since al)ost all of the senior A)ericanteachers and )a or A)erican centers in this tradition branchedout fro) the IMS co))unit% and since I -re+ u* in thei))ediate 'icinit% +ith inti)ate eL*erience of that co))unit%I focus on it in *articular. Nonetheless the issues that I eLa)ineat IMS are current at other Insi-ht Meditation co))unities inNorth A)erica Euro*e and Australia as +ell to a -reater orlesser eLtent.

(he IMS co))unit% is no+ at critical *oint in its life c%cle, ane+ -eneration of teachers is ta&in- u* res*onsibilities and theinterest of a %oun-er -eneration of *ractitioners is a+a&enin-.7or o'er a uarter centur% no+ the A)erican ideals ofindi'idualis) and free in uir% ha'e challen-ed teachers at IMS


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5 S TRON? ROOTS

to ada*t the Mah si tradition to a ne+ conteLt> therein lie theco))unit%=s -reatest stren-ths and also its -reatest +ea&nesses.

In both res*ects the +a% that )odern teachers and *ractitionersrelate to their herita-e see)s critical for the +a% +e relate to our*ast deter)ines our direction into the future.

(he ter) used in the P Qi teLts for


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Intro-+'t$on #

)ade *ossible b% an on-oin- c%cle of return to the tradition=sfra)e+or& of understandin-. (herefore e'en +hile celebratin-

the *ioneerin- s*irit that *lanted the seeds of satipa))hna*ractice in the est I ad'ocate a conte)*orar% trans)ission ofthe )indfulness *ractice that is fir)l% rooted in its source. In*articular I a) as&infor eL*licit and *er'asi'eac&no+led-)ent of the teachers +ho de'elo*ed and trans)ittedthe 'arious *ractices e)*lo%ed toda% and for a sincere atte)*tto understand the (hera' din teachin-s on their o+n ter)s.

Is this discussion a reli-ious *ole)ic b% a true belie'er thenor a scholarl% and scientific stud% of an historical *heno)enonUCan an%one reall% ha'e an unbiased stand*oint fro) +hich toanal% e social realit%U estern acade)ics ha'e been reli-ious intheir o+n +a% about the


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Intro-+'t$on )

readers +ith less bac&-round in the (hera' da or the Hu)anitiesnot to -o so far off on such tan-ents that understandin- of the

)ain discussion in the bod% of the teLt is sacrificed. (he )ainar-u)ent is necessaril% co)*act and the *rose at ti)es uitedense. Str#ng +##ts is not li-ht readin- but I ha'e been told that itdoes re+ard the in'est)ent of ti)e and ener-% re uired forthou-htful consideration.

(hrou-hout this in'esti-ation I tr% to ta&e care +ith )%ter)s to use +ords in a +a% that is infor)ed b% ho+ the% ha'e

been used in other conteLts. Based on a critical e'aluation of4Dee* (rans)ission and of hatU 6 I a'oid certain co))onl%used *rinci*les and 'ocabular% and select others +ith +hich tounderstand the trans)ission 47ro) Bur)a and Barre.6 I do notbelie'e in


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9 S TRON? ROOTS

for instance +as -enerall% used at the ti)e to refer to ascetic+anderers +ho had renounced the household life to see&

s*iritual -ains. In the Dhammapada ho+e'er the Buddha declaresthat e'en if adorned +ith the colorful -arb of a la% *erson one*racticin- +ith e ui*oise a 4cal)ed ta)ed 5 assured6 s*iritual*ractitioner ha'in- set aside 'iolence to+ards all bein-s is trul%a brahman:a hol% *erson; a sama(a:renunciate; a bhi''hu .O (heCo))entar% cites this 'erse to de)onstrate that +hen theBuddha uses the address


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Intro-+'t$on :

traditional usa-e I refer throu-hout this in'esti-ation to theteLts of the (hera' din (i*iZa&a as


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1; S TRON? ROOTS

ttha is distin-uished a-ain fro) the nu)ber a))ha:


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Intro-+'t$on 11

discuss so)e differences bet+een 'arious scholars= En-lishrenditions of discourses cited fro) the P Qi.

Fo'+se- In>+$r

In anal% in- the trans)ission of these teachin-s I tr% toe)ulate the )ethodolo-% of the tradition itself. Since +e hu)anbein-s each li'e in our o+n +orld of eL*erience since none of ushas an i)*artial co)*lete 'ie+ in uir% is often a )ore s&illfula**roach than assertion. (hat is +h% each )a or unit be-ins +iththree uestions a heuristic de'ice intended to ins*ire and toorient the reader=s eLa)ination of the issues to be *resented.

(eachin- b% ins*irin- eL*loration rather than dictatin-do-)a is an a**roach re*eatedl% e)*lo%ed b% the Buddha in thediscourses of the P Qi. (his a**roach of in uir% is balanced b% ari-orous focus on one issue, sufferin- and the end of sufferin-.(hou-h co)*osed thousands of %ears a-o in a 'er% differentcultural conteLt teLts such as the 4Discourse on the S[sa*ea'es6 resonate still +ith )an% )odern A)ericans because the%*resent stri&in- )eta*hors and radical ideas in a consistent andcoherent fra)e+or& ai)ed at a sin-ular -oal.

2ne ti)e the Blessed 2ne +as sta%inin a s sap -ro'e inKosa)bi. (hen -ras*in- a fe+ s sap lea'es in his hand theBlessed 2ne addressed the bhi&&hus. 4 hat do %ou thin&bhi&&hus +hich are )ore nu)erous, these fe+ s sap lea'es-ras*ed in )% hand or those o'erhead in the s sap-ro'eU64S)all in nu)ber Venerable Sir are the fe+ lea'es -ras*ed inthe Blessed 2neRs hand so those o'erhead in the s sap-ro'e are)ore nu)erous indeed.64Just so bhi&&hus a)on- the thin-s I ha'e directl% &no+n )ore

nu)erous indeed are the ones I ha'e not sho+n to %ou. And +h%bhi&&hus are these thin-s not sho+n b% )eU (he% are notconnected +ith the -oal> the% are not rele'ant to the basics*iritual life> the% do not lead to disenchant)ent to dis*assion


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Dee& Trans*$ss$on an- of W%at"hat has arri'ed here +ith centers and teachers and

*ractitioners of )indfulness )editationU Ho+ ha'e the Buddha=steachin-s and the *rocess of their trans)ission been understoodhistoricall%U hat )a&es a *articular inter*retation fro) onelan-ua-e to another or fro) one *erson to another authenticU


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I

Def$n$ng t%e To&$'t%e &ro'ess of trans*$ss$on a'ross %+*an 'onte,ts

In order to eLa)ine this trans)ission fro) Bur)a to Barre it)i-ht hel* to s*ecif% +hat eLactl% is bein- trans)itted. Is itBuddhis)U Man% Bur)ese thin& of Buddhis) as recitation ofteLts and elaborate ordination cere)onies and )a&in- offerin-s

to )on&s. (hese are not central or e'en co))on acti'ities atIMS. So)e esterners e'en ar-ue for a Buddhis) +ithout beliefsor rituals. (here are )an% definitions of +hose is theri-ht oneU

Gather than *ri'ile-e an A)erican idea of Buddhis) o'er aBur)ese one or the Bur)ese o'er a (ibetan idea I su--estsettin- this un+ield% conce*t


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Def$n$ng t%e To&$' 1:

Bur)a assi)ilated a -reat )an% cultural for)s fro) Indiaalon- +ith *ractices descended fro) the Buddha all of +hich

blended to 'arious de-rees +ith nati'e beliefs. B% suffiLin- the+ord used in the P Qi for


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0; S TRON? ROOTS

(he +a% +e understand the +orld can transfor) it. In 1ultureand Imperialism the lu)inar% literar% critic Ed+ard Said

de)onstrates ho+ Euro*ean and A)erican cultural narrati'esnot onl% inter*reted but in a +a% *roduced the rest of the +orldas +e &no+ it. (his is e'ident in the +a% Euro*eans stud%in- andcoloni in- the 2rient colluded +ith nati'e interests to *ro ectconce*tuall% and then *oliticall% di'isions bet+een


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Def$n$ng t%e To&$' 01

failed to find an%36W No descri*tion is true of e'er%thin- thate'er%bod% calls Buddhis). (herefore +e should be 'er% cautious

about )a&in- state)ents such as


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00 S TRON? ROOTS

la%s out his a**roach 4(o+ard the Mainstrea)in- of A)ericanDhar)a Practice 6

Althou-h I teach Buddhist )editation it=s not +ith the ai) of*eo*le beco)in- Buddhist. It=s +ith the ai) of the) reali in-that the%=re buddhas. (here=s a hu-e distinction and so I *referto thin& in ter)s of Dhar)a as o**osed to ter)s of Buddhis) *erse because it -enerates a lot of confusion.

So)e of us use the ter) dhamma to be consistent +ith the(hera' din P Qi rather than its Sans&rit co-nate dh2ma:corru*ted in A)erican *ronunciation as


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7ro) the accounts of the P Qi it see)s that the Buddha*resented an understandin- of realit% +hich asserted that thin-s

eList or not de*endent entirel% on their conteLt. 7or eLa)*lean un*leasant thou-ht or sound )i-ht arise. If +e for-et to bea+are and *resent +ith the sensation an-r% thou-hts about itcan *roliferate brin-in- +ith the) further un*leasant effects.hen )indfulness is stron- on the other hand a screechin-noise and the hearin- of it can ust arise and chan-e and *assa+a% +ithout an% identification +ith the *rocess +ithout an%one

to +ant the sound -one. (hus +e are s*ared the stressful c%cle ofa'ersion to the eL*erience and )ental *roliferation about it.(here is the case +here a disci*le of the noble ones notices,hen this is that is. 7ro) the arisin- of this co)es the arisin- ofthat. hen this isnRt that isnRt. 7ro) the cessation of this co)esthe cessation of that.

