Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking

Stephen Hawking at NASA, 1980s

BornStephen William Hawking8 January 1942(age70)Oxford, England

ResidenceUnited Kingdom

NationalityBritish

Fields General relativity Quantum gravity

Institutions Cambridge University California Institute of Technology Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics

Alma mater Oxford University Cambridge University

Doctoral advisorDennis Sciama

Other academicadvisorsRobert Berman

Notable students Don Page

Knownfor Hawking radiation Singularity theorems A Brief History of Time

Influences Dikran Tahta

Notable awards Albert Einstein Award(1978) Wolf Prize(1988) Prince of Asturias Award(1989) Copley Medal(2006) Presidential Medal of Freedom(2009) SpecialFundamental Physics Prize(2012)

Spouse Jane Hawking(m. 19651991, divorced) Elaine Mason(m. 19952006, divorced)

Stephen William Hawking,CH,CBE,FRS,FRSA(born 8 January 1942) is a Britishtheoretical physicist,cosmologist, and author. Among his significant scientific works have been a collaboration withRoger Penroseongravitational singularities theoremsin the framework ofgeneral relativity, and the theoretical prediction thatblack holesemit radiation, often calledHawking radiation. Hawking was the first to set forth a cosmology explained by a union of thegeneral theory of relativityandquantum mechanics. He is a vocal supporter of themany-worlds interpretationof quantum mechanics.He is anHonorary Fellowof theRoyal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of thePontifical Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of thePresidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. Hawking was theLucasian Professor of Mathematicsat the University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009.Hawking has achieved success with works ofpopular sciencein which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; hisA Brief History of Timestayed on the BritishSunday Timesbest-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. Hawking has amotor neurone diseaserelated toamyotrophic lateral sclerosis(ALS), a condition that has progressed over the years. He is almost entirely paralysed and communicates through aspeech generating device. He married twice and has three children.Early life and educationStephen Hawking was born on 8January 1942 to Frank Hawking and Isobel Hawking.[1][2]Despite family financial constraints, both parents had attendedOxford University, where Frank had studiedmedicineand IsobelPhilosophy, Politics and Economics.[2]The two met shortly after the beginning of theSecond World Warat a medical research institute where Isobel was working as a secretary and Frank as amedical researcher.[2][3]Hawking's parents lived inHighgatebut as London wasunder attackduring the Second World War, his mother went toOxfordto give birth in greater safety.[4]He has two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary, and an adopted brother, Edward.[5]Hawking began his schooling at theByron House School; he later blamed its "progressive methods" for his failure to learn to read while at the school.[6]In 1950, when his father became head of the division ofparasitologyat theNational Institute for Medical Research, Hawking and his family moved toSt Albans, Hertfordshire.[6][7]The eight-year-old Hawking attendedSt Albans High School for Girlsfor a few months; at that time, younger boys could attend one of the houses.[8][9]In St Alban's, the family were considered highly intelligent and eccentric.[6][10]They lived a frugal existence in a large, cluttered, and poorly maintained house, and travelled in a converted London taxicab.[11][12]The family placed a high value on education, with regular trips to museums, and meals spent with everyone reading in silence.[6]During one of Hawking's father's frequent absences working in Africa,[13]the rest of the family spent four months inMajorcavisiting his mother's friend Beryl and her husband, the poetRobert Graves.[8]On their return to England, Hawking attendedRadlett Schoolfor a year[9]and from September 1952,St Albans School.[14]Hawking's father wanted his son to attend the well-regardedWestminster School, but 13-year-old Hawking was ill on the day of the scholarship examination. His family could not afford the school fees without the financial aid of a scholarship, so Hawking remained at St Albans.[15][16]As a positive consequence, Hawking remained with the close group of friends with whom he enjoyed board games, the manufacture of fireworks, model airplanes and boats,[17]and long discussions aboutChristianityandextrasensory perception.[18]From 1958, and with the help of the mathematics teacherDikran Tahta, they built a computer from clock parts, an old telephone switchboard and other recycled components.[19][20]Although at school he was known as "Einstein", Hawking was not initially successful academically.[21]With time, he began to show considerable aptitude for scientific subjects, and inspired by Tahta, decided to study mathematics at university.