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i.Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

STATUS OF CROP BIOTECHNOLOGYIN Sub-SAHARA AFRICA:

A Cross-Country Analysis

Prof Norah K. Olembo,

Dr Felix M’mboyi

Dr Bernard Nyende

Kennedy Oyugi

Leah Ambani

ii. Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

Status Of Crop Biotechnology In Sub Saharan Africa

Prof Norah Olembo, F. M’mboyi, Oyugi, K and L Ambani work at the African Biotechnology Stakeholders Forum (ABSF), P.O Box 66069 Nairobi, Kenya. Bernard Nyende is a research scientist and Director of the Biotechnology Research Institute at the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and technology, Juja, Nairobi, Kenya.

© First published in 2010 by the African BiotechnologyStakeholders Forum (ABSF), P. O. Box 66060 00800Nairobi, Kenya.

ABSF Regional Secretariat,Mountain View, Gate Number 123, Waiyaki Way,Tel (office): +254 20 833 0243 / +254 20 833 0242Cell phones (office): +254 720 223 244 / +254 734 333244 Fax: +254 20 833 0241Email: [email protected] Website: www.absfafrica.org

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced, photocopied or printed in any form without the express permission of the publisher. Quotations from the book may, however, be made and acknowledged.

iii.Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

Table of ContentsTable of ContentsAcknowledgements .................................................................................................. vi

Foreword .................................................................................................................. vii

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................ ix

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................ 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background ........................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Biotechnology in Africa: A Status Overview ..................................................... 2

1.3 GM Technologies ............................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................... 7

Crop Biotech Applications in Eastern Africa Region .............................................. 7

2.0 Status of Crop Biotechnology in Kenya ............................................................ 7

2.7 The Status of Crop Biotechnology in Uganda ................................................... 23

2.8 Crop Biotechnology Applications In Tanzania .................................................. 31

CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................... 47

3.0 Crop Biotech Applications in West Africa Region ............................................ 47

3.1 Status Of Crop Biotechnology in Ghana ........................................................... 47

3.2 Crop Biotechnology Applications in Nigeria ..................................................... 55

CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................. 58

4.0 Crop Biotech Applications Southern Africa Region .......................................... 58

4.1 Status of Crop Biotechnology in Republic of South Africa ............................... 58

iv. Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

4.2 Crop Biotechnology Applications in Zambia .................................................... 67

4.3 Crop Biotechnology Applications in Zimbabwe ................................................ 70

APPENDIX ......................................................................................... 85

REFERENCES ................................................................................... 92

v.Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

List of Tables and Figures

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Leaf damage scores from spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus)for Bt maize events and a non-Bt control ................................................................ 19

Table 2.2: Overview of institutions currently involved in Crop Biotechnology R&D ....................................................................................... 43

Table 4.1: Examples of GM crops approved for cultivation in South Africa ............................................................................................................. 63

Table 4.2: Examples of commodities approved for importation into South Africa ..................................................................................................... 64

Table 4.3: Examples of commodities approved for Trial Release/contained use in South Africa ..................................................................... 64

Table 4.4: The status of research and use of crop biotechnology activities in Zimbabwe ............................................................................................. 71

Table 4.5: Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ) Supported Project ..................................................................................................... 77

Table 4.6 : Registered Varieties from conventional plant breeding activities in Zimbabwe ........................................................................................... 82

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 2.1: An autoradiograph showing polymorphism of wheat lines using several SSR markers .............................................................................. 13

Fig 2.2: An autoradiograph showing polymorphism among parthenogenetically reproduced RWA clones collected from Timau and Njoro in Kenya ...................... 14

Figure 2.3: Leaf damage scores from Chilo partellus stem borer for Bt maize events and a non-Bt control ..................................................................... 20

Figure 4.1: Adoption of GM crops in South Africa ................................................. 62

vi. Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

Acknowledgements

The African Biotechnology Stakeholders Forum (ABSF) Regional Secretariat in Nairobi, Kenya, wishes to sincerely thank the Rockefeller Foundation for facilitating the production of this special book series. With the Foundation’s resource support, a

number of scientists and other experts were mobilized to collect and collate information on the status of biotechnology in sub-Saharan Africa.

ABSF also wishes to sincerely thank the Agricultural Biotechnology Network in Africa Country Coordinators who made significant contributions towards production of this book: Dr Esther Khosa (Zimbabwe & Southern Africa region); Dr Emmarold Mneney (Tanzania); Dr Julius Ecuru (Uganda); Dr Bernard Nyende (Kenya); Dr Han Adu Dapaah (Ghana) and Dr Omorefe Asemota (Nigeria). Dr Felix M’mboyi, a Senior Programmes Officer at ABSF, Nairobi, co-ordinated the Rockefeller project while Kennedy Oyugi and Ms Leah Ambani, Programme Officers at ABSF Secretariat assisted in updating information and data on the status of biotechnology in Africa.

Professor Norah K. Olembo, the Executive Director of ABSF, was instrumental in overseeing the project and in undertaking critical peer review of the publication. Thanks also to all individuals and institutions who contributed to the realization of this book in one way or another. Your invaluable contribution is highly appreciated.

vii.Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

Foreword

The role of modern biotechnology in the economic transformation of developing countries has become the subject of intense academic inquiry and public policy discourse. There is increasing debate about the potential contributions that the

technology can make to these countries. Today this debate has stayed at two extremes: one that perceives biotechnology as the source of solutions to many of the economic, social and environmental problems that developing countries are confronted with, and the other extreme that treats the technology with considerable suspicion as a technology that will bring more ills to the countries. This scenario has been replayed more and more in sub Saharan Africa than anywhere else on the globe.

On the whole, the commercial potential of agricultural biotechnology is growing rapidly. The most recent survey of the global impact of biotech crops for the period 1996 to 2008 estimates that the global net economic benefits to biotech crop farmers in 2008 alone was US$ 9.2 billion (US$4.7 billion for developing countries and US$4.5 billion for industrial countries). The accumulated benefits during the period 1996 to 2008 were US$51.9 billion with US$26.1 billion for developing and US$25.8 billion for industrial countries. These estimates include the very important benefits associated with the double cropping of biotech soybean in Argentina. This considerable growth in market sales of agricultural biotechnology products and processes is accounted for by the following factors among others. First, the scientific information base for the development and application of agricultural products and services has been enlarged enormously in the past five years. Science in such areas as recombinant DNA has grown. Knowledge about genetic structures and functions of plants and livestock is growing rapidly, making it possible to exploit a wide range of undiscovered and underutilized traits in plants and animals

Biotechnology provides the potential to produce new, improved, safer, and less expensive products, services and processes. Pharmaceuticals and diagnostics for both humans and animals; seeds, entire plants, animals, fertilizers, food additives, industrial enzymes, and oil-eating and other pollution degrading microbes are just a few of the things than can be created or enhanced through the use of biotechnology.

Modern biotechnology has its antecedents in scientific endeavors of the late 1960s and early 1970s, with discoveries in such areas as molecular biology, biochemistry and microbiology forming the foundation for the technology’s rapid growth into a global industry. Genetic engineering revitalized the application of the scientific knowledge generated in university departments in the USA, Japan and Europe in the 1970s. It has revolutionized the way humanity perceives of and uses living matter. Research and development in the area of genetic engineering are now a source of new innovations products that are improving agricultural production, human and animal health, the environment, and industry in general.

viii. Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

The past two decades have witnessed increased investment in biotechnology (R&D by a number of African countries. Public research institutions and a few private companies in the region have established projects or programmes on biotechnology R&D. The nature of activities and levels of investment in the technology vary from one country to another and from one sector to another. These initiatives are also managed by a variety of institutional forms from laboratories in established national agricultural research bodies and national biotechnology centres, to national biotechnology programmes managed in sectoral research agencies and international research bodies such as those of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

African countries entry into biotechnology has been stimulated by many interrelated factors. First is the cumulative nature of the technological change in biotechnology. While there have been radical innovations in the technology based on prior scientific knowledge and the associated research, institutional arrangements have removed knowledge related barriers to entry. In agriculture, for example, some African countries (Kenya, South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt and Zimbabwe) have a long tradition of scientific research conducted in mature institutions. Their knowledge base and accumulated expertise have made it possible for them to leap into the second generation of biotechnology.