(his doctrine of de*endent co arisin- pa)i%%a-samuppda is*resented in the P Qi as a )iddle +a%majjhima-pa)ipad bet+eenthe *hiloso*hical eLtre)es of absolutis) and nihilis). " (heBuddha a**lies this teachin- solel% as a 4strate-% for


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05 S TRON? ROOTS

De*endent co arisin- contradicts the eListence of an%se*arate or *er)anent as*ect of eL*erience that could be called

the self but also eL*lains the a**arent continuit% of a*ersonalit%. In one (hera' din teLt recountin- a 'er% earl%renderin- of the Buddha=s teachin-s for a Euro*ean the elder)on& N -asena eL*lains to the ree& &in- Menander ho+ it canbe that *resent occurrences *lant seeds for the future.A**l%in- this *ers*ecti'e to the social real) +e can see atradition of *ractice as reborn +ith each ne+ set of conditionsbut +e can also trace the -enetic continuit% bet+een for)s of the*ractice in different conteLts.

I ha'e -i'en a +or&in- definition for the *ractice of Dhamma-&inayaabo'e and outlined its i)*ortance for understandin- thetrans)ission of the Mah si tradition of )indfulness )editation

$ Miln.V.1XO Y author=s trans.


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Def$n$ng t%e To&$' 0#

to the nited States. (he *hiloso*hical a**roach to *heno)enaas de*endentl% co arisin- pa)i%%a-samuppda is the second

conce*t nati'e to the P Qi that I su--est as a crucial tool forunderstandin- this trans)ission. 7ro) the lo-ic of de*endent coarisin- it follo+s that an% tradition de'elo*s in relation to *astand *resent *hiloso*hical assu)*tions social interactions andbiolo-ical s%ste)s. At the )ost basic le'el *articular s*o&ensounds or )ar&s on a *a-e are si-nificant \ the% si-nif% \ onl% to*eo*le +ho ha'e de'elo*ed connections bet+een certain sti)uli

and certain ideas throu-h a lifeti)e of sociali ation. (his is +h%translation is necessar% for those +ho ha'e not been educated inthe lan-ua-e of a *articular teLt but e'en s*ea&ers of the sa)elan-ua-e can read a teLt differentl%. In his treatise on lan-ua-eand inter*retation 3ter Babel eor-e Steiner obser'es that the)eanin- of an% *articular instance of a +ord is 4deter)ined b%the con unction of t%*o-ra*hical *honetic -ra))atical facts+ith the se)antic +hole.6 1 Just as a +ord ta&es on )eanin-+ithin a *articular -ra))atical structure conce*ts and *racticesta&e on )eanin- +ithin a *articular social structure. (eLts oralor +ritten ha'e )eanin- onl% in conteLt.

1 Steiner W, 0 $.


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0 S TRON? ROOTS

Tea'%$ng In Conte,t

In the broadest sense si-nificance is con'e%ed b% the builten'iron)ent as +ell as b% the hu)an b% silence as +ell as b%s*eech. an-ua-e Steiner *oints out is co)*osed in lar-e *art of4+hat is n#t said in the sa%in- +hat is said onl% *artiall%allusi'el% or +ith intent to screen.6 (he Buddha is re*orted toha'e ans+ered +ith silence a nu)ber of )eta*h%sical in uiriesthat he did not consider )eanin-ful or beneficial for instance. O

4 enius econo)i es fro) its outset 6 +rites Steiner echoin- theBuddha=s descri*tion of s&illful co))unication in the 4Discourseon hat is Heard.6 W

I do not sa% brah)an that e'er%thin- that has been seen shouldbe s*o&en about. Nor do I sa% that e'er%thin- that has been seenshould not be s*o&en about. I do not sa% that e'er%thin- that hasbeen heard... e'er%thin- that has been sensed... e'er%thin- thathas been co-ni ed should be s*o&en about. Nor do I sa% thate'er%thin- that has been co-ni ed should not be s*o&en about.hen for one +ho s*ea&s of +hat has been seen3 heard3

sensed3 co-ni ed uns&illful )ental ualities increase ands&illful )ental ualities decrease then that sort of thin- shouldnot be s*o&en about. But +hen for one +ho s*ea&s of +hat hasbeen seen3 heard3 sensed3 co-ni ed uns&illful )ental ualitiesdecrease and s&illful )ental ualities increase then that sort ofthin- should be s*o&en about.

(eachers of )indfulness )editation do not si)*l% *our outthe entire contents of the P Qi. Care )ust be ta&en to *resent the*articular as*ects of *s%cho *h%sical restraint and de'elo*)enta**ro*riate to the conteLt those teachin-s that +ill lead to theincrease of s&illful ualities and decrease of uns&illful ones -i'ena *articular *erson=s 'alues and sensiti'ities. In the P Qidiscourses the Buddha does not *resent a sin-le fiLed for)ula>

Steiner W, "$#. (he italics are Steiner=s.O See for instance thediscussion of the nanda Sutta *. 0 .W Steiner W$, .

Suta Sutta :A.IV. W0;XII O"Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.
http://e/Dox/Dhamma_Work/StrongRoots/Recon04/I_2.htm#CR_say_nothinghttp://e/Dox/Dhamma_Work/StrongRoots/Recon04/I_2.htm#CR_say_nothing


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Def$n$ng t%e To&$' 0)

rather his teachin-s 'ar% in res*onse to the audience. 7or so)ethe Buddha concentrates on *ractices of -enerosit% and )oralit%>

for those alread% acco)*lished in these areas he *roceedsdirectl% to intensi'e )indfulness *ractice. He uses culti'ation)eta*hors to reach far)ers and lo-ical ar-u)ent to con'ince*hiloso*hers. 2ne co))entar% tells the stor% of a %oun- +o)an+ho brin-s the cor*se of her dead son to the Buddha *leadin-for a cure. 4(he )aster seein- her situation 6 tells the distrau-ht)other to find hi) a )ustard seed fro) a household that 4has

ne'er before eL*erienced an% death.6 hat the %oun- lad% findsof course is that e'er% fa)il% has eL*erienced death thati)*er)anence is uni'ersal thus she


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09 S TRON? ROOTS

ideolo-ies often use the sa)e +ord in o**osite +a%s *ointin- tothe 4fiercel% dis*arate )eanin-s6 of conce*ts such as 4*o*ular

+ill6 and 4freedo)6 in the res*ecti'e Cold ar era leLicons ofthe .S.S.G. and the nited States. "" Such connotations also affect*eo*le=s inter*retations of the P Qi ter) vimutti as


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Def$n$ng t%e To&$' 0:

Just as there is an ob'ious -a* to be brid-ed bet+een societiesre)o'ed b% thousands of )iles or hundreds of %ears bet+een

an% t+o indi'iduals= accu)ulated eL*eriences and leLicons thereis a di'ide. (he differences in accent and 'ocabular% bet+een theSoutheast and the Northeast of the nited States are +ell &no+n.Dialect usa-e of conte)*orar% indi'iduals nati'e to the sa)e cit%can still differ )ar&edl% across socio econo)ic strata and ethnic-rou*s as +ell. Deborah (annen has described si-nificantdifferences bet+een the bod% lan-ua-e and s*eech habits of

)ales and fe)ales in the nited States as +ell as in othercultures."$ e can so)eti)es notice distinct differences bet+eenthe +ord usa-e of a *reschooler a teena-er and a -rand)otherin the sa)e fa)il%. (he connections *eo*le )a&e +ith certain+ords 'ar% +ith locale class a-e -ender and +ith the*articulars of an% *ersonal histor%. (hus the trans)ission of the*ractice be it throu-h an ancient )anuscri*t or throu-hdiscussion +ith a conte)*orar% teacher al+a%s in'ol'es

i)a-es of li-ht not i)a-es of a+a&enin- fro) slee*. I can thin& of onl% afe+ stra% 'erses +here a +ord *la% is )ade bet+een pabuddha )eanin-


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)o'e)ent bet+een different hu)an conteLts. Steiner *uts it+ell 4All co))unication


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Co**on !+*an$t

(he a**licabilit% of co))on *ractices across di'erse conteLtssu--ests ho+e'er that 'er% si)ilar +a%s of bein- andunderstandin- are *resent e'en +here there are a**arentl% -reatcultural differences. Co))on +a%s of understandin- +hatSteiner calls 4the shared lo-ic of e)otions 6 )a&e translation*ossible."O Peo*le in 'er% different cultures share )an% net+or&sof associations. Much of the +a% +e *ercei'e thin-s is sha*ed b%

the *h%sical realit% of our bodies and hu)an bein-s differ littlein ter)s of our basic biolo-%. (he electro che)ical *rocess b%+hich a certain set of connections are acti'ated in the brains of)odern A)ericans +as nearl% identical in the brains of ancientIndians> +e can sur)ise as )uch because this *rocess differslittle in fact fro) the ner'ous s%ste) of an% ani)al. B% 'irtue ofha'in- our onl% e%es on the front of our head hu)an bein-s ta&e

the *ath of the *erson ahead of the)> it is no accident that boththe En-lish


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*recisel% e'en across 'er% different cultural and historicalconteLts.