[22][23][24]Hawking's father had other views and wanted him to study medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for mathematics graduates.[25]He also wanted Hawking to attend his ownalma materUniversity College, Oxford. As it was not possible to read mathematics there at the time, Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry, and despite his headmaster's advice to wait till the next year, took the scholarship examinations in March 1959.[23][26]After performing well on the exams and interviews, University College accepted Hawking, and offered him a scholarship.[27][26]University studiesHawking went up to Oxford in October 1959, at the age of 17.[28]For the first 18 months he was bored and lonely. He was younger than many other students, and he found the academic work "ridiculously easy".[29][30]His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said "It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it."[31]A change occurred during his second and third year when, according to Berman, Hawking made more effort "to be one of the boys". He became popular as a lively and witty college member, interested in classical music and science fiction.[28]Part of the transformation resulted from his decision to join the college Boat Club, where hecoxeda rowing team.[32][33]The boats he coxed often returned to shore damaged, and the rowing trainer at the time noted that he cultivated a daredevil image, steering his crew on overly risky courses.[34][32]Hawking has estimated that he had studied for only approximately 1000 hours during his three years at Oxford. These unimpressive study habits made sitting his Finals a challenge, and he decided only to answer questions ontheoretical physicsrather than those requiring factual knowledge. AFirst-class honours degreewas a condition of acceptance for his plans for graduate study incosmologyat the University of Cambridge withFred Hoyle.[35][36]Anxious, he slept poorly the night before the examinations and the final result was on the borderline between first and second class honours, making avivanecessary.[36][37]Hawking was concerned that he was considered a lazy and difficult student, and when asked at the oral examination to describe his future plans said "If you award me a First, I will go to Cambridge. If I receive a Second, I shall stay in Oxford, so I expect you will give me a First."[36][38]He was held in higher regard than he believed: as Berman commented, the examiners "were intelligent enough to realize they were talking to someone far cleverer than most of themselves".[36]After receiving a first-class BA (Hons.) degree, he began his graduate work atTrinity Hall, Cambridgein October 1962.[39]Hawking had noticed that he was clumsier during his final year at Oxford. He fell down the stairs and had difficult rowing.[40][41]He did not distinguish himself in his first two years at the institution. With the encouragement of his doctoral tutor,Dennis William Sciama, he returned to working on his PhD after his disease had stabilised[42]and graduated with his doctorate in 1966.[43]Career196675When Hawking began his graduate studies in the 1960s, there was much debate in the physics community about the prevailing theories of the creation of the universe: theBig Bang and theSteady Statetheories.[44]Hawking and his Cambridge friend and colleague,Roger Penrose, calculated in 1970 that if the universe obeysthe general theory of relativityand fits themodelsofphysical cosmologydeveloped byAlexander Friedmann, then it must havebegun as a singularity.[45]This work demonstrated that, far from being mathematical curiosities which appear only in exceptional circumstances, singularities are a fairly common feature of general relativity.[46]Hawking's essay on this subject and an essay by Penrose shared theAdams prizein 1966.[47]Hawking's essay served as the basis for the book,The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, that Hawking published withGeorge Ellisin 1973.[48]In 1969, Hawking accepted a specially created 'Fellowship for Distinction in Science' to remain at Cambridge.[49]In the early 1970s, Hawking's work withBrandon Carter,Werner Israeland D. Robinson strongly supportedJohn Wheeler'sno-hair theorem that any black hole can be fully described by the three properties ofmass,angular momentum, and electric charge.[50]With Bardeen and Carter, he proposed the fourlaws of black hole mechanics, drawing an analogy withthermodynamics.[51]In 1974, he calculated that black holes emitradiation, known today asHawking radiation, until they exhaust their energy andevaporate.[52]Hawking was elected one of the youngest Fellows of theRoyal Societyin 1974,[53]and in the same year he accepted the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Scholar visiting professorship at theCalifornia Institute of Technology(Caltech) to work with his friend on the faculty,Kip Thorne.[54]As of 2011, he maintains ties to Caltech, having spent a month there almost every year since 1974.[55]1975present