There are generally three categories of countries in biotechnology: (a) those that are generating and commercializing biotechnology products and services using third generation techniques of genetic engineering; (b) those that are engaged in third generation biotechnology R&D but have not developed products and/or processes yet; and (c) those that are engaged in second-generation biotechnology (mainly tissue culture). In the first category are Egypt, Burkina Faso and South Africa, while Kenya, Uganda and Ghana are examples of the second. Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia are in the third category. Most of the biotechnology activities have focused on enhancing agricultural productivity.

This book highlights the current status of crop biotechnology applications in some of the key Sub-Saharan Africa countries with a view to enlightening the reader on how developing countries in Africa are fast having a realization that the use of biotechnology in their agricultural production systems not only enhances technology adoption, but it has a potential to significantly impact on productivity for both the smallholder resource poor farmer and commercial farmers alike.

It is my sincere hope that you will appreciate the contents in this text and make use of the requisite information in making independent judgment about biotechnological advancements on the continent and whether or not this will have positive implications on food security and the overall socioeconomic development of the continent at large.

Prof Norah K. OlemboExecutive Director, ABSF

ix.Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

List of Abbreviations

ABSAC Agricultural Biosafety Scientific Advisory Committee

AFLP Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms

AGT Agro Genetic Laboratories Ltd.

ARC Agricultural Research Council

ARI Agricultural Research Institute

BRELLA Business Registration and Licensing Agency

BRI Biotechnology Research Institute

BRIC Biotechnology Regional Innovation Centers

BTZ Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe

CBB Cassava Bacterial Blight

CBI Crop Breeding Institute

CBSD Cassava Brown Streak Disease

CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research

CGM Cassava Green Mites

CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

CMD Cassava Mosaic Disease

CRI Coffee Research Institute

CSIR Council for Industrial and Scientific Research

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

ECF East Coast Fever

FMD Foot and Mouth Disease

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GE Genetic engineering

GEP Genetically engineered plants

x. Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

GMO Genetically modified organisms

GON Government of Nigeria

GTL Genetics Technology Ltd

HIV Human Immunodeficiency virus

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

IBC Institutional Biosafety Committee

IBC Institutional Biosafety Committee

IDEA Investment in Developing Export Agriculture Project

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

ILRI International Livestock Research Institute

INIBAP International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain

INIBAP International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain

IRMA Insect Resistant Maize for Africa

ISAAA International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications

ISTR Inverse-Sequence Tagged Repeats

JCRC Joint Clinical Research Centre

JICA Japan International Co-operation Agency

JKUAT Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

KARI Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute

KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

KEPHIS Kenya plant health inspectorate services

LMOs Living Modified Organisms

MARI Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute

MAS Marker assisted selection

MBL Med Biotech Laboratories

MPIZ Max Planck Institut für Züchtungsforschung

xi.Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

MSV Maize Streak Virus

NAARI Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute

NABDA National Biotechnology Development Agency

NACGRAB National Centre for Genetic resources and Biotechnology

NARL National Agricultural Research Laboratories

NARS National Agricultural Research Station

NARO National Agricultural Research Organization

NBAC National Biotechnology Advisor Committee

NBC National Biosafety Committee

NBF National Biosafety Framework

NCST National Council for Science and Technology

NEIKER Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario

NERICA New Rice for Africa

NPGRC National Plant Genetic Resources Centre

NPRC National Potato Research Centre

NRCRI National Root Crops Research Institute

NSTP National Science and Technology Policy

NUST National University of Science and Technology

PBS Programme for Biosafety Systems

PCA Philippines Coconut Authority

QTL Quantitative Trait Loci

R&D Research and development

RAPD Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA

RFLP Restriction Fragment length polymorphism

RNA Ribonucleic Acid

RWA Russian Wheat Aphid

xii. Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

SIRDC Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre

SUA Sokoine University of Agriculture

TACRI Tanzania Coffee Research Institute

TC Tissue culture

UBI Uganda Biotechnology Initiative

UVRI Uganda Virus Research Institute

WHO World Health Organization

WTO World Trade Organization

1.Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Most people in sub-Saharan Africa live in rural areas, and agriculture is central to the economy; it pro-vides food, employment and income to more than two-thirds of Africa’s people. Thus, one of the most effective ways to reduce hunger in Africa is to improve agricultural productivity. This improvement would raise both farm and non-farm incomes, expand food supplies, and boost overall food access and food security. Past experience in many African countries - in addition to the lessons learned from Asia’s Green Revolution -confirms that substantial progress can be made in agriculture and rural development by investing in appropriate agricultural technologies and institutions, and establishing apt policies that improve the efficiency and sustainable use of available resources, empower women and improve their access to productive resources, and reduce regional income disparities. Agricultural biotechnology – a term which represents a continuum of different techniques, ranging from non-controversial tissue culture to controversial genetic engineering – potentially can increase agricultural yields; reduce yield losses from insects, diseases and drought; and enhance the nutritive value of crops crucial to poor people’s health. But there is genuine concern expressed by many people about long-term negative health and environmental effects, such as those now debated in developed countries. African countries that begin to use crop biotechnology could lose exports to European consumers who broadly oppose biotechnology. In addition, because affluent farmers are more likely than others to acquire and use this technology, it might increase income inequality in rural areas.

The failure of the current discussion to resolve issues raised for and against crop biotechnology, the vast resources spent by multinational corporations lobbying and pushing the technology, and the stand-off between the United States and European Union on this issue have increased suspicion and frustration, hindering a balanced debate and objective decision making on whether the technology is useful. Moreover, the U.S. government increasingly is seen to

1

2. Status of Crop Biotechnology in Sub-Sahara Africa: A Cross-Country Analysis

favor biotechnology and to represent the interests of the multinational corporations involved. If the U.S. government were instead seeking to strengthen the regulation of biotechnology, public confidence in its use, in the U.S. and abroad, would increase.

Because Africa has diverse cultures, economies, ecologies and politics, conclusions about the risks and benefits of biotechnology likely will differ from country to country. African views may differ from views expressed in developed countries, especially as people in each country weigh their own needs and values against perceived costs and risks. As African people debate whether agricultural biotechnology is appropriate for them, all stakeholders - including smallholder African farmers and consumers - should be included. Ultimately, the final decision on whether to use the technology must be made, and the responsibility borne, by Africans.

1.2 Biotechnology in Africa: A Status Overview

There are generally three categories of countries in biotechnology: (a) those that are generating and commercializing biotechnology products and services using third generation techniques of genetic engineering; (b) those that are engaged in third generation biotechnology R&D but have not developed products and/or processes yet; and (c) those that are engaged in second-generation biotechnology (mainly tissue culture). In the first category are Egypt, Zimbabwe and South Africa, while Kenya, Uganda and Ghana are examples of the second. Tanzania and Zambia are in the third category. Most of the biotechnology activities have focused on enhancing agricultural productivity.