Just as t+o 'er% different +ords )a% ha'e al)ost *recisel%the sa)e )eanin- -i'en their res*ecti'e conteLts the sa)e ter)can )ean 'er% differentl% de*endin- on ho+ it is used.Geco-ni in- that there is no absolute or correct definition of an%+ord allo+s for a )ore accurate and less *artisan eLa)ination ofreli-ious lan-ua-e. 0# Nathan Kat de)onstrates that the ter)s 4in Buddhis) therene'er +as a l#g#s tradition> fro) the be-innin- the +ord has beensus*ect as are e-ocentric )odes of *ercei'in- the +orld.6 0"

Accordin- to the estern tradition defined b% the Hebre+s andde'elo*ed b% the ree&s on the other hand 4in the be-innin-there +as the ord.6 Modern A)erican ci'ili ation isfunda)entall% 'erbal and often +e ta&e this +a% of bein- for-ranted Steiner *oints out. He +arns us not to for-et that

(here are )odes of intellectual and sensuous realit% founded noton lan-ua-e but on other co))unicati'e ener-ies such as theicon or the )usical note. And there are actions of the s*iritrooted in silence. It is difficult to spea' of these for ho+ shoulds*eech ustl% con'e% the sha*e and 'italit% of silenceU00

(he transcendence of lan-ua-e does eList in esternci'ili ation Steiner sa%s> it is dubbed


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threaten the *ri)ac% of the +ord in the traditions descendedfro) the ree&s and Hebre+s. Si)ilarl% the Brah)anical

tradition de'elo*ed the idea that &no+led-e of so)ethin-=s na)e\ es*eciall% in thedeva bhs the di'ine lan-ua-e of Sans&rit \-a'e one *o+er o'er the thin- itself. 7ro) this 'ie+ the tantri%traditions de'elo*ed the use of mantra +ords that are *o+erful)erel% b% their recitation. (he P Qi discourses ho+e'er do notsu**ort the idea that +ords in an% lan-ua-e could ha'e inherent*o+er. 0$ Steiner obser'es that in Buddhis) and (aois) a non

conce*tual t%*e of i))ediate understandin- is the 4hi-hest*urest reach of the conte)*lati'e act.6here such understandin- is attained the truth need no lon-ersuffer the i)*urities and fra-)entation that s*eech necessaril%entails. It need not confor) to the nai'e lo-ic and linearconce*tion of ti)e i)*licit in s%ntaL3 It is the te)*oralstructure of lan-ua-e that &ee*s _*ast *resent and future`artificiall% distinct. (hat is the crucial *oint.01

(he P Qi teLts the)sel'es *oint out the li)ited utilit% of+ords. (he first of the ei-ht conditions for the de'elo*)ent of+isdo) is li'in- 4in a**renticeshi* to the (eacher _the Buddha`

0$ Collins #b, #1.01 Steiner W$, "W0. I ha'e o)itted Steiner=s su--estion that in the conteLt of

these traditions 4in ulti)ate truth *ast *resent and future aresi)ultaneousl% co)*rised 6 because it is not clear that this is true for the

(hera' da. Perha*s Steiner )eans so)ethin- si)ilar to ?a*o?i&a W," +ho +rites that in the *resent )o)ent 4*arts of the *ast and futureare thou-h not real %eta%tual in the sense of actin- in the *resent.6Co))entators such as Buddha-hosa for+arded the idea of an conce*ts are ti)eless because the% are de'oid of inherent nature.6 7or theclassical (hera' da then ti)e is either di'ided or it is not *resent. 7or)ore on the (hera' din understandin- of ulti)ate realit% *lease see thediscussion on *. W#.
http://e/Dox/Dhamma_Work/StrongRoots/Recon04/II_2.htm#CR_paramatthahttp://e/Dox/Dhamma_Work/StrongRoots/Recon04/II_2.htm#CR_paramattha


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or to a res*ectable co)rade in the hol% life in +ho) _one` hasestablished a stron- sense of conscience fear of bla)e lo'e 5

res*ect.60

(he second condition is as&in- such teachersuestions at a**ro*riate ti)es.(hose 'enerable ones then disclose to hi) +hat has not beendisclosed clear u* +hat is obscure and dis*el his *er*leLit%about )an% *er*leLin- *oints. (his is the second cause andcondition for obtainin- the +isdo) funda)ental to the hol% life+hen it has not been obtained and for brin-in- about theincrease )aturation and fulfill)ent b% de'elo*)ent of the

+isdo) that has alread% been obtained.0O

Presentations of Dhamma-&inaya *ractice are effecti'e

*recisel% because of \ *erha*s onl% +ithin \ the on-oin- *rocessof trans)ission fro) teacher to student and not as static andliteral definitions of truth. Effecti'e co))unication of theteachin-s de*ends on stron- resonance bet+een co))on as*ectsof hu)anit%. (rans)ission can indeed ha**en across thousands

of %ears such as +hen a student reads a teLt fro) the P Qi and*uts its -uidance into *ractice but this de*ends on resonance+ith the ancient author. At 'arious *oints in *ractice *articularteLts can s*ea& to the 'er% issues bein- confronted but rarel% dostudents *ossess the self confidence and balance of )indnecessar% to na'i-ate throu-h all the 'icissitudes of the *ractice+ithout an% *ersonal -uidance.

Balance is critical for *ractice and nearl% i)*ossible to)aintain in the face of the terrif%in- and seducti'e eL*eriencesthat are *art of the *ath. (his is one *lace +here the stabili in-*resence of a -uide can be in'aluable. (o be effecti'e a teacher)ust ins*ire confidence +here it is lac&in- and self eL*loration+here there is blind faith create the conditions for de'elo*in-concentration +hen a**ro*riate and for de'elo*in- ener-% +henit is +ea&.

0 Pa88a Sutta :A.VIII.";XIV 1 Y trans. (hanissaro Bhi&&hu.0O Pa88a Sutta :A.VIII.";XIV 1 Y trans. ?a*o?i&a (hera and Bhi&&hu

Bodhi.


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II

Inter&ret$ng !$stors$n'e t%e 3+--%a

(he Buddha=s teachin-s for liberation fro) sufferin- +ereradical in India t+ent% fi'e hundred %ears a-o as the% are int+ent% first centur% A)erica. 2ne discourse relates ho+ ustafter his o+n a+a&enin- the Buddha reflected on the difficult% of

con'e%in- +hat he had found.(his Dha))a that I ha'e attained is dee* hard to see hard toreali e *eaceful refined be%ond the sco*e of con ecture subtleto be eL*erienced b% the +ise. But this -eneration deli-hts inattach)ent is eLcited b% attach)ent en o%s attach)ent. 7or a-eneration deli-htin- in attach)ent eLcited b% attach)enten o%inattach)ent this that conditionalit% and de*endent coarisin- are hard to see. (his state too is hard to see, the

resolution of all fabrications the relin uish)ent of allac uisitions the endin- of cra'in-> dis*assion> cessation>_/ibbna`. And if I +ere to teach the Dha))a and if others +ouldnot understand )e that +ould be tireso)e for )e troubleso)efor )e.

(his discourse de*icts the Buddha as -ra'el% concerned that*eo*le be able to understand his *rofound teachin-s. If 4allco))unication inter*rets bet+een


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4(he *oint of interest 6 +rites Gichard o)brich 4is not ust+hat the Buddha said but +hat his hearers ha'e heard.6 0 (he

teLts that +ere trans)itted throu-h the (hera' din traditionthe P Qi (i*iZa&a and its co))entaries eL*licitl% address +ordusa-e and literal inter*retation. (he 4EL*osition of Non Conflict6asserts that 4one should not insist on local lan-ua-e and oneshould not o'erride nor)al usa-e 6 but rather o*t for a )iddle+a%.$

3in different localities the% call the sa)e thin- a


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor 2:

So)eti)es it is best to sa% nothin- at all. In one discourse the+anderer Vaccha-otta a**roaches the Buddha and as&s hi)

4Ho+ is it no+ Master ota)a is there a selfU6hen this +as said the Blessed 2ne +as silent.4Ho+ is it no+ Master ota)a is there no selfU6A second ti)e the Blessed 2ne +as silent.(hen Vaccha-otta the +anderer rose fro) his seat and de*arted. W

After Vaccha-otta is -one the Buddha eL*lains to nandathat assertin- a self +ould ha'e been inconsistent +ith the

a+a&ened &no+led-e that 4all *heno)ena are nonself.6 If on theother hand the Buddha had denied the eListence of a self 4the+anderer Vaccha-otta alread% confused +ould ha'e fallen intoe'en -reater confusion thin&in-


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:!)adanta ; or social ran& :as in the"ahli; or of the soul theor%:as in the #))apda;. He e'en ado*ts the 'er% *hraseolo-% of hisuestioner. And then *artl% b% *uttin- a ne+ and :fro) the

Buddhist *oint of 'ie+; a hi-her )eanin- into the +ords> *artl%b% an a**eal to such ethical conce*tions as are co))on -roundbet+een the)> he -raduall% leads his o**onent u* to hisconclusion. (his is of course al+a%s Arahatshi* _fulla+a&enin-`3 #

(he Buddha=s social conteLt de)anded careful considerationof discourse and understandin-. (he centuries leadin- u* to the

be-innin- of the Co))on Era sa+ )ulti*le +a'es of r%an)i-ration into the an-es *lain and a co)*leL *rocess ofassi)ilation +ith the *re'ious inhabitants. (he resultin- )ilieuincluded di'erse and dis*arate *hiloso*hical reli-ious culturaland lin-uistic influences. (he Buddha +as teachin- in a)ulticultural societ% co)*arable to the nited States toda% +ith'er% different cultural -rou*s s*ea&in- )an% lan-ua-es in close*roLi)it%. Since the traditional accounts tell of the Buddhateachin- a)on- a nu)ber of different lin-uistic -rou*s such asthe K s[s Kosalas Vr is and Vatsas ancaster sur)ises that 4this+anderin- teacher )ade his o+n translations as he )o'eda)on- a hetero-eneous audience.6

(he +ords used and the *hiloso*hical assu)*tions )ade inteachin- necessaril% 'aried +ith the conteLt. As di'erse as the*resentations in the P Qi discourses are a full record of theBuddha=s teachin- +ould li&el% re'eal an e'en -reater fleLibilit%in st%le since 4it is lo-ical to eL*ect that the tradition le'eled out)an% of the inconsistencies of eL*ression 6 as Gichard o)brich*oints out. "

# (. . Gh%s Da'ids 4Introduction to the Kassa*a S[han da Sutta6 : W ,"# O; uoted in o)brich , O.ancaster $, $"1.

" o)brich , .