Hawking with string theoristsDavid GrossandEdward Wittenat the 2001 Strings Conference,TIFR, IndiaThe mid to late 1970s were a period of growing popularity and success for Hawking. His work was now much talked about; he was appearing in television documentaries, and in 1979 he became theLucasian Professor of Mathematicsat the University of Cambridge, a position he held for 30 years until his retirement in 2009.[56][57]Hawking's inaugural lecture as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics was titled: "Is the end in sight for Theoretical Physics" and promoted the idea thatsupergravitywould help solve many of the outstanding problems physicists were studying.[58]In collaboration withJim Hartle, Hawking developed a model in which theuniversehad no boundary in space-time, replacing the initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models with a region akin to the North Pole. One cannot travel north of the North Pole, but there is no boundary there it is simply the point where all north-running lines meet and end.[59]While initially the no-boundary proposal predicted aclosed universe, discussions withNeil Turokled to the realisation that it is also compatible with an open universe.[60]Later work by Hawking appeared to show that, if this no-boundary proposition were correct, then when the universe stopped expanding and eventually collapsed, time would run backwards.[61]However, work by one of his former students,Don Page, led Hawking to withdraw this concept.[62]Along with Thomas Hertog atCERN, in 2006 Hawking proposed a theory of "top-down cosmology", which says that the universe had no unique initial state and therefore that it is inappropriate to formulate a theory that predicts the universe's current configuration from one particular initial state.[63]Top-down cosmology posits that in some sense, the present "selects" the past from a superposition of many possible histories. In doing so, the theory suggests a possible resolution of thefine-tuning question.[64]ThorneHawkingPreskill betMain article:ThorneHawkingPreskill betIn 1997, Hawking made a publicscientific wagerwith Kip Thorne andJohn Preskillof Caltech concerning theblack hole information paradox.[65]Thorne and Hawking argued that since general relativity made it impossible for black holes to radiate, and lose information, the mass-energy and information carried byHawking Radiationmust be "new", and must not originate from inside the black holeevent horizon. Since this contradicted thequantum mechanicsof microcausality, quantum mechanics would need to be rewritten. Preskill argued the opposite, that since quantum mechanics suggests that the information emitted by a black hole relates to information that fell in at an earlier time, the concept of black holes given by general relativity must be modified in some way.[66]The winner of the bet was to receive an encyclopedia of the loser's choice.[65]In 2004, Hawking announced that he was conceding the bet because he now believed that black hole horizons shouldfluctuateand leak information, and gave Preskill a copy ofTotal Baseball. Comparing the useless information obtainable from a black hole to "burning an encyclopedia", Hawking commented, "I gave John an encyclopedia of baseball, but maybe I should just have given him the ashes".[65]Personal lifeAccording to Hawking, when he was diagnosed with ALS during an early stage of his graduate work, he did not see much point in obtaining a doctorate, since he expected to die soon after. Hawking later said that the real turning point was his 1965 marriage to Jane Wilde, a language student.[67]Jane cared for him until 1990 when the couple separated.[68]They had three children: Robert,Lucy, and Timothy.[68]Hawking married hispersonal care assistant, Elaine Mason, in 1995;[68]the couple divorced in October 2006.[69]In 1999, Jane Hawking published a memoir,Music to Move the Stars, detailing her marriage to Hawking and its breakdown; in 2010 she published a revised version,Travelling to Infinity, My Life with Stephen.[70]Illness