South Africa and Egypt are biotechnology leaders in the region. With considerable scientific infrastructure and clear programmes on biotechnology, the two countries have focused on cutting-edge biotechnology areas and have commercialized some of their products. South Africa’s biotechnology R&D focus is on genetic engineering of cereals (maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, soybean) lupins, sunflowers, sugarcane, vegetables and ornamentals, as well as on molecular marker applications. These include diagnostics for pathogen detection; cultivar identification for potatoes, sweet potato, ornamentals, cereals, cassava; purity testing of cereals seedlots; marker assisted selection in maize and tomato; and markers for disease resistance in wheat. Egypt has invested considerably in genetic engineering of potatoes, maize and tomatoes. Field tests and commercialization of genetically modified potatoes are under way in the country.

Biotechnology R&D is largely undertaken by departments at universities and national agricultural research bodies. Some of the universities have established units or programmes that are now dedicated to biotechnology R&D. The University of Cape Town, South Africa, has a number of internationally cutting-edge research activities in biotechnology conducted within its Department of Biochemistry, which qualifies as a centre of excellence in biotechnology R&D.


Having started biotechnology R&D activities in the early 1980s, the Department has extensive experience in such areas as thermodynamic and spectroscopic investigation of protein folding, and DNA/RNA interactions, regulation of gene expression during the sea urchin embryogenesis, cloning of vertebrate gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors, and isolation of genes responsible for certain nutritional characteristics of crop plants with a view of producing transgenic plants. Its teaching and training activities are at doctoral and MSc levels. By 1995 the Department had generated two specialized doctoral degrees in biotechnology and at least eight MSc degrees. The 27-member scientific staff had by 1999 published its biotechnology research in several international and local journals. It has links with private sector and other public research bodies in the country and engaged in several contract research activities for local crop companies.

In collaboration with the Agricultural Research Council (ARC); the University of Cape Town Department of Microbiology in 1997 developed and released for field-testing the first transgenic potato in the country. The potato has been engineered with CP genes that confirm resistance to potato virus Y and leafroll virus. In addition, the Department’s research efforts have generated tobacco that is resistant to cucumber mosaic and tobacco necrosis viruses, via expression of both CP and CP gene antisense Ribonucleic acid (RNA). It also developed maize streak virus (MSV) as a high yield vector for maize cell culture systems and is now engaged in research to develop MSV-resistant maize.

Zimbabwe has made significant efforts to define target areas of biotechnology. The Department of Crop Sciences at the University of Zimbabwe has been applying tissue culture to develop disease-free varieties of coffee, potatoes and tomatoes. Elite coffee bushes have been cloned using the leaf disc technique of Staritsky. The Tobacco Research Institute in Zimbabwe has over the last decade used pollen culture to incorporate resistance to two troublesome diseases in a new variety of tobacco. Research is under way to introduce resistance to other diseases in tobacco using somaclonal variation. It is notable that tobacco has been a model plant for biotechnology research and Zimbabwean scientists have had access to the latest techniques. This is also the most important export crop for the country and therefore it has received special research attention.

The Biotechnology Research Institute (BRI) of the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC) was established by the Government of Zimbabwe in 1992 with funding from the Government of Zimbabwe and the Royal Government of the Netherlands. Its mandate is to consolidate and coordinate as well as provide scientific leadership to Zimbabwe’s biotechnology R&D activities. It had built a considerable scientific infrastructure and expertise in tissue culture and genetic engineering.

In Kenya, most of the agricultural biotechnology R&D activities focus on improving the yield potential of cereals and some export crops such as coffee and pyrethrum. Institutions engaged in agricultural biotechnology R&D in Kenya include the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), the Department of Biochemistry of the University of Nairobi, the


National Potato Research Centre (NPRC), and the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT). Research at the Biochemistry Department of the University of Nairobi focuses on genetically modified organisms (GMOs) such as capripox virus and rinderpest recombinant vaccine production, and production of transgenic sweet-potato which are at the moment in field testing.

Africa hosts several international research bodies active in biotechnology. A good example is the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) based in Nairobi, Kenya.ILRI is one of the centres of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Its remit is to conduct research on tropical diseases of livestock and to develop techniques for the management of such diseases. ILRI has exploited biotechnology techniques to obtain antigens that can be used in specific and sensitive diagnostic tests for tick-borne diseases of livestock. Compared with conventional techniques, these new generation tests are cheaper, easier to use and better suited to national programmes of tropical countries.

With more than 65 scientists, ILRI is the world’s leading institute in tropical livestock diseases research. Its Biosciences Research Programme has accumulated a critical mass of scientific expertise in animal genetics, and its activities are at the cutting-edge of science. The programme.s research in quantitative and molecular genetics has focused on the identification of markers to help identify and exploit desirable genetic traits. In 1996 ILRI released a recombinant vaccine (designated p67) against East Coast fever (theileriosis) for field trials. The vaccine is based on a protein found on the surface of theorganism that causes East Coast fever (ECF) and stimulates an antibody-based immune response to the parasite as it invades the host.

Research is now going on to develop the second-generation vaccines that target a later stage of the parasite, once it has invaded the host’s white blood cells and stimulates a response from cytotoxic T cells. In the area of diagnostics, ILRI is applying molecular biology technology to identify unique proteins for four parasites: Babesia bigemina, Theilleria parva, Theileria mutans and Anaplasma marginale. These proteins have been used to develop improved ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) tests specific to each parasite and thus improve 13 ATPS of diseases caused by these parasites.

On the whole, African countries are at different stages in the development of biotechnology. Some have moved up the technology ladder and are applying more sophisticated techniques such as molecular markers, but others are still in the tissue culture level of application. For example, Egypt and South Africa have moved rapidly into such areas as gene sequencing, characterization of pathogens and gene promoters, while Tanzania and others are still at rudimentary levels of biotechnology developmentand application.


1.3 GM Technologies

During the past decade, Africa’s population increased from 760 to 970 million, pushing farmers to encroach on fragile ecosystems. Climate change is increasingly manifest through erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged drought spells, and unprecedented floods, making rain-fed agriculture even more risky, thus aggravating food insecurity among resource-poor smallholder farmers. Compounding this scenario are post-harvest pests that devour their meager harvests. Indeed, the challenges are great, sometimes disillusioning, but certainly not insurmountable. Under these circumstances, GM technologies have a role in addressing challenges that were previously elusive to classical breeding on its own.

Genetically modified (GM) crops conjure up varying emotions worldwide. Nevertheless, their acreage is increasing, reaching 125 million hectares in 2008 (James, 2008). Ground breaking work by Mendel in 1860’s took advantage of natural genetic recombination within species, resulting into superior harvests for successive generations. The discovery of Agrobacterium tumefaciens in 1907 offered a unique tool to transfer genes into plants, ushering in a new era of gene transfer across species.

Recently, use of GM technology to produce medicines has risen steeply. Between 2001 and 2006, 60 to 70% of drug approvals in the US and European Union, involved GM technology (Clearant, 2006; EMEA, 2006). Paarlberg (2008), noted that about 25% of new drugs going into the global market are produced using GM technology, while in agriculture, 80% of all cultivated hybrid maize in the US is GM (Cox et al. 2008). In his book Starved for Science: how biotechnology is being kept out of Africa, Paarlberg (2008) further articulates that, unfortunately most African countries have adopted an anti-GM stance, that appears to be influenced by European colonial linkages. Yet, it’s the application of science to agriculture that enabled Europe to produce surplus food. Consequently, while Europe may not require GM technologies to bolster their agriculture, they however, readily embrace them for improved healthcare.