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor 51

Pass$ng 3as4ets Along

And the Venerable Sari*utta addressed the )on&s3 friends thisDha))a has been +ell *roclai)ed b% the ord the full%enli-htened 2ne. And so +e should all recite it to-ether +ithoutdisa-ree)ent so that this hol% life )a% be endurin- andestablished for a lon- ti)e thus to be for the +elfare andha**iness of the )ultitude out of co)*assion for the +orld forthe benefit +elfare and ha**iness of de'as _s*irit bein-s` andhu)ans. 0

(he discourses and 'erses of the Buddha and his disci*les+ere )e)ori ed and trans)itted orall% for hundreds of %earsafter his death and parinibbna the final brea& u* of his )indbod% *rocess. 2ften the teLts +ere )e)ori ed in isolated areasand so)eti)es in different dialects. Co))entarial teLts andinscri*tions fro) the second centur% B.C.E. )ention schools ofbh(a'as reciters each ta&in- res*onsibilit% for the oral

trans)ission and *reser'ation of a *articular di'ision of thediscourses. 47or so)e ti)e after the parinibbnaof Sa&%a)uniBuddha the sound +as


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+rites illia) raha). 1 In the cli)ate of north India at the ti)eof the Buddha the )aterials used for +ritin- \ lea'es bar& and

the li&e \ deco)*osed uic&l% and +ritin- +as used al)osteLclusi'el% for calculations. (o )odern sensibilities oraltrans)ission see)s fallible and *rone to corru*tion but the earl%follo+ers of the Buddha a**arentl% considered the teachin-s too'aluable to entrust to scri*ture. As in other *laces

at first +ritin- +as *ercei'ed as si)*l% a )ne)onic de'ice tofacilitate or to ensure that the oral renderin- be accurate. (heoral for) +as clearl% *ri)ar% and for )an% centuries it hadbeen unsu**le)ented. O

(he oral trans)ission of the teLts has had a )a or i)*act onho+ the% ha'e been understood and inter*reted. Ste'e Collinshas de)onstrated ho+ e'en after the P Qi +as +ritten do+n ustbefore the be-innin- of the Co))on Era (hera' din teLtscontinued to be 4recited and listened to> in Buddhis) as in *re)odern Euro*e silent readin- +as the eLce*tion rather than therule.6W (he )odern (hera' da eLhibits a si)ilar e)*hasis onoral trans)ission. In the Mah si tradition )editators onintensi'e retreat listen to an hour lon- this *ractice continues at IMS. Another interestin-eLa)*le ca)e to li-ht +hen a fa)ous t+entieth centur% P Qischolar of Bur)a the Mah -anda%one Sa%ada+ Jana& bhi'a sa su--ested that students ta&in- the -o'ern)entad)inistrated P Qi eLa)s be allo+ed to refer to +ritten teLts asin estern institutions of hi-her learnin- rather than rel%in-entirel% on rote )e)ori ation and recitation. More conser'ati'e

1 illia) A. raha) Bey#nd the =ritten =#rd :Ca)brid-e, Ca)brid-eni'ersit% Press WO; as uoted in Hoff)an ", "#0.

I a) indebted here to a *resentation b% Andre+ 2lend &i at the BarreCenter for Buddhist Studies of +hich he is ELecuti'e Director Dece)ber"## .

O ilfred Cant+ell S)ith discussin- the *re Isla)ic A'esta 4Scri*ture as7or) and Conce*t 6 in +ethin'ing S%ripture ed. Miria) e'erin- " 1O:Alban%, State ni'ersit% of Ne+ or& Press W ; as uoted in Hoff)an

", .W Collins ", 0#.


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)on&s re ected the *ro*osal on the -rounds that it +ould brea&+ith the "1## %ear old tradition of oral trans)ission throu-h

)e)ori ation echoin- a senti)ent found in classical (hera' dinteLts 4Kno+led-e in boo&s _is li&e` )one% in so)eone else=shand, +hen %ou need it it=s not there.6

(he oral nature of trans)ission in the Buddha=s ti)e sha*edthe )odern (hera' da in another +a% as +ell. E'en in the P Qidiscourses the Venerable Sari*utta is seen de'elo*in- 'arious)ne)onic lists of dhammasub ects +hich are then 4confir)ed6

b% the Buddha."#

Such lists referred to asmti' de'elo*ed intoco)*rehensi'e s%ste)i ations of the conce*ts contained in thediscourses and ca)e to be called the bhidhamma the teLts of


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anal%ses are used to inter*ret indi'iduals= eL*erience in)editation *ractice as +ell as to understand teachin-s -i'en in

the P Qi discourses. At least one earl% school the Sautranti&asdid not acce*t the Abhidha))a for)ulations as authoritati'eand 4it is in this section of the9ripi)a'a that there is the -reatestdiscre*anc% bet+een the 'ersions of the 'arious schools.6"0

(he )ore conser'ati'e factions of the earl% follo+ers of theBuddha ado*ted strict standards for considerin- a teLt asauthoritati'e, it )ust ha'e been either s*o&en b% the historical

Buddha s*ecificall% authori ed b% hi) or s*o&en b% a disci*le hehad authori ed. Si-nificantl% the list of authoritati'e teLts +asfinite> at least theoreticall% the canon closed +ith the death ofthe last disci*le the Buddha had *ersonall% authori ed. sin- theanalo-% of earth *assed in bas&ets alon- a line of construction+or&ers teLts *assed orall% alon- a linea-e of teachers ca)e tobe -rou*ed into 'arious pi)a'a bas&ets."$ Most of the earl%

schools reco-ni ed an authoritati'e 9ipi)a'a or 9ripi)a'aco)*osed of g tior sa>ghyan held to fiL the teachin-s after the Buddha=s deathlater ser'ed as a rhetorical ustification for discountin- )orerecentl% introduced teLts and inter*retations.

(he first )a or debate o'er the inter*retation of *articulardisci*linar% rules is docu)ented as bein- resol'ed b% 'ote at

"0 arder "###, O W 4(he third section or tradition of the9ripi)a'a is the bhidharma +hich ter) )eant ori-inall%


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor 5#

-atherin- of renunciates in the to+n of Ves l[ around 0W B.C.Eonl% a hundred %ears after the Buddha=s parinibbna. An asse)bl%

held so)e thirt% se'en %ears later in P Zali*utta )ar&ed the firstlar-e scale di'ision bet+een different factions of the follo+ers ofthe Buddha o'er doctrine. (he -rounds for disa-ree)entcentered on the ualities of one full% a+a&ened anarahat:Sans&rit arahant ;. 7irst and fore)ost +as the uestion of+hether lust could arise in an arahat +hile drea)in-. 2ther*oints +ere debated includin- uestions re-ardin- the eLtent of

an arahat =s &no+led-e and 4+hether one )a% enter the a% asthe result of s*o&en +ords.6 Nonetheless 4the t+o *arties +ereless far a*art than at first si-ht the% a**ear to be eLce*t on thefirst -round 6 accordin- to co)*arati'e teLtual studies b% adistin-uished scholar of Indian histor% A. K. arder. (he)a orit% faction at P Zali*utta +hich +as thus called the


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*o*ular *ro*a-anda.6 Althou-h its Sans&rit na)e is co-nate +iththe P Qi9heravda the )odern school b% that na)e is one of a

nu)ber of traditions that descended fro) the earl% Sthaviravda.et +e can still see in the )odern (hera' da reflections of thisbasic *rinci*al of the Buddha as anarahat and also the tendenc%to ele'ate hi) to o)niscience.

(hose +ho too& the o**osin- side at the P Zali*uttaasse)bl% definin- an arahat as less than co)*letel% *urifiedheld the Buddha to ha'e a ualitati'el% different t%*e of

reali ation. (he Mah saT-ha too& the Buddha to be 4far abo'eother hu)an bein-s or *erha*s not reall% a hu)an bein- at all.6Accordin- to arder

(he% thus be-an that transfor)ation of the Buddha and hisdoctrine +hich led ste* b% ste* to the Mah % na fro) thehu)anis) of the ori-inal 9ripi)a'a to the su*ernaturalis) of)ost of the Mah % na s!tras."

hile the 4doctrinal +idenin-6 of the Mah % na e'entuall%did include this &e% chan-e in the Buddha=s status accordin- Paulillia)s it is incorrect to identif% the s*lit bet+een the

Sthaviravda and the "ahsa>gha as the ince*tion of theMah % na )o'e)ent. Instead he ar-ues that the )o'e)ent hadits roots in a nu)ber of different -rou*s for)ed for the'eneration of *articular teLts that beca)e *o*ular after theBuddha=s parinibbna."O Certain ele)ents of so)e of these teLts)a% in fact ha'e de'elo*ed fro) teachin-s of the historicalBuddha *ossibl% o)itted fro) the canons of the )oreconser'ati'e schools. "W illia)s ho+e'er +rites of

" arder "###, " " refers to the clai) of the Buddha=s o)niscience in theSabba88uta8 ?aniddeso :PaZis.I. .O" 0;XI 0 ffY.

"O illia)s "## , ""ff. Nonetheless 4the a'ailable e'idence sho+s that the)a orit% of Buddhists in India at all ti)es ha'e follo+ed the earl% schoolsand the Mah % na there +as al+a%s a )inorit% )o'e)ent, it is onl% incertain countries outside India :China and (ibet and the countries +hichderi'ed their Buddhis) fro) the); that the Mah % na co)*letel%su**lanted the earlier Buddhis) 6 arder "###, 01 .

"W arder "###, W *oints to state)ents in the P Qi itself that certain teLts+ere added after the first Sa>gyana. He *oints as +ell to the interestin-


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor 5)

a tradition found in the Mah % na s!tras the)sel'es +hich+ould associate the ori-ins of these teLts not +ith the historicalBuddha +ho died *erha*s in $W0 or 0O# B.C.E. but rather +ith'isionar% eL*erience and ins*iration b% one of a nu)ber ofBuddhas +ho continue to eList on a hi-her *lane in their Buddha7ields or Pure ands."

ater Mah % na schools de'elo*ed an eL*licitl% a historicala**roach further distancin- their her)eneutic *rinci*les fro)those of non Mah % na schools> East Asian inter*retations of theotus Sutra for instance *osit the eListence of a Buddha essence

fro) +hich re'elations of teachin-s could co)e at an% *oint inhu)an histor%. Man% of these inno'ati'e teachin-s containeds*ecific clai)s of su*eriorit% to the discourses alread%established. 2ften these teLts +ere self st%led as the onl%authoritati'e renderin- so that adherents necessaril%inter*reted the entire cor*us of established teLts in li-ht of theirchosen one. Indeed the na)e this )o'e)ent ado*ted for itself as

a +hole "ahyna or < reat Vehicle= +as and is a *ole)ic de'icei)*l%in- su*eriorit% o'er the traditions that did not ado*t itsinno'ations> these latter are referred to in Mah % na teLts \ andin certain acade)ic literature \ as the ; nayna the < esserVehicle=.0# 2'er the course of historical de'elo*)ent in North

account -i'en in the &inaya teLts of Pur ?a a )on& +ho +as ourne%in- inthe south at the ti)e of the recital. 2n his return the elders in'ited hi) to

acce*t the Dha))a and Vina%a as the% had been recited. Pur ?a *olitel%re*lies that the Dha))a and Vina%a ha'e been +ell recited b% the eldersbut that he +ill ust continue to re)e)ber the teachin-s the +a% he heardthe) directl% fro) the Master. arder notes that 4If there +ere a nu)berof )on&s in distant *arts +ho )issed the 7irst Gehearsal it is li&el% enou-hthat uite a nu)ber of discourses re)e)bered b% the) and handed do+nto their *u*ils eListed +hich +ere )issed at the Gehearsal thou-h*erfectl% authentic. nder these conditions it +ould see) *erfectl%reasonable to incor*orate such discourses in the9ripi)a'a later des*ite theris& of acce*tin- unauthentic teLts. (he"ahparinirv(a S!tra4)a&es theBuddha la% do+n a rule to co'er ust this situation 6 for +hich see note" on *."W0.