Hawking on 5 May 2006, during the press conference at theBibliothque nationale de Franceto inaugurate the Laboratory of Astronomy and Particles in Paris and the French release of his workGod Created the IntegersHawking has amotor neurone diseasethat is related toamyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a condition that has progressed over the years. As of 2012, he is almost completely paralysed and communicates through aspeech generating device. Hawking's illness has advanced more slowly than typical cases of ALS: survival for more than 10 years after diagnosis is uncommon.[71][72]Symptoms of the disease first appeared while he was enrolled at the University of Cambridge, when he lost his balance and fell down a flight of stairs, hitting his head.[33]The diagnosis came when Hawking was 21, just after he had met Jane Wilde, who was to become his first wife; doctors said they did not expect him to survive for long.[73]From 1974 he could not feed himself or get out of bed, so graduate students helped, receiving free accommodation in return.[74]His speech became slurred so that he could be understood only by people who knew him well.[74]During a visit to CERN in Geneva in 1985, Hawking contractedpneumonia, which in his condition was life-threatening as it further restricted his already limited respiratory capacity. He had an emergencytracheotomy, losing what remained of his ability to speak.[75]Aspeech generating devicewas built in Cambridge, using software from an American company, that enabled Hawking to operate a computer keyboard with small movements of his body, and then have aspeech synthesiserspeak what he typed.[76]Thespeech synthesiserhardware he uses,DECtalk, which has an American English accent, is no longer produced.[77]Asked why he has kept the same voice for so many years, Hawking stated that he has not heard a voice he likes better and that he identifies with it even though the synthesiser is both large and fragile by current standards.[78]For lectures and media appearances, Hawking prepares his remarks in advance,[not in citation given]but when he answers questions, he and his system produce words at a rate of about one per minute.[79]Although Hawking's setup requires only a few characters to signal a complete word or phrase,[not in citation given]because he can only enter data by twitching his cheek muscles, constructing complete sentences takes time.[79][80]Intelis working on afacial recognition systemthat will help speed up the writing.[81]The disease-related deterioration of his facial nerves continues such that there is a risk of him acquiringlocked-in syndrome, so Hawking is collaborating with neuroscientists on abraincomputer interfacethat could translate Hawking's brain patterns into signals which would allow him to select letters and words.[80][81]Hawking describes himself as lucky, as the slow progression of his disease has allowed him time to make influential discoveries and has not hindered him because, in his words, "the help I have received from Jane, my children, and a large number of other people and organisations".[76]Space and spaceflight

Hawking taking a zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet" in 2007Hawking has suggested that space is the Earth's long term hope[82]and has indicated that he is almost certain thatalien lifeexists in other parts of the universe: "To my mathematical brain, the numbers alone make thinking about aliens perfectly rational. The real challenge is to work out what aliens might actually be like".[83]He believes alien life not only exists on planets but perhaps in other places, like within stars or floating in outer space. He has also warned that a few of these species might be intelligent and threaten Earth:[84]"If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when Columbus landed in America, which didn't turn out well for the Native Americans".[83]He has advocated that, rather than try to establish contact, humans should try to avoid contact with alien life forms.[83]In 2007, Hawking took a zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet", courtesy ofZero Gravity Corporation, during which he experienced weightlessness eight times.[85]He became the firstquadriplegicto float in zero gravity. Before the flight Hawking said:"Many people have asked me why I am taking this flight. I am doing it for many reasons. First of all, I believe that life on Earth is at an ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster such as sudden nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus, or other dangers. I think the human race has no future if it doesn't go into space. I therefore want to encourage public interest in space."[86]Religious and philosophical viewsIn his early work, Hawking spoke of God in a metaphorical sense, such as inA Brief History of Time: "If we discover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason for then we should know the mind of God."[87]In the same book he suggested the existence of God was unnecessary to explain the origin of the universe.[88]Hawking has stated that he is "not religious in the normal sense" and he believes that "the universe is governed by the laws of science. The laws may have been decreed by God, but God does not intervene to break the laws."[89]In an interview published inThe Guardiannewspaper, Hawking regarded the concept ofHeavenas amyth, believing that there is "no heaven or afterlife" and that such a notion was a "fairy story for people afraid of the dark."[87][90]At Google'sZeitgeistConference in 2011, Hawking said that "philosophy is dead." He believes philosophers "have not kept up with modern developments in science" and that scientists "have become the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest for knowledge." He said thatphilosophical problemscan be answered by science, particularly new scientific theories which "lead us to a new and very different picture of the universe and our place in it".[91]Recognition