But, where exactly is the role of GM crops in Africa? During the past decade, Africa’s population increased from 760 to 970 million, pushing farmers to encroach on fragile ecosystems. Climate change is increasingly manifest through erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged drought spells, and unprecedented floods, making rain-fed agriculture even more risky, thus aggravating food insecurity among resource-poor smallholder farmers. Compounding this scenario are post-harvest pests that devour their meager harvests. Indeed, the challenges are great, sometimes disillusioning, but certainly not insurmountable. Under these circumstances, GM technologies have a role in addressing challenges that were previously elusive to classical breeding on its own.

In Africa, benefits from GM technologies have already been demonstrated; in South Africa, under rain-fed conditions, Bt maize increased yield by 11% that translated into US$ 35/


ha more revenue (James, 2008). In Burkina Faso, field trials on Bt cotton resulted in a two-thirds reduction in insecticide usage and a 15% higher yield, (Vitale et al., 2008), thus promoting farmers’ and environmental health while promoting prosperity. More recently, the African Agricultural Technology Foundation initiated several public-private partnerships to enhance agricultural productivity in Africa, including the development of:

Bt cowpea for protection against the Maruca-pod borer with potential to increase yield from 0.3 to 2.5 kg/ha.

Water Efficient Maize for Africa that is expected to provide about 30% more yield under moderate drought.

Nitrogen-Use Efficient Rice for better performance under lower soil N.

Bananas resistant to bacterial wilt in the Great Lakes region of East Africa, where the disease is causing up to 100% crop loss

There is a notion that African farmers ought to continue using seed they inherited from their ancestors, and not improved seed from conventional breeding or biotechnology. There appears to be safety concerns around the adoption of GM seeds. However, despite over 12 years of increasing adoption of GM crops worldwide, there have been no adverse effects to humans and the environment (EFSA, 2006; James, 2008). Yet, the unimproved seed is the same seed that succumbs to a range of biotic and abiotic challenges, resulting in low productivity and even crop failure. It is the same seed that has ensured that African farmers remain trapped in poverty and reliant on food relief. Although this unimproved seed is a gem, it need not be grown on African farmers’ fields in that form, but ought to be improved and/or be archived in gene-banks for conservation of biodiversity.

From the foregoing, the important role of GM technology on modern medicines, attainment of food security and improvement of farm profitability cannot be overstated. Clearly, this technology is complimentary to other classical approaches and not a panacea.


2CHAPTER TWO

CROP BIOTECH APPLICATIONS IN EASTERN AFRICA REGION

2.0 STATUS OF CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY IN KENYA

2.1 Preamble The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) is conducting field trials on sweet potatoes engineered to be resistant against the viruses that infect it. Yields in Kenya are 7 tons/ha, compared to 18 in China and 33 in the United States. This poor performance is partly due to the Sweet potato feathery mottle virus, which infects fields in eastern and central Africa.

Technical assistance has been provided by Monsanto and more recently by the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center in the United States. Monsanto and KARI signed a nonexclusive, royalty-free licensing agreement in 1998. This allows KARI to use and further develop transgenic virus resistance technology for sweet potatoes. KARI is also permitted to protect the resulting transgenic varieties under the plant breeders’ rights convention or similar regulations effective in Kenya. Additionally, the technology may be transferred to any other country in Africa. It has been estimated that these varieties could produce an aggregate annual benefit equivalent to US$5.4 million. Kenya is now in the process of developing biotechnology regulations.

Trials took place in 2001 and 2002, but no significant differences were seen between control plants and transgenics. In retrospect, this is not surprising, as the coat protein (CP) gene was taken from an American strain of the virus. However, the trials were considered a success in achieving transgenic plants in the field, compliance with regulations, scoring for disease symptoms, management of the trials at four different field trial sites, and so forth. This places Kenya second only to South Africa among sub-Saharan African countries able to undertake field trials of transgenic crops, and the trials were a success from the point of view of capacity building.


At present, scientists at the Danforth Center are analyzing transgenic plants of the Kenyan sweet potato cultivar CPT60. These plants have been transformed with the CP and replicate genes from the severe Kenyan Muguga strain.

2.1 Institutional Framework

The National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) in Kenya is the government agency currently responsible for overseeing the implementation of the biosafety regulatory system. That office issued Regulations and Guidelines for Biosafety in Biotechnology in 1998. Those regulations were issued under the existing Science and Technology Act of 1980, although that Act has no regulatory authorities and no means to enforce compliance with the regulations. The NCST also established the National Biosafety Committee (NBC) to develop the country’s biosafety policy and review GMO applications. The membership of the NBC includes representatives from relevant government Ministries as well as representatives from civil society and the national universities.

Under the interim Kenyan biosafety regulatory system, applications to import or release GMOs (including applications for confined field trials) are submitted to the relevant Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC) where they are reviewed and assessed for compliance with the guidelines before submission to the NBC. Then, those applications are forwarded to the NBC, where those applications are reviewed by the NBC and/or a technical subcommittee of the NBC. A recommendation is made by the NBC and the NCST Secretary decides whether to approve the application. To date, Kenya has approved five confined trials. Kenya has developed a number of legal documents to turn its interim biosafety regulatory system into a permanent and comprehensive system. Those documents included regulations, a biosafety law, and a national Biotechnology and Biosafety Policy. The National Biotechnology and Biosafety Policy was approved in 2007 and the Biosafety Law was passed by Government in December 2008.

2.2 Biotechnology Applications

Conventional procedures of biotechnology are widely used in the Kenya. For examples tissue culture (TC) is being used in laboratories to facilitate germplasm collection, conservation and exchange and for mass propagation of elite quality planting materials in Kenya. At a commercial level TC is used in Kenya for production of planting material of pyrethrum, banana, sugarcane, potato, strawberry and flowers; for small scale production of planting material for sweet potato, cassava, vanilla and for protocol development (Macadamia, vanilla, oil palm, flowers). Marker assisted selection (MAS) for breeding is another biotechnology research tool adapted to enhance conventional breeding with accuracy and to accelerate product development cycles. This tool is widely used in the country. Examples of MAS in Kenya include:


1. Characterization and mapping of maize streak virus and grey leaf spot resistance genes in maize

2. Development of drought tolerant maize and wheat

3. Development of wheat lines resistant to the Russian wheat aphid

4. Selection for smut resistance in sugarcane

5. Diversity studies for sweet potato and cassava

6. Characterization of indigenous species of cattle, forages and tsetse.

8. Breeding for desired traits in cassava, rice and sorghum Genetic engineering (GE) is already being used at a research level in Kenya.

In Kenya on-going work includes development of: virus resistant sweet potato, maize resistant to storage pests, and bio-fortified sorghum. Most of this research is at laboratorylevel while contained field testing with maize, cotton and sweet potato have been conducted.

In case of livestock DNA technology is directed to vaccine development and disease diagnostics and this is applied in Kenya. Africa. Related work in the region includes development of recombinant DNA vaccines e.g. against Newcastle disease, Rift Valley Fever and Rinderpest. Development of molecular diagnostic techniques for livestock diseases such as East Cost Fever, Lumpy skin disease, contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia), Foot and mouth disease (FMD) as well as for detecting resistance to drugs, microbial quality analysis of foods (fish, diary and meat) and DNA mapping in animal breeding are all in practice.