" illia)s "## , " .0# arder "###, 0$# on the recurrin- Mah % na 4denunciation of the


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Asia )an% different teLts containin- dis*arate doctrines +ereincor*orated into the Mah % na canon so that schools such as

the o-ac ra the Pra 8a*ara)ita and the Pure and definedthe)sel'es and the


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor 5:

about a decade after Aso&a ca)e to *o+er his son Mahinda andhis dau-hter SaT-ha)itt both ordained renunciates led

entoura-es south to the island of aT&a +here the% establishedco))unities of both nuns and )on&s as +ell as a tradition ofDhammastud% and *ractice. (he first of these set out fro) the 4SaT-ha)itt (her[ 6#> 4Vedisa 6 "".

01 arder "###, "1 .0 Mendelson O1, 0W> S+earer WO.0O (he earl% histor% of theBuddha-Ssana in Bur)a is not +ell established.

Eliot ", Vol. III 1 re*orts earl% 4H[na% na6 inscri*tions found inPro)e. Hein Bechert notes the assi)ilation b% the P%u and Ara&aneseci'ili ations of Sar' sti' da Mah % na and (antric teachin-s Bechert

, $O.


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(hus the tradition in +hich the Mah si Sa%ada+ traineddescends *ri)aril% fro) the Aso&an trans)ission to aT&a in

*articular the conser'ati'e school of the Mah 'ih ra :established"1 B.C.E at Anuradha*ura; +hich e)*hasi ed 4an historicistand eLclusi'ist idea of its gha and State 0Wcites ordon uce=s contention that it +as in fact K%an itta : #W$ 0 C.E.;and not Ana+ratha +ho finall% su**ressed the (antric Buddhis) *resent inPa-an and i)*osed (hera' da. In an% case *o*ular belief held u*Ana+ratha as the )odel for later Bur)ese dhammarj


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor #1

s%ste)i ation of the (hera' din tradition as +e &no+ it. (he)on&s +ho first co))itted the P Qi (i*iZa&a to +ritin- ust

before the Co))on Era li'ed and +or&ed fi'e hundred %earsbefore the inter*reters +ho collated and authored the classicalco))entaries such as Buddha-hosa> nonetheless both thetranscribers and the co))entators +ere +or&in- at the sa)einstitution the Mah 'ih ra and both +ere consciousl% definin-an


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Monaster% Co)*leL at Anuradha*ura Sri aT&a:trou-h at bac& left used to -ather dail% food donations for the SaT-ha;.

Ha'in- defined an orthodoL bod% of teLts +ith )ost of itsdiscourses addressed to renunciates of the Buddha=s da%(hera' din )on&s in South and Southeast Asia faced thechallen-e of renderin- their tradition )eanin-ful to the la%*eo*le on +ho) the% de*ended for su**ort and socialle-iti)ation. (o )a&e the teachin-s accessible and a**licable in ala% social conteLt (hera' dins increasin-l% *ortra%ed the*ractice as a 4-radual *ath.6 (+o )a or co))entarial +or&s on(hera' din her)eneutics characteri e the teachin-s b% citin- a'erse fro) the "ajjhima /i'ya 4Bhi&&hus I shall teach %ou adhamma that is -ood in the be-innin- -ood in the )iddle and-ood in the end...6$# (hus -enerous -i'in- and *urit% of conduct*erha*s )ore achie'able than intensi'e )editation *ractice inthe e%es of *eo*le su**ortin- households ha'e been e)*hasi edas necessar% and 'aluable *arts of the *ath to the final -oal ofa+a&enin-.

$# Chacha&&a Sutta :M. $W,";. Ha'in- said that he +ill teach the Dha))a+hich is -ood in the be-innin- )iddle and end the Buddha *rescribes the4true &no+led-e6 +hich leads to dis*assion and liberation.


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor #2

(hera' din her)eneutics enabled teachers to relate thetraditional teLts to the hu)an conteLt of their historical

)o)ents. Accordin- to the traditional account the 'er% firstteachin-s -i'en on the island of aT&a b% Aso&a=s son Mahinda+ere *resented in the local lan-ua-e. (he accounts of theBuddha=s o+n teachin-s ho+e'er continued to be )e)ori edorall% in a north Indian dialect. (hou-h 'arious translations andco))entaries +ere later +ritten in Sinhala these beca)edifficult to deci*her +ithin a fe+ hundred %ears of their

co)*osition as the li'in- lan-ua-e de'elo*ed. 2n the other hand)on&s continued to stud% the canonical teLts in their ori-inalnorth Indian dialect +hich ca)e to be called the


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(he de'elo*)ent of

rather )an% Bur)ese )on&se)*hasi e the i)*ortance of 'erbati) re*roduction of the9ipi)a'a teLts and their orthodoL inter*retation accordin- toco))entators such as Buddha-hosa. In Bur)a scri*turalorthodoL% has been the ideal and the self definition of the(hera' da o'er the *ast thousand %ears. $1

(he (hera' da=s lon-standin- and do)inant 4historicist6a**roach to its teLts sets this tradition a*art fro) )ost other-rou*s classified as


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor ##

le-iti)ate successor at ti)e.6 In describin- the trans)ission of*ractice be-innin- +ith the Buddha this *articular historical

a**roach confined le-iti)ac% and authorit% to a sin-le linea-e ofteachers. Collins sees the +ritin- do+n and catalo-in- of the P Qi(i*iZa&a the de'elo*)ent of an historical account of itstrans)ission and the s%ste)i ation of doctrine andinter*retation strate-ies in the Co))entaries as 4connected*arts of a strate-% of self definition and self le-iti)ation6 b% the(hera' da. Here Collins cites Hein Bechert=s *oint that the

va6sa re*resent the onl% 4historical literature in the strict senseof the +ord _in South Asia` *rior to the *eriod of the Musli)in'asions.6 (his reference recalls Cant+ell S)ith=s obser'ationthat the Musli) in'asion also *redicated the first the'arious assu)*tions about histor% )ade b% researchersdeter)ine ho+ the% inter*ret oral and +ritten discourse of the*resent as +ell as the *ast. A**roaches ta&en b% acade)icscholars of Asian reli-ions ha'e -reatl% i)*acted the li'in-traditions the)sel'es. ntil the ter)


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estern conce*tions of it arose to-ether de*endent on oneanother.

2ne of the first )a or estern studies +as underta&en b% thescholars of the Pali (eLt Societ% :P(S; in the later *art of thenineteenth centur% +ho atte)*ted to unearth the ori-inal 4earl%Buddhis)6 fro) the la%ers of (hera' din tradition. $O (. . Gh%sDa'ids and his associates at the P(S ha'e been indicted b%)odern scholars for establishin- an a**roach that 4essentiali edBuddhis) in ter)s of its


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor #)

the P(S +ere fir)l% e)bedded in their Protestant conteLt +ithits re ection of reli-ious inter)ediaries do-)a and ritual in

fa'or of *ersonal reli-ion and scri*tural funda)entalis). (heirtranslations and scholarshi* *ro'ided 4i)*etus6 for the


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centur% B.C.E. and a-ain under the Bur)ese &in- Ana+ratha: #$$ OO C.E.; *ro'ided the i)*etus and the for) for the SiLth

SaT-h %ana held in Gan-oon in 1$ at +hich the Mah siSa%ada+ +as a+arded the central role of uestioner.1"

(he Bur)ese tradition to +hich the Mah si Sa%ada+belon-ed has not follo+ed )odern acade)ics= re ection of theCo))entaries in inter*retin- the (i*iZa&a P Qi. At its eLtre)ethe search for an essential and


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor #:

if )ore than t+ent% schools of thou-ht arose throu-hdisa-ree)ents o'er +hat constituted the


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accordin- to their nati'e inter*reti'e *rinci*les. It is clear in an%case that the Co))entaries ha'e -reatl% influenced +hat

(hera' dins ha'e ta&en to be the *ractice and that )odernscholars ne-lect these +or&s at the ris& of failin- tounderstandin- ho+ the tradition has understood itself.

(he (hera' din co))entators e)*lo%ed a *articularhistoricist a**roach to the teLts and the tradition. (heCo))entaries use a ter) fro) the P Qi to s*ecif% the linea-e ofteachin- *ractice and reali ation ori-inatin- +ith the Buddha

and concerned +ith


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the +orld of all the hu)an bein-s here _on Earth`. hen this issuccessful the earth beco)es )ore and )ore *eaceful.

(he Ssana is an historical *heno)enon a tradition ofinter*retation and a**lication that chan-es o'er ti)e. e canuse the ter) ssana to refer to +hat ilfred Cant+ell S)ith callsa 4cu)ulati'e tradition6, causall% connected instances ofher)eneutical institutions. Such an a**roach can eL*lorehistorical de'elo*)ents +ithout offendin- the faith of adherentsof an% reli-ion b% allo+infor success in an% tradition as that

teachin- defines it. (his *er)its an eLa)ination of the Bur)ese(hera' da based not on the ualit% or authenticit% of reali ations+ithin an% *articular linea-e or of an% *articular *erson butrather on the 4-enetic bond of continuit% and3 the sociolo-icalone of cohesion.6 (hus +e can 'ie+ 'arious *ractices 4as bein-historicall% related +ithout necessaril% bein- unifor)> for theeListential association no essential identit% is re uired :ordenied;. (he historical realit% can thus be sei ed.6"

A 6S4$llf+l A&&roa'%8

I ha'e tried here to de'elo* an a**roach to the trans)issionof the Mah si s%ste) based on three conce*ts nati'e to the

tradition itself, the


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teachin-s. (he +or& of Ste'e Collins includin- an article 42n theVer% Idea of the Pali Canon 6 has con'incin-l% de)onstrated that

earl% (hera' din understandin-s +ere sha*ed b% their historicalconteLt. In this a**roach Collins follo+s his doctoral su*er'isorGichard o)brich.