U.S. PresidentBarack Obamatalks with Stephen Hawking in theBlue Roomof theWhite Housebefore a ceremony presenting him and 15 others thePresidential Medal of Freedomon 12 August 2009.On 19 December 2007, a statue of Hawking by artistIan Walterswas unveiled at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology, University of Cambridge.[92]Buildings named after Hawking include the Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum inSan Salvador, El Salvador,[93]the Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge,[94]and theStephen Hawking CentreatPerimeter Institutein Canada.[95]In 2002, following a UK-wide vote, theBBCincluded him in their list of the100 Greatest Britons.[96]Awards and honours 1975Eddington Medalof theRoyal Astronomical Society(UK)[68] 1976Hughes Medalof theRoyal Society(UK)[68] 1979Albert Einstein Medalof theAlbert Einstein Society(Switzerland)[68] 1981Franklin Medalof theFranklin Institute(USA)[97] 1982Commander of the Order of the British Empire(UK)[68] 1985Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society(UK)[68] 1986 Member of thePontifical Academy of Sciences(Vatican)[68] 1988Wolf Prize in Physicsof theWolf Foundation(Israel) shared withRoger Penrose[68] 1989Companion of Honour(UK)[68] 1999Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prizeof theAmerican Physical Society[98] 2003Michelson-Morley AwardofCase Western Reserve University(USA)[68] 2006Copley Medalof theRoyal Society(UK)[99] 2008Fonseca Prizeof theUniversity of Santiago de Compostela(Spain)[100] 2009Presidential Medal of Freedom(USA, highest civilian honour)[101] 2012 SpecialFundamental Physics Prize(Russia)[102]Popular publicationsHawking's first popular science book,A Brief History of Time, was published on 1 April 1988[103]and stayed on the BritishSunday Timesbest-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.[104]It was followed byThe Universe in a Nutshell(2001). A collection of essays titledBlack Holes and Baby Universes(1993) was also popular. He co-wroteA Briefer History of Time(2005) withLeonard Mlodinowto update his earlier works to make them accessible to a wider audience. In 2007 Hawking and his daughter,Lucy Hawking, publishedGeorge's Secret Key to the Universe, a children's book focusing on science that Lucy Hawking described as "a bit like Harry Potter but without the magic."[105]Books A Brief History of Time(1988)[106] Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays(1993)[107] The Universe in a Nutshell(2001)[106] On The Shoulders of Giants(2002)[106] A Briefer History of Time(2005)[106] God Created the Integers: The Mathematical Breakthroughs That Changed History(2005)[106] The Grand Design(2010)[106]Children's fiction

Stephen Hawking being presented by his daughterLucy Hawkingat the lecture he gave for NASA's 50th anniversaryThese are co-written with his daughterLucy. George's Secret Key to the Universe(2007)[106] George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt(2009)[106] George and the Big Bang(2011)[106]Films and series A Brief History of Time(1992)[108] Stephen Hawking's Universe(1997)[109][110] Horizon: The Hawking Paradox(2005)[111] Masters of Science Fiction(2007)[112] Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe(2008)[113] Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking(2010)[114] Brave New World with Stephen Hawking(2011)[115] Stephen Hawking's Grand Design(2012)[116]In popular cultureMain article:Stephen Hawking in popular cultureAs a person of great interest to the public, Hawking has been referenced or asked to appear in numerous works of popular culture. Hawking has appeared as himself on episodes ofStar Trek: The Next Generation,[117]The Simpsons,[118]Futurama,[119]andThe Big Bang Theory.[120]His synthesiser voice was used on parts of thePink Floydsong "Keep Talking".[121]Hawking's early life and the onset of his illness was the subject of the 2004BBC4TV filmHawkingin which he was portrayed byBenedict Cumberbatch. In 2008, he was featured in the documentary seriesStephen Hawking, Master of the Universe, forChannel 4. He presided over the unveiling of the "Chronophage" (time-eating)Corpus Clockat Corpus Christi College Cambridge in September of the same year.[122]On 29 August 2012 he narrated theEnlightenmentsegment of the2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony.[123]