2.3 Application of Molecular Marker Technology in Crop Improvement

Traditional crop improvement has been based on highly subjective phenotypic expression of desirable traits. Molecular marker technology is a unique and accurate biotechnological tool that provides identification and location of genes of desirable traits which when correlated to phenotypic expression reveal nature secrets. This paper reviews the potential of mutation breeding in creating crop diversity and the role of molecular markers in conventional and non-conventional plant breeding in Kenya. The use of various markers AFLPs and SSRs is addressed and the resulting outputs diagnosed. It has been shown that SSR are useful in varietal identification, and even in detection polymorphism within otherwise closely related individuals such as aphids. The paper shows that molecular markers can be an important tool of marker assisted selection which only requires young seedling stages to tag, introgress genes and this enabling pyramiding genes and selection of Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) simultaneously. This technology will rapidly avail crop varieties containing multiple traits in Africa.


2.4 Crop Biotech Improvements

Crop improvement by traditional methods, involves collection, hybridization and inbreeding that has been practiced since the beginning of 20th Century. However, it has now been realized that these methods are insufficient to make much further break through or cope with the increasing demand for improvement in crop varieties (Njau, 2001). Some of the limitations of conventional breeding may be the exhaustion of the gene pool, low response to biotic and abiotic stress of the introduced materials and the low combining ability especially with complex characters. Most of the available genetic variation used in breeding programmes has occurred naturally and exists in the germplasm collections of new and old cultivars, land races and genotypes. This variation through crosses is recombined to produce new, desired gene combinations. When existing germplasm fails to provide the desired recombinant it is necessary to resort to other sources of variation. One of the most useful sources of variation are those attained through induced mutations.

2.4.1 Introducing Genetic Variation through Induced Mutations

Induced mutations have contributed significantly to plant improvement worldwide, and in some cases have made an outstanding impact on the productivity of many crops. Mutation induction techniques provide tools for the rapid creation and increase of variability in crop species. Increasing application of doubled haploids (DHs) technique leads to the rapid selection and shortening of the breeding cycle of improved varieties from desired mutants and for the development of F1 performing DH lines from hectoric hybrids. (Mulusynski et al, 1995). This is a modern tool in crop improvement. Marker assisted selection becomes important in identification of the traits of interest and linking of these traits during improvement process. This enhances efficiency of selection as well as reduces the time taken in development of new desirable varieties or clones.

Mutation techniques have been applied in wheat, cassava, sesame, banana and tea improvement in Kenya. Two high yielding sesame lines were developed also through mutation breeding, while at KARI-Njoro, a high yielding drought toleranct wheat variety (NjoroBW1) was developed through mutation and released in 2003. Other ongoing studies include cassava for African cassava mosaic diseases and banana (Black sigatoka diseases) sesame for semi-shattering and yield potential. Soyabean is being improved for disease resistance, early maturity and oil content and quality.

2.4.2 Use Of Molecular Markers To Identify Sources Of Genetic Variation Developed Through Conventional And Mutation Techniques

Although classical breeding is still important, wheat genomics play a crucial role in supporting studies of how the genes are inherited and expressed, and assist in tracking the


genes. With advent of biotechnology, many molecular markers have been developed and their application in breeding programs is practical and cost-effective. Plant biotechnology is available to plant breeders and allow for the use of molecular markers to study biological components in agricultural production system. Molecular markers are important tools for genetic improvement. Their use in applied breeding can assist the breeder provide molecular explanation for phenotypic associations. These markers can also be used to map/ tag gene blocks associated with economically important traits often known as “quantitative trait loci (QTLs) using molecular markers closely linked to desired genes.

Several traits, that otherwise involve laborious and costly procedures, have proven to be suitable candidates for marker assisted selection (MAS) (Ata-ur-Rehman et al., 2001). The major limitation to implementation of molecular markers in the breeding program is the labour involved in DNA extraction. The main advantage of molecular markers is their use in MAS a technique that allows for multiple QTL mapping during the evaluation of segregating populations at seedling stage thereby reducing assay time for specific traits (Snape et al., 1995). A second advantage is the flexibility to accurately select for more than one trait /genes simultaneously and spontaneously from the same populations. This indicates ease of gene pyramiding (Xuming et al., 2002). It would therefore be of very high national economic interest to use marker assisted selection in development of superior crop varieties, to improve on agricultural productivity and increase income to households.

Marker assisted selection may be population improvement programmes for genes affecting quantitative traits wherein the molecular markers are closed linked to the genes. The tool can assist in direct selection of many desired characters simultaneously and spontaneously using F2 and backcross populations, near isogenic line, doubled haploids and recombinant inbred lines. This would greatly reduce assay time for specific traits (Paterson et al., 1991). The increase of selection pressure on early generations reduces assay time for specific traits allowing for increased rate of genetic gain and enhancing selection efficiency. The technique is more efficient as it targets specific individual traits. In addition, molecular markers enable us to discover and exploit biodiversity and evolutionary relationships between organisms. Understanding and manipulating genetic variation is important in identifying genes, breeding and conserving natural biodiversity. These tasks can greatly be facilitated by the information that molecular markers can reveal on variants of genes and DNA polymorphisms enabling gene mapping and discovery of association or linkage dis-equilibrum analysis. Much work has been done to tag and isolate many important genes in agriculture using various marker techniques such as Random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs), Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs), Restriction Fragment length polymorphism (RFLPs), Microsatellites and other PCR based DNA markers.

DNA markers reveal neutral sites of variation at the DNA sequence level. Unlike morphological markers, these variations may not show themselves in the phenotype. They have the big advantage of being more numerous than morphological markers and do not disturb the physiology of the organism. Using microsatellite markers in MAS helps in identifying dominant and co-dominant genes (Maxime and Carter, 2000). Consequently, it is feasible to reconstitute desirable genes


in adapted cultivars by combining backcross method with subsequent selection using molecular markers. RAPD, AFLPs and SSRs offer a potentially attractive combination of features that are useful as easily accessed, molecular marker systems for genetic diversity and fingerprinting studies.

The objective of this study, therefore, was to apply various molecular markers in developing resistance in wheat to drought and Russian Wheat Aphid (RWA) and identifying mutants among wheat, cassava and bananas subjected to induced mutation techniques. Identification of new cultivars as well as the assessment of genetic similarity among different genotypes was made using RAPD technology. AFLP were very useful in finger printing and were able to detect differences even within seemingly similar populations. Microsatellites are short sequence head-to-tail repeats of approximately 1-5 nucleotides in length that are present in plant genomes and have been used in this study.

2.4.3 Fingerprinting Of Wheat Lines Developed Through Conventional And Mutation Breeding Techniques At KARI-Njoro

The extent of genetic variability after hybridization and the status of the germplasm can only be established through genetic or molecular evidence. The most immediate application of DNA markers in breeding in Kenya has been in varietal identification, selection for wheat lines with drought tolerance and Russian wheat aphid resistance. Currently there are several wheat lines for various traits that have been selected under field evaluation at different stages for release. There was need to identify the wheat genotypes for the breeders rights and registration. The ability to genetically define crop cultivars or breeding lines is useful in Kenya in maintaining purity, identifying germplasm with desirable characteristics, patenting new varieties and estimating genetic relationship. Information on genetic relationship within and between species will be used for organizing germplasm collection, identification of groups showing heterosis and selection of parents for crossing purpose.

Drought and RWA lines were first screened in the greenhouse, rain out shelter and the field at several locations and selected on the basis of phenotypic characteristics for tolerance of the desired trait. The selected materials were then subjected to molecular characterization using SSR markers where, several drought tolerant lines and RWA lines were finger-printed. Among the drought lines was a mutant KM14 (later released as Njoro BW1) and the progenitor(var Pasa) i.e the parent was also included in the analysis. From the results, it is clear that the varieties differ. It therefore showed that the induced mutation created variability, which resulted in the differences in the band pattern of the two varieties. Although Njoro BW1 and Duma do not share parentage, they should be sharing genes of resistance/to drought, as the two have been tolerance released for growing in the drought prone areas of Kenya.