(o see the -enesis of the Buddha=s teachin-s as conditioned b%the reli-ious )ilieu in +hich it arose is to ado*t a trul% Buddhist'ie+*oint +hich I also belie'e to be -ood historio-ra*h%. 0

A fe+ scholars ha'e reflected on ho+ 'arious a**roaches toteLtual inter*retation influence the understandin- of Buddhisthistor%. At least until recentl% )odern acade)ics ha'e )ainl%e)*lo%ed an a**roach to histor% that assu)ed their o+n*ri'ile-ed


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Modern atte)*ts to unearth the ori-inal


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor #

*ro'e re+ardin- to loo& carefull% at those discourses that thehistorical )ethod itself +ould su--est belon- to the )ost recent

Buddha. (he *rinci*les that I find i)*licit and eL*licit in theseteLts include a -uideline \ different fro) that of estern Histor%\ for deter)inin- +hich *arts of the P Qi teLts should be tau-htas authentic Dha))a, that +hich leads to a+a&enin-. W

John Maraldo has *ointed to the 4*ossibilit% of a Buddhistsense of histor% 6 +ritin- that acade)ics 4should not hesitate toarticulate Buddhist notions of histor% and their rele'ance for

)odern buddholo-%.6 K. G. Nor)an a late *resident of the P(Sar-ued for 4the need to be i)*artial +hich is essential if one is tobe accurate in one=s translation.6 (he +ord


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eLa)inations of (hera' din her)eneutics in the A)ericanconteLt no anal%ses of ho+ *eo*le nati'e to the liberal

*hiloso*hical en'iron)ent of )odern A)erica are -oin- aboutthe eLe-esis and understandin- of this conser'ati'e tradition. O" Acade)ic interest in the her)eneutical )ethods of Buddhisttraditions in Asia is stron- but +ith 'er% fe+ eLce*tions nonMah % na traditions ha'e been ne-lected. O0 7or its )ethodolo-%as for its na)e the field of Buddhist Her)eneutics has dra+n onthe Euro*ean tradition of her)eneutics +hich de'elo*ed fro)

strate-ies of Biblical eLe-esis. Maraldo criti ues theunselfconscious a**lication of such theories to Asian histor% andad'ocates an eLa)ination of acade)ic scholars= o+n +a%s ofunderstandin- Buddhist traditions. (his enter*rise is critical I

earlier scholars.6 E'en illia)s and jueen in a 'olu)e entitled meri%an Buddhism5 "eth#ds and indings in +e%ent S%h#larship do not *ro'idean eL*licit *hiloso*hical fra)e+or& for thier eLa)ination of 4Modes ofDhar)a (rans)ission.6 Prebish does include an interestin- discussionof estern scholars= a**roaches to the focus is thus on ho+ (hais and Sri aT&ans are ada*tin- theirreli-ious establish)ents to the .S. (hou-h Nu)rich does touch on aninterestin- *heno)enon of 4*arallel con-re-ations6 of A)erican con'ertsthis +or& is onl% *eri*herall% rele'ant to the uestion of ho+ (hera' din)editation *ractices are inter*reted b% and for nati'e born A)ericans.(+or&o' W and o*e W discuss inter*retations of t+o Mah % natraditions in )odern A)erica. (+eed " -i'es an historical account of9he meri%an 7n%#unter with Buddhism FGHH-F FJ5 &i%t#rian 1ulture and the


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Inter&ret$ng !$stor )

thin& not onl% for acade)ics but also for *ractitioners tounderstand their o+n traditions. Since *eo*le understand

Dhamma-&inayain different +a%s and since +hat indi'iduals*ractice de*ends on +hat the% ta&e to be the authoritati'eteachin-s the *rocesses of inter*retin- and of en-a-in- thetradition are ineLtricabl% bound.

(eLt and conteLt are bound to-ether in a relationshi* of)utual eLchan-e. (he -reat -enerousit% and hi-h )oralit% of theBur)ese *eo*le are testi)on% to the enor)ous i)*act teLts can

ha'e on sha*in- the societ% that )aintains the). (he sheerdi'ersit% of traditions toda% illustrates that +hat is ta&en to beDhamma-&inayade*ends 'er% )uch on the hu)an conteLt.Modern scholarshi* has sho+n ho+ later historical de'elo*)entsha'e sha*ed +hich earl% teLts are -i'en authorit%. HaroldCo+ard +rites that 4the relationshi* bet+een a reli-iousco))unit% and its scri*ture is co)*leL reci*rocal and3 central

to the nor)ati'e self definition of a reli-ion.6O$

Modern readin-sb% scholars and *ractitioners of the (hera' da also eLhibit this&ind of co)*leL interaction, inter*retation of the teLts and ofeL*eriences sha*es the definition of the tradition +hich in turnsha*es later understandin-s. Steiner reco-ni es that 4suchcircularit%3 is an ine'itable *erha*s necessar% attribute of an%discourse of an% articulate co))entar% +hose ob ect is itself


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&no+ the tradition as )uch as *ossible on its o+n ter)s to *a%attention and *a% res*ect to this culture that has so benefited us.

A si)ilar &ind of reci*rocit% is necessar% as +ell in acade)icstud% of the (hera' da, if the scholarl% co))unit% dra+sinfor)ation and &no+led-e fro) this tradition it is incu)benton us to tr% to understand and *resent the teachin-s on theiro+n ter)s. (o )isre*resent the tradition b% i)*osin- esternassu)*tions on it is not onl% *oor scholarshi* it directl% affectsthe ob ect of our stud%.

At least one *assa-e in the P Qi describes ho+ effecti'e*ractice de*ends on upya 'usal# a


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III

Trans/lat$ont%e &ro'ess of $nter&retat$on an- $ts a+t%ent$' 'o*&let$

atchin- and *artici*atin- in inter*retation at )editationretreats o'er the *ast fi'e %ears I ha'e found a ran-e of st%les.2n the one eLtre)e are literal +ord for +ord renderin-s +herethe inter*reter *ic&s the )ost a**ro*riate En-lish -loss to )atch

the ori-inal Bur)ese and i-nores the si-nificant differencesbet+een A)erican and Bur)ese eL*ectations for sentencestructure or-ani ation of thou-hts a)ount of re*etition*olitical correctness and so on. 2n the other eLtre)e Asianteachers= state)ents so)eti)es see) to be used as a s*rin-boardfor inter*reters to es*ouse their o+n 'ie+s. (here is a ran-e ofo*tions bet+een literal renderin- and total recreation. No )atter

+here alon- this s*ectru) the inter*reter chooses to +or&ho+e'er the )eanin- of the ori-inal teLt in its ori-inal lin-uisticconteLt is altered e'er% ti)e it is )o'ed into the 'ocabular% of adifferent culture. ord for +ord inter*retation is not necessaril%

Steiner W, $0O 4(here is bet+een


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)ore true to the ori-inal )eanin- than +hat Steiner calls4a**ro*riate recreation 6 often uite the o**osite. 7or instance

Bur)ese )on&s tend to e)*hasi e a *articular *oint b%re*eatin- it nearl% 'erbati) )an% ti)es in the sa)e tal&>A)erican s*ea&ers &no+ that the% +ill bore the audience orinsult their listeners= intelli-ence if the% re*eat the)sel'es+ithout 'ar%in- ho+ the% *hrase their *oints. In such casesinter*reters are forced to )a&e choices bet+een co))unicatin-+hat the% thin& the teacher intended and renderin- the Bur)ese

+ord for +ord.ith the luLur% of ti)e reference to dictionaries and otherresources translation of a +ritten teLt can achie'e so)e*recision if ne'er *erfection. Si)ultaneous or consecuti'einter*retation of s*o&en discourse is hurried and ineLact inco)*arison thou-h the her)eneutic )otion is si)ilar. Ananalo-ous *rocess is in'ol'ed +hen A)ericans trained b% Asian

)editation )asters teach in turn to A)erican students.(eachers inter*ret fro) and throu-h the understandin-s the%ha'e de'elo*ed in their o+n *ractice. (he challen-es for suchdee* trans)ission are 'er% si)ilar to those for consecuti'einter*retation and +ritten translation. hether one is renderin-+ords s*o&en )o)ents before or understandin-s of ancientteachin-s de'elo*ed o'er %ears of *ersonal eL*erience

(he craft of the translator is3 dee*l% a)bi'alent, it is eLercisedin a radical tension bet+een i)*ulses to facsi)ile and i)*ulsesto a**ro*riate recreation. In a 'er% s*ecific +a% the translator


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ad'ancin- to+ardsthe undeci*hered

teLt *resu)in-so)e 'alue there.NeLt is the 4in'asi'eand eLhausti'e6a**ro*riation of)eanin- fro) thesource +hich

dis*els the )%sti ueof the un&no+n andlea'es the teLteL*osed toeLa)ination. (heinter*reter thenbrin-s the )eanin- ho)e assi)ilatin- forei-n s%)bols and ideasinto the nati'e culture and lan-ua-e. Callin- so)ethin- atranslation assu)es these three, a**roach deci*her)ent andrenderin- in a ne+ ton-ue. (his )uch )a% be so)e+hat ob'ious.

Steiner=s -reat contribution lies in his reco-nition of thefourth and final *art of the


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Trans/lat$on )2

there can be no doubt that echo enriches that it is )ore thanshado+ and inert si)ulacru). O

I*balan'e

(he first )o'e)ent Steiner obser'es is one of 4initiati'etrust.6 (he translator )ust *osit so)e si-nificance so)eunderstandin- to be -ained b% deci*herin- the teLt. (he'ulnerabilit% here is si)ilar in )an% +a%s to that of anindi'idual=s or a societ%=s introduction to the teachin-s ofDhamma-&inaya. In the be-innin- sta-es of the *ractice as inthose of translation 4the donation of trust re)ains ontolo-icall%s*ontaneous and antici*ates *roof often b% a lon- arduous -a*.6(hou-h this initiation is often ta&en for -ranted it is notnecessaril% self e'ident that translation bet+een t+o 'er%

different s%ste)s of lan-ua-e and culture is e'en *ossible. (here uisite trustderi'es fro) a se uence of *heno)enolo-ical assu)*tions aboutthe coherence of the +orld about the *resence of )eanin- in'er% different *erha*s for)all% antithetical se)antic s%ste)sabout the 'alidit% of analo-% and *arallel.W

(rans)ission be-ins +ith a tentati'e faith in the source+hose 'alue is %et unconfir)ed.

(he second )o'e)ent of translation is 4incursi'e andeLtracti'e 6 +rites Steiner. Here he follo+s Heide--er=s anal%sisof understandin- as 'iolent and 4inherentl% a**ro*riati'e.6 (hetranslator of teLts li&e the student of the Buddha=s teachin-s)ust


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E'er% schoolchild but also the e)inent translator +ill note theshift in substanti'e *resence +hich follo+s on a *rotracted ordifficult eLercise in translation, the teLt in the other lan-ua-ehas beco)e al)ost )ateriall% thinner the li-ht see)s to *assunhindered throu-h its loosened fibres. 7or a s*ell the densit% ofhostile or seducti'e the eLotic i)a-es of*eace har)on% and s*iritual riches *ro ected east+ard sincethat ti)e *ersist toda% +ith roc& bands na)ed 4Nir'ana6 and)o'ies li&e 9he L#lden 1hild. (he act of inter*retation necessaril%ta&es fro) the source and transfor)s it to so)e de-ree> +e neednot conde)n *o* culture re*resentations of forei-n ideas andideals to reco-ni e that the% are inco)*lete that the% lea'eso)ethin- to be desired that the% are not totall% authentic

Steiner W, 0 $.# arfield "##", "0 .


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Trans/lat$on )#

renderin-s. A nu)ber of cultures ha'e *rotected sacred teLtsteachin-s and rituals b% restrictin- or *rohibitin- their

translation for outsiders> certain sects in India for instancetraditionall% restricted one on one teachin- of the sacred teLts to)ales of their *articular caste and re-arded an% inter*retationsthat )i-ht arise outside of that *ersonal trans)ission asunauthentic in the sense of not con'e%in- the )eanin- of theteLts at all.

(ranslation al+a%s in'ol'es incor*oration and 4assi)ilation6

into a ne+ lin-uistic conteLt. (his third c%cle of the her)eneutic)otion is *otentiall% dan-erous Steiner +arns. (he essential)essa-e can be lost or distorted in the *rocess of trans)issionfor one. Mar& E*stien *oints out ho+ the 7reudian idea of Re-oRhas been )isre*resented b% En-lish lan-ua-e accounts of(hera' din satipa))hna.

(he +ord used in translation _for anatt


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such as the )os uito and the )on-oose in Ha+ai=i. 0 If s%)bolsha'e )eanin- b% 'irtue of their associations a ne+ creation or

i)*ortation sets off 4a &ind of re'erberation do+n throu-h thenet+or& of entail)ents that a+a&ens and connects our)e)ories6 and fra)es future eL*erience. $ (hrou-h uietinfiltration or ra*id delu-e forei-n i)*orts can o'er+hel)*articular as*ects of a culture=s identit%. (he 7rench ha'e *assedstrin-ent la+s *rohibitin- certain *ublic uses of En-lish becausetheir lan-ua-e has beco)e so endan-ered b% the do)inance of

4 .S. fil)s and (V *o*ular )usic and co))ercial fiction3 alon-+ith e'iRs _ si% ` and Coca Cola.61 (his is a *ri)e instance of ho+the eLchan-e of cultural ideas does not al+a%s -enerate )utualunderstandin-. Steiner sees an% &ind of inter*retation asinherentl% 4a--ressi'e and at one le'el destructi'e.6Nonetheless he *oints out ho+ unhealth% intentions )oti'atin-the i)*ortation or the fra-ile state of a reci*ient conteLt cansabota-e efforts to i)*ort forei-n understandin-s to a ne+culture. In such cases the ne+ introduction

0 hen the Euro*ean roof rat : +attus rattus; ca)e to Ha+ai=i on esternshi*s in the WO#s it *roliferated in the cane fields *lanted b%ha#le:Caucasian; settlers. In one of the )ost ill concei'ed ecolo-ical)ani*ulations b% hu)an bein-s to date Indian )on-ooses : ;erpestesaur#pun%tatus; +ere introduced to Ha+ai=i fro) Ja)aica as *redators for therats. Since the roof rat is *ri)aril% a nocturnal and arboreal s*ecies

+hereas the )on-oose is *ri)aril% diurnal and terrestrial the t+o hadlittle effect on each other. (o-ether ho+e'er the% ha'e deci)ated theindi-enous bird s*ecies b% da% and b% ni-ht. Culline% WW, "1O.

(hen in W" a shi* too& on +ater at San Blas MeLico on its +a% to the harborat ahaina Maui> on arri'al the sailors found to their dis)a% that theChristian )issionaries \ to *re'ent 'ice and 'enereal disease \ had be-un*rohibitin- Ha+aiian +o)en fro) s+i))in- out to )eet ha#le 'isitors. Inretaliation the cre+ &no+in-l% du)*ed into the harbor +ater infested+ith lar'ae of the tro*ical ni-ht fl%in- )os uito : 1ule8 pipens 3atigans;. (heoffs*rin- of these insects ha'e brou-ht a'ian )alaria to all the )a orHa+aiian islands lea'in- onl% the )ost re)ote hi-h altitude forests as'iable habitat for the re)ainin- indi-enous birds +ith the eLce*tion of a'er% fe+ hard% s*ecies. arner O0, 0 W.

$ a&off and Johnson W#, $#.1 ott)an $, O.


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+ill -enerate not an inte-ral res*onse but a +ash of )i)icr%3After a ti)e the nati'e or-anis) +ill react endea'orin- toneutrali e or eL*el the forei-n bod%.

(he histor% of the trans)ission of the Buddha=s teachin-s toChina and (ibet illustrates the dan-er Steiner +arns of. In bothcases an initial success includin- state *atrona-e for the stud%and *ro)ul-ation of the teachin-s +as follo+ed b% an4indi-enous bac&lash6 a-ainst the forei-n intrusion.O More thana fe+ i)*ortations of forei-n ideas ha'e in'ol'ed i)*osition> thete)*tation to *rosel%ti e )enaces at this sta-e. Ge-ardless of the)ode or intention the induction of ne+ understandin-s canthreaten a societ%=s identit% +hen it is in a *eriod of )a ortransition. Steiner cites the 4car-o cults of Ne+ uinea in +hichthe nati'es +orshi* +hat air*lanes brin- in 6 as a stri&in-illustration of cultural identit% loss.W (hou-h the *o+er d%na)icis 'er% different indiscri)inate Ne+ A-e a**ro*riation ofsensationali ed Eastern S*iritualit% is unsettlin-l% si)ilar.

hat allo+s such blind faith in forei-n i)*orts to de'elo*USu*erficial and inco)*lete understandin- of the ori-inal )essa-ein its ori-inal conteLt. ithout eLtensi'e stud% of an Indian orCeltic or Ja*anese cultural *ractice in its nati'e en'iron)ent+ithout &no+in- ho+ the *arts fit to-ether and ho+ the% relateto the culture around the) )odern teachers cannot ho*e to -etsuch *ractices to A)erican soil ali'e. (oda% +e find for instanceInsi-ht )editation bein- tau-ht +ithout the foundation of)oralit%> such )an-led and *iece)eal trans)issions cannot lastlon-. 2nl% b% &no+in- the roles the (hera' da has *la%ed inother cultures can +e reali e the *otential of the (hera' da inthe .S.A. E'en A)erican ada*tations of the Buddha=s teachin-sdone +ith the best of intentions but +ithout returnin- to thesource or +ithout a source to return to e'entuall% de-rade the

ualit% of the teachin-s that +ill reach future -enerations.Steiner W, 0 1.

O Batchelor "###, $".W Steiner W, 0 .


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Cultural and teLtual i)*ortation +ithout the co)*letion ofreci*rocit% lea'es the s%ste) 4off balance.6 (he her)eneutic

)otion be-ins +ith an ad'ance to+ards the teLt. (he inter*reterdel'es in


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Trans/lat$on ):

increased e'en at ho)e. Seein- forei-ners co)e -reat distancesto Bur)a to stud% +ith )editation )asters has ins*ired )an%

local Buddhists to underta&e )editation the)sel'es. Moreo'er ateLt )a% be illu)inated understood in -reater de*th throu-h thefocused scrutin% translation entails. (he ondon based Pali (eLtSociet% atte)*ted such an eLca'ation translatin- the entire(hera' din canon and )an% of its co))entaries into En-lish.(he critical scholarshi* s*a+ned b% these efforts has re'ealed)an% 'aluable insi-hts into the histor% and lan-ua-e of the teLts.