The band patterns were able to characterize the genetic differences between Duma and Njoro BW1. Retrotransposon- based, sequence–specific amplification polymorhism (SSAP) molecular markers showed polymorphic levels in the 3 wheat varieties when tested with 3 markers (Fig.2.1). TAQ-TAA showed the greatest diversity with at least 23.9% of bands being polymorphic, TAQ-


AAT showed 16.8% while TAQ-ATT showed 20.4% diversity. Duma differed with Njoro BW1 in 9.5% of the bands on average. TAQ-TAA showed the highest diversity between the two varieties at 16.3% while TAQ-ATT showed the lowest at 4.8% (Kinyua et al., 2005). This study revealed that there is diversity in the 3 varieties and that SSR markers were able to identify polymorphism (Fig 2.1). The results of fingerprinting will be used for tagging genes of interest in bread wheat and subsequently for marker assisted selection

2.4.4 Detection Of Polymorphism Among RWA Biotypes Occurring In Kenya

Aphid biotypes are common in cereal aphid populations and until recently were thought not to exist among Russian wheat aphid (RWA) populations in newly colonized lands. RWA reproduces by parthenogenesis in mild climates but was recently reported to contain biotypes under similar environments in the USA, which had previously discarded any such theory (Haley et al., 2004). In Kenya, phenotypic studies carried on Kenyan RWA populations from two locations suggested the presences of differentials among RWA biotypes but was not confirmatory. Use of AFLP marker identified polymorphisms between populations (Fig 2.2). The results of the study showed that the band pattern produced from the products of AFLP differed with the different primer pairs used, and were able to differentiate the 5 Russian wheat aphid clones from two locations (Timau and Njoro (Fig 2.2). The variation expressed was both within the clones as well as across them, when different primers were considered. It was observed that at least one unique fragment could be found for each of the 5 clones (Malinga et al., 2005). The results of the study will have a bearing on developing wheat resistant to Russian wheat aphid in Kenya.

Fig 2.1: An autoradiograph showing polymorphism of wheat lines using several SSR markers

Timau1 Timau2 Njoro1 ladder njoro2 njoro3


Fig 2.2: An autoradiograph showing polymorphism among parthenogenetically reproduced

RWA clones collected from Timau and Njoro in Kenya

2.4.5 Conclusion

Molecular tools have been shown to be effective and rapid techniques that can be practically applied in the development of new crop varieties in Kenya. Molecular analysis when combined with classical methods partnership may be applied to reveal the hidden secrets of nature’s organisms.


2.6 Status of Development of Insect Resistant Maize Using Bt Technology in Kenya

Kenya loses significant amount of maize yield, estimated at 13.5% and valued at US$72 millions to stem borers annually. Bt maize technology controls lepidopteran stem borers, effectively and without affecting humans, livestock and the environment, and has seen rapid rise in adoption and use globally. To develop and deploy Bt maize, Kenya has to address important technical, regulatory, proprietary, and stewardship issues. Experiences have been gained through following rules and regulations governing biosafety and by introduction and testing of Bt maize events carrying cry1Ab, cry1Ba, and cry1E Bt genes and their efficacy against Kenyan stem borers. Effective Bt maize events have been identified through tests in the laboratory and greenhouse. Field testing is planned following approvals. A breeding program to develop Bt maize cultivars using converted inbred lines has been initiated. Personnel have been trained on biosafety, while the necessary infrastructure has been developed including biosafety facilities. Development of Bt-based insect resistant maize for Kenya and other willing African countries is on course.

Kenya loses significant amount of maize yield, estimated at 13.5% and valued at US$72 millions to stem borers annually (De Groote, 2002). This loss, coupled with losses due to other abiotic and biotic stress factors and a rapidly increasing human population has led to Kenya having a declining per capita maize production and a net importer of on average 400,000 tons of maize annually (Pingali, 2001). Major abiotic constraints in maize production in Kenya include drought and low soil fertility, while biotic constraints include maize streak disease and lately larger grain borer, a pest in storage. In recognition of the importance of system borers in maize production and the relative lack of or access to other effective methods of their control, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and the International Maize and wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) developed the Insect Resistant Maize for Africa (IRMA) Project in 1999. IRMA project aims to develop and deploy conventional and biotechnology derived stem borer resistant maize varieties to resource poor farmers in Kenya and other interested countries in Africa (Mugo et al., 2001, Mugo et al., 2002).

Bt technology that involves use of modified and truncated genes from the common soil dwelling bacterium (Bacillus thutringiensis) was chosen. Maize thus transformed with the effective cry genes will express delta-endotoxins that will control susceptible species of stem borer species, in a very specific way without affecting humans, livestock and the environment. Bt maize has proved to be a safe and effective product. Having undergone rigorous testing for food and feed safety, it has provided environmentally friendly and effective control of targeted pests, and the resistance is still durable after seven years of deployment on 43 million hectares (James, 2004). This technology has been effectively used in controlling stem borers in 14 million hectares globally by 2004, and has witnessed very high adoption rates since 1996 in both developed and developing countries (James, 2005).


To ensure development and deployment of Bt maize in Kenya in the public-private partnership, it was important to address technical, regulatory, proprietary, and stewardship issues. This paper shows the status of the development of the Bt-based insect resistance in maize within the IRMA Project in Kenya.

2.6.1 Guiding principles and unique and key aspects

To guide the project through the biosafety processes, some four principles were adopted. Firstly, the project to be a model of good practice, especially its biosafety aspects, from which other countries can learn. Secondly, to serve as a pilot project for public-private partnership and cooperation. Thirdly, to employ state of the art technology and methodology. Finally, to be transparent and open through ongoing dialogue with stakeholders.

IRMA project also adopted unique and key aspects. First was the resolve to use only publicly produced Bt genes to encounter fewer constraints to obtaining the genes and have farmers use them at a reasonable cost. Second, to produce plants that were free of the antibiotic and herbicide markers that are normally used in the genetic engineering process. Third, to collect baseline data on insect ecologies in the five major maize growing agro-ecosystems in Kenya. The information would show any impact Bt maize may have on non-target insects, particularly the natural predators and parasites of stem borers. Fourth, was the development of insect resistance management strategies. This included development of innovative ways to use refugia from natural wild host of stem borers and alternative crop species. Fifth, the project emphasized communication and education through print and electronic media as well as consultations with stakeholders. Finally, the capacity building to carry out research strengthened through staff training and development of infrastructure including biosafety facilities such as biosafety laboratories, greenhouses, and field sites.

2.6.2 Introduction of Bt Maize Tissue in Kenya

Cut leaves and seeds of maize from first and second generations of transformation with Bt genes cry1Ab, cry1Ba, and cry1E and driven by varying promoters including the maize ubiquitin, rice actin, CaMV 35S, and PEP carboxylase were introduced into Kenya in 2001. The fist generation CIMMYT events carried selectable markers while the second generation or clean events carried only the gene of interest. One of the highest priorities was the identification of which Bt genes are most effective against each of the targeted insect pests that was done in the biosafety level 2 laboratory established at the KARI-National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL) and through leaf bioassays using cut leaves from Bt maize grown in CIMMYT’s biosafety greenhouses in Mexico (Mugo et al., 2004). This was necessary given the early state of biosafety in Kenya and the lack of proper infrastructure in KARI to handle transgenic maize in the laboratory and the field. Bt maize


seeds from nine second generation events of cry1Ab and cry1Ba genes were introduced in mid 2004 upon completion of a biosafety level 2 greenhouse complex (BGHC) at the KARI NARL).