(he reci*rocit% that Steiner ad'ocates as a )oral i)*erati'eof translation ho+e'er has less to do +ith enhance)ent than+ith 4fidelit%.6 7aithfulness to the source co)*letes the c%cleinitiated b% trust. hat Steiner intends here is 4not literalis) oran% technical de'ice for renderin-


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(hera' din 'ie+ understandable the estern teachers restatethe eL*lanations to )a&e the) clearer to further illu)inatethe). (his is _beneficial` because althou-h esterners can -i'eteachin-s often these lac& *recise infor)ation because theesterners &no+ )ore or less onl% +hat their o+n teachers ha'etau-ht. (he )odes of )eanin- and understandin- in the(hera' da are 'er% subtle in fact> the noble dhamma is eLtre)el%*rofound. 7or those +ho ha'en=t heard such clarifications beforeand +ho therefore don=t %et -ras* these nuances the (hera' dinSa%ada+s can be of hel*. And the M%an)ar Sa%ada+s -et )erittoo. Meditation teachers fro) the est hel* us to -et across the

thin-s +e +ant to sa% and the% -et )erit as +ell. hen esternteachers and our o+n (hera' din scri*tural tradition ofM%an)ar... co)e to-ether +ith this understandin- and functionhar)oniousl% e'er%one reali es -reater success."O

Bur)ese )on&s such as Sa%ada+ Pa?@ita and Sa%ada+ a&&ha?a +ho understand En-lish uite +ell ta&e -reat care to)a&e sure that inter*reters -et their full )essa-e across>Sa%ada+ Pa?@ita is *articularl% 'i-ilant not infre uentl%correctin- the inter*reter=s En-lish +ord usa-e as +ell as P Qi*ronunciation and -eneral *resentation st%le. 7orei-n students ofBur)ese )editation )asters so)eti)es feel that the inter*reteris -i'in- the) short shrift notin- for instance that each ti)ethe teacher tal&s for fi'e )inutes the inter*reter tal&s for one.(his can ha**en because the inter*reter +ishes to s*are the

"O Althou-h I +as actin- as inter*reter for a&&ha?a +hen he )ade thesere)ar&s as I re'ie+ed the ori-inal recordin- I +as struc& b% the hurriedand ineLact nature of the consecuti'e inter*retation I had done on thes*ot so I ha'e *assed on to readers here the luLur% of a re+ind buttonrerenderin- the *assa-e fro) the ori-inal Bur)ese. (he idea I ha'etranslated in the second sentence as


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tradition +hile articulatin- the) in a +a% that )eets the needsof one=s ti)e.0

(eachers of )indfulness )editation in the .S. ha'e ta&en)an% different a**roaches to this *roble) so)e choosin- astrictl% conser'ati'e inter*retation of the (hera' da othersincludin- understandin-s fro) estern Science Ps%cholo-% Judais) Christianit% and so on. Each of these a**roaches hasstren-ths and +ea&nesses. In order to illustrate in sufficientde*th the critical issues in'ol'ed +ithout s*endin- too )an%

*a-es on the sub ect I focus here on the )ost recent +or& of one+idel% *ublished and +ell &no+n teacher of Insi-ht Meditation. Jose*h oldstein is one of a fe+ A)ericans +ho *la%ed a )a orrole in establishin- the Mah si tradition in the nited States. Hetries to )eet the


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Trans/lat$on 9#

*ur*ose necessar% for success in an% tradition as Bhi&&hu Bodhisu--ests.

3a s%ste) of )editati'e *ractice does not constitute a selfcontained disci*line. An% authentic s%ste) of s*iritual *ractice isal+a%s found e)bedded +ithin a conce*tual )atriL that definesthe *roble)s the *ractice is intended to sol'e and the -oalto+ards +hich it is directed. Hence the )er-in- of techni ues-rounded in inco)*atible conce*tual fra)e+or&s is frau-ht +ithris&. Althou-h such )er-ers )a% a**ease a *redilection foreL*eri)entation or eclecticis) it see)s li&el% that their lon-ter) effect +ill be to create a certain 4co-niti'e dissonance6 that+ill re'erberate throu-h the dee*er le'els of the *s%che and stiru* e'en -reater confusion. 00

(here )a% be unseen dan-ers as +ell in *ic&in- *articularas*ects fro) li'in- traditions and s%nthesi in- the) to-ether.e )i-ht )a&e a useful analo-% to the de'elo*)ent of cro*ssuch as corn )odified +ith -enetic )aterial fro) bacteria +hichis raisin- serious ob ections toda%. Des*ite the biotechnolo-%industr%=s assurances o**onents *oint to the i)*ossibilit% of*redictin- or containin- the effects that eneticall% Modifiedor-anis)s ha'e on the surroundin- en'iron)ent includin-other far)ers +ishin- to -ro+ *urel% or-anic cro*s. hate'idence do teachers and *ractitioners of the 'arious


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Trans/lat$on 9)

Sa&%a)uni; does ust that culti'atin- the


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unnecessar% conflict and e'en hostilit% en-endered b% thisdis*ute *ro'ides a *erfect eLa)*le of +h% res*onsible

inter*reters )ust not i-nore or -loss o'er differences bet+eeninter*reti'e fra)e+or&s. (hou-h Pa?@ita and the Dalai a)a)a% use co-nate P Qi and Sans&rit ter)s such asnibbnaandnirv(a to refer to the -oal:s; of their res*ecti'e traditions such)asters of both theor% and *ractice not onl% define these ter)s'er% differentl% but s*ecificall% assert that the other=s traditiondoes not acco)*lish the final *ur*ose of their o+n. If so can +e

res*onsibl% dis)iss their state)ents b% teachin- and *racticin-as if the -oal of D o-chen and the -oal of satipa))hna are one andthe sa)eU hat if the% are notU

B% reducin- 'arious traditions to the 'ocabular% and sub ectsthat the% ha'e in co))on +e seriousl% ris& )issin- the *oint ofeach. A tradition -ets its eL*lanator% *o+er its abilit% to ins*ireand to -uide not so )uch fro) the infor)ation it focuses on but

fro) the *rinci*les b% +hich it inter*rets the e'idence at hand.Various 'ocabular% and ideas are related to one another and tiedto-ether b% these her)eneutical *rinci*les. Such an inter*reti'efra)e+or& is the -eno)e carried +here'er the seeds of atradition are so+n its source.0O

If a tradition is indeed defined not b% its sub ects but b% itsher)eneutic *rinci*les then +e need to ta&e care not to sei e onsu*erficial si)ilarities. If +e *luc& enou-h state)ents fro) an%

0O hile I do dra+ here on Michel 7oucault=s idea of 4discourse 6 )%descri*tion of 'ocabular% connected b% her)eneutical *rinci*les *uts lesse)*hasis on *o+er relations in order to focus )ore on the *rocess ofinter*retation. (he t+o are inti)atel% related ho+e'er> +hich renderin-sare considered authentic de*ends lar-el% on +ho is authori ed as aninter*reter. 7oucault a**arentl% understood that if one assu)es no lo-ic tobe uni'ersal tradition is the onl% )eans of le-iti)ation. In his inau-urallecture at the Collg-e de 7rance 4(he Discourse on an-ua-e 6 7oucaultW" be-ins b% reco-ni in- an% be-innin- as artificial> he concludes and

co)*letes his o+n ar-u)ent b% referrin- res*ectfull% to his teachers=+or&s and to the intellectual linea-e +hich *receded the). I)*licit here isthe understandin- of authenticit% as a function of the return to the source+hich Steiner articulates so +ell.


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Trans/lat$on 9:

t+o traditions e'entuall% so)e of these +ill be-in to sound 'er%si)ilar. Ho+e'er other state)ents could ust as +ell be *ic&ed

out of these sa)e conteLts ones that +ould sound as if the% +erein shar* disa-ree)ent. oldstein=s eL*loration of One Dharmaarose out of *ersonal eL*erience +ith this latter *roble), star&differences bet+een the definitions of freedo) -i'en b% differenttraditions. (his is +h% the *rinci*le that 4*hiloso*hical conce*tsare onl% descri*tions of eL*erience and not the eL*erienceitself6 is listed first and fore)ost in oldstein=s her)eneutic. 0W In

order to understand +hat an% *articular tradition )eans b% its'ocabular% then +e )ust eLa)ine the fra)e+or& ofassu)*tions and 'alues in +hich these ideas are e)*lo%ed.

(his is an a**roach e'idenced in a nu)ber of (hera' din+or&s. (he co))entar% on one bhidhamma teLt )a&es clearthat it is not the 4eL*ression6 or 4+ords6 :va%an; +hich are the4)easure6 :4standard authorit%6, pam(a; but rather the

*ur*ose or 4)eanin-6 : atth#; that defines a teLt.3the lo-ical ter) then is in this school not the +ords for +hichs%non%)s could be substituted but the *rinci*le the% refer tothe )eanin-> their lo-ic is a lo-ic of )eanin- of *rinci*les not of+ords3 0

Al)ost all of the traditions -rou*ed under the na)e third that +hat is called in Buddhis)


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)isleadin-. I also &no+ that 4hearin- acco)*lished )asters fro)different traditions tal& about liberation in 'er% different +a%s

each +ith descri*tions that +ere 'erified in their o+neL*erience6 has caused serious doubt and indecision for anu)ber of *ractitioners. $# i&e+ise in )% o+n +or& inter*retin-for inter'ie+s at satipa))hnaretreats I ha'e seen Bur)eseteachers caution a nu)ber of lon- ti)e *ractitioners that their*ractice +as bein- subtl% co)*ro)ised b% tr%in- achie'e a*articular state of )ind, rather a**l%in- non ud-e)ental

a+areness to +hate'er +as arisin- these students +ere :)ostl%unconsciousl%; carr%in- o'er D o-chen *ractices that atte)*t toculti'ate a cal) and s*acious attention. So)e of these studentssa+ for the)sel'es the error of tr%in- to ta&e both of thesea**roaches at the sa)e ti)e and then reali ed )ore full% the'alue of *ure satipa))hna> others +ere not able to e'ente)*oraril% *ut aside the habits the% had culti'ated doin- other*ractices. Most of the students Ste'en S)ith has co)e intocontact +ith o'er t+ent% %ears of teachin- find )ore confusionthan co)*atibilit% bet+een their eL*eriences in differenttraditions.$ If so are understandin-s fro) different


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Trans/lat$on :1

o*erate fro) dis*arate *hiloso*hical fra)e+or&s. $0 (his isfurther e'idenced b% an alle-or% fro) the Mah % na 4 otus

S9tra 6 +here the Buddha ca oles rec&less children fro) aburnin- house b% *ro)isin- the) 'arious to%s accordin- to their*articular desires. (he to% 'ehicles the Buddha offers areco)*ared to the 'arious 'ehicles of but I belie'e that the a**lication of the conce*t


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Pa?@ita=s 4e)*hasis on heroic effort is oined +ith a o%ousconfidence that liberation is *ossible in this 'er% life.6$O (he Pure

and school also e)*lo%s


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Trans/lat$on :2

t%*e of distinction, that if certain conte)*orar% traditionso*erate fro) substantiall% different her)eneutical fra)e+or&s

+e need to res*ect and a**r

strong roots

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