The following is a chronology of introduction and testing of Bt maize events during 1999-2005. Introductions are made following biosafety rules and regulations that involve the KARI Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC), the National Biosafety Committee (NBC) and the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Services (KEPHIS) (NCST, 1998).

February 2000 An “Application to introduce Bt maize leaves from first generation CIMMYT events to screening cry proteins using leaf bioassays for activity against Kenyan maize stem borers”.

January 2001 Approval for the “Application to introduce Bt maize leaves from first generation CIMMYT events to screening cry proteins using leaf bioassays for activity against Kenyan maize stem borers” granted by the NBC. The Bt maize leaves from seven CIMMYT’s first generation Bt maize events were imported and leaf bioassays performed and the effective genes against Kenyan stem borers identified.

March 2002 An “Application for an import permit to introduce Bt maize leaves from cross combinations of CIMMYT first generation Bt maize events to screen for cry proteins for activity against Kenyan maize stem borers using leaf bioassays” made to the NBC.

December 2002 Import permit from the “Application for an import permit to introduce Bt maize leaves from cross combinations of CIMMYT first generation. Bt maize events to screen for cry proteins for activity against Kenyan maize stem borers using leaf bioassays” granted by KEPHIS. Leaves from seven Bt maize straight events and 10 of their cross combinations were imported, bioassays done, and effective cross combinations identified.

April 2003 An “Application to introduce maize seeds containing nine second generation Bt maize events from genes cry1Ab and cry1Ba for evaluation, seed increase and crossing into other maize lines under biosafety greenhouse containment” made to the KARI, IBC.

May 28 2004 An approvals obtained from the NBC for the “Application to introduce maize seeds containing nine second generation Bt maize events from genes cry1Ab and cry1Ba for evaluation, seed increase and crossing into other maize lines under biosafety greenhouse containment”. The seeds were imported and evaluated in the biosafety level 2 greenhouse complex.

December 2004 An “Application for Field Evaluation, Leaf Bioassays, Seed Increase and Backcrossing Maize Containing the cry1Ab or cry1Ba (Bt) Genes Under Confinement in the open quarantine site (OQS)


at Kiboko” made to KARI IBC.February 2005 Approval for “Application for Field Evaluation, Leaf Bioassays,

Seed Increase and Backcrossing Maize Containing the cry1Ab or cry1Ba (Bt) Genes Under Confinement in the OQS at Kiboko” granted by NBC.

April/May 2005 Sowing of confined field trial to evaluate and carry out backcrossing of maize containing the cry1Ab or cry1Ba (Bt) genes under confinement in the OQS at Kiboko to be sowed.

2.6.3EfficacyofBtMaizeEventsAgainstKenyanStemBorersInTheBiosafety Laboratory And Greenhouse

Leaf bioassays were carried out using the first generation Bt maize events to identify the effective ones against the five major Kenyan stem borers: spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus), Coastal stem borer (Chilo orichalcociliellus Strand), African stem borer (Busseola fusca Fuller), African sugarcane borer (Eldana saccharina Walker), and Pink stem borer (Sesamia calamistis Hampson). Cry1Ab protein was the most active against all species as shown by the least area of leaves consumed and by the high larval mortality (KARI and CIMMYT, 2002, Mugo et al., 2004). C. partellus was controlled by all cry proteins, except cry1E. Cry1E protein was not effective against any stem borer species. The tested Bt cry proteins were not effective in the control of B. fusca. These results indicated the specificity of Bt toxins even among lepidopteran stem borers. These results showed a prospective control for the most destructive borer, C. partellus which is also the most widely distributed in Kenya. It was also thought that combinations of Bt cry toxins might control B. fusca.

A second set of Bt maize leaves that carried both straight first generation Bt events and cross combinations of these events were therefore introduced and bioassays carried out (KARI and CIMMYT, 2003, Mugo et al., 2002). Screening of cry proteins from straight and combination of events produced by Bt maize leaves was performed to evaluate the efficacy of two-gene combinations in controlling the five major stem borer species in Kenya. Maize tissues introduced were from maize lines containing the seven straight Bt genes maize and 10 two-events cross combinations of those genes. The results indicate that combining either the cry1Ac or cry1Ba gene to cry1Ab (Event 176) enhanced the level of control for B. fusca without decreasing the effect on C. partellus and other species. This is likely due to either more total Bt protein being produced and/or complementarity of the two proteins. Though complete control of B. fusca was not achieved, the results indicated that two gene combinations enhanced effectiveness and could be useful in development of the high-dose” strategy. This approach is however, now known to present complications during the regulatory processes.

Evaluations in the BGHC have demonstrated the efficacy of the Bt toxins from cry1Ab and cry1Ba when compared with the non-transformed CML 216 (Table 2.1 and Figure 2.3). All


events showed very low leaf damage scores of nearly unity when compared with CML216 which had four-fold leaf damage scores with scoring made one week after infestation with C. partellus larvae two weeks after plants emerged.

These bioassays on cut leaves and on seedlings in the BGHC show that Bt maize technology is effective against Kenya stem borers. However, tests remain to be performed on the stem borer species under field conditions in the major maize growing areas of Kenya. Currently, the application for field testing has been approved and planting for field evaluation is planned before end of first half of 2005.

Table 2.1: Leaf damage scores from spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus) for Bt maize events and a non-Bt control

Maize Event Leaf score damage (1-9)*

1 Event 3:cry1Ba::Ubi 1.3c

2 Event 6::cry1Ba::Ubi 1.05c



5 Event 93::cry1Ba::Ubi 2.2b


7 Event 216::cry1Ab::Ubi 1.05c

8 Event 223::cry1Ab::Ubi 1.05c

9 Event 396::cry1Ab::Act 1.05c

10 CML216 3.9a

Mean 1.48

LSD 0.522

Significance **

*Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different


Figure 2.3: Leaf damage scores from Chilo partellus stem borer for Bt maize events and a non-Bt control

2.6.4 Development of adapted Bt insect resistant maize cultivars in Kenya

The availability of the BGHC has enabled seed increase and making crosses using Bt maize plants. After selfing transgenic seeds from the nine Bt maize events that were introduced into Kenya, 8,659 seeds were harvested. This was enough seed for the various tests that were either in progress or planned, including assessment of effects on non-target organisms, insect resistance management studies, and cry protein expression studies, as well as backcrossing and field-tests in the OQS.

Tests were carried out to confirm homozygosity with progenies from 54 inbred plants from the nine events that will be grown in the OQS. Those plants that showed homozygosity will be advanced and used for various studies and continuation of the breeding program. Tests for resistance to Busseola fusca were carried out with Events 127 and 216, but with variable success because of various reasons such as lack of larvae and problems with leaf bioassays. However, preliminary results indicate no resistance in these events.


A breeding program to develop Bt maize cultivars has been initiated. This will use converted adapted maize inbred lines. Conversion will follow the backcrossing to the BC3 generation. Already 2,690 BC0F1 seeds from crosses of Bt with non-Bt maize plants have been generated. These are from non-quality protein maize (QPM) maize inbred lines CML202, CML204, CML312, CML395, and CML444. Others are QPM inbred lines CML144 and CML159; and normal open pollinated varieties (OPVs) KCB, CLC, and CLS-3; and Pool 15 QPM SR. The BC1Fs and all other generations up to the BC3F1s of these crosses will be made as part of confined field trials in the OQS at Kiboko.

Availability of the BGHC has enabled conduction of supportive studies on the Bt maize technology. Two master’s degree thesis research projects are currently on-going. One is to investigate whether expression of Bt toxins changes with generations of breeding through use of inbred lines, F1, F2 and F3 generations of Bt x Bt, Bt x non-Bt, and non-Bt x non-Bt plants. The second project aims at screening for resistance development in B. fusca and C. partellus to Bt delta-endotoxins, information that would be useful for development of IRM strategies for Bt maize in Kenya.

2.6.5ConfinedFieldTestingofBtMaizeGermplasmInKenya

Mock trials have been shown at the OQS at Kiboko to train staff and other stakeholders in advance of confined field testing of Bt maize. Following the approval of the application for field evaluation, leaf bioassays, seed increase and backcrossing maize containing the cry1Ab or cry1Ba (Bt) genes under confinement in the OQS at Kiboko by the NBC, KEPHIS demanded a compliance document for the sowing of confined field trial to commence. This document has been prepared and presented to KEPHIS and it is hoped that the letter of authorization to plant in the OQS will be granted soon.

2.6.6 Capacity building in personnel training and development of infrastructure

The capacity of Kenyans to research on genetic engineering has been enhanced through extensive training of staff from KARI, ministry of agriculture and KEPHIS on biotechnology, biosafety, management of biosafety facilities, and regulatory issues. Hands on training have been emphasized in Mexico and in Kenya. Infrastructure development include a biosafety level 2 laboratory, a biosafety level 2 greenhouse complex, both at KARI-NARL Kabete, and an OQS at KARI-Kiboko.

2.6.7 Major Achievements And Concluding Remarks

Transgenic (Bt) maize plants with clean events have been developed with final product carrying only the gene of interest and without the selectable marker gene. These form


source lines for the Bt gene which can be used for evaluation and for conversion of other germplasm to develop insect resistant maize cultivars adapted to varying maize agro-ecologies. Through following the Kenyan rules and regulations governing biotechnology and biosafety, three substantive applications have been taken successively though the Kenyan system to introduce transgenic Bt maize leaf tissue and seed. Introduced leaf tissue and seed tissue have been used for evaluation against Kenyan stem borers in a biosafety laboratory and in a biosafety greenhouse and the effective genes and events identified. A conversion program through backcrossing method has been initiated by developing BC0F1 generations of various inbred lines and the Bt maize source lines.

An Application for Field Testing Maize Seeds Containing the Bt genes cry1Ab and cry1Ba for Evaluation, Seed Increase and Backcrossing into Other Maize Lines Under Field Confinement in the OQS at Kiboko” has been approved and sowing of the Confined field trial is planned very soon. Extensive training of staff from KARI, KEPHIS and the ministry of agriculture in genetic engineering and biosafety issues have been carried out, while a set of biosafety facilities including a biosafety level 2 laboratory, a biosafety level 2 greenhouse complex and an OQS. The IRMA Project’s plan to develop Bt-based insect resistant maize for Kenya and other willing African countries is on course.


2.7 THE STATUS OF CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY IN UGANDA

2.7. 1 Introduction

Biotechnology is a wide field of science that embraces extensive, expansive and a diverse spectrum of biological principles, materials, organisms and transformations cutting across several sectors. It is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials using biological agents to provide goods and services. Today, Biotechnology is increasingly finding applications in agriculture, human health, animal health, industry and restoration of degraded environments.

Uganda has made a modest start in biotechnology and molecular biology in general. Thus there are a number of biotechnology activities that have been going on at National Agricultural Research Institutions, Makerere University and private research laboratories. Nevertheless, there is a growing but limited application of biotechnology in a number of other sectors such as health, environment and industry. These include the production of medicines, hormones, (e.g. insulin and immune regulators), vaccines and other bio-engineered products such as the ALVAC-HIV vaccine whose trials on human subjects (phase 1) was completed in 2000 and the DNA vaccine that is currently undergoing trials (phase 1) in the country. Biotechnology has also been experimented with the production of transgenic crops and diagnostics in animal husbandry. It has generally been used for breeding, diagnostic tools and tissue culture/plant transformation. It is also used in the production of bio-catalysts, waste treatment (bioremediation) and bio-energy (bio-gas).

2.7.2 Research & Development Institutions

The key institutions involved in biotechnology research in Uganda are:

Makerere University •

Department of Crop Science,

Biochemistry,

Animal Science,

Veterinary Parasitology and Microbiology,

the Institute of Environment and Natural Resources,

Department of Food Science and Technology, and

the Medical School.


National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), including the research • centers at

Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute;

Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute;

Coffee Research Institute, Kituza;

Livestock Research Institute;

Forest Research Institute, and

Food Science Research Institute.

Uganda Virus Research Institute;•

Joint Clinical Research Centre;•

Private Sector Institutions

MedBiotech Laboratories;•

Agro Genetic Laboratories;•

International Institutions

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA);•

International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP).•

Major R&D Activities

The main centres of biotechnology research in Uganda include Makerere University, NARO, Med-Biotech Laboratories and Agro-genetic Technologies. There are also a number of other research centres involved in various aspects of biotechnology and biosafety research and application.

A: Makerere University

The Department of Animal Scienceidentification and modification of ruminant bacteria that digest tannins for improved • feed utilization.marker assisted selection for useful traits in local cattle breeds e.g. cholesterol • profile, growth and milk production.


The Department of Crop Sciencedeveloping protocols for mass propagation of bananas and coffee,• disease diagnosis, marker assisted selection for disease/pest resistance, • tolerance to abiotic stress, • genetic engineering in bananas and cassava, • finger printing, molecular characterization of sweet potato and bean mosaic viruses • and maize fungal pathogens.

Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Microbiologyfocuses on the use of molecular methods as tool in epidemiology and diagnostics,• vaccine development some involving hybridoma technology,• researchers are also developing DNA markers to characterize different strains of the • East Coast Fever virus to aid in diagnosis and development of improved vaccines by LIRI. development of drugs and vaccines against trypanosomiasis by identifying parasite • genes that can serve as drug targets.development of a recombinant antibody with greater specificity for Heartwater. •

The Medical Schooluse of a live recombinant human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine (toxicology • and immunogenicity),analysis of various strains of HIV through DNA sequencing.•

The Institute of Environment and Natural Resourcesdevelopment of genetic markers to characterize various species of wildlife, using • microsatellites and mitochondria DNA sequences.Use of microorganisms to treat waste water by identification, characterization • and isolation of responsible genes for optimization of nitrogen removal from contaminated areas.

Department of Food Science and Technologyexploring methods to preserve banana juice.• characterisation of banana starch,•


identification and characterization of lactic acid bacteria for improved yogurt • flavour, salvaging heat-damaged milk, flavour of locally produced ghee which is more acceptable to the market than commercially produced ghee.

B: National Agriculture Research Organization (NARO)

Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and NamulongeAgricultural and Animal Production Research Institute (NAARI)

protocols being developed for regeneration of East African Highland bananas via • somatic embryogenesis. molecular characterization of strains of Bean Common Mosaic Virus for the • purpose of developing diagnostic tools.

Livestock Research Institute (LIRI)cloning and sequencing genes in trypanosomes that confer resistance to currently • used drugs.

development of diagnostics for the detection of Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia, • using hybridoma technology,

development of an improved vaccine against this disease. •

development of a suitable delivery medium for a newly developed thermostable • vaccine against Newcastle Disease.

improvement to the currently used vaccine against East Coast Fever, which uses a • cocktail of attenuated live strains of the virus.

C: Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI)virus research, Microbiology, disease diagnosis•

D: Joint Clinical Research Centre (JCRC)AIDS virus research•

E: Med Biotech Laboratories (MBL)

This private laboratory is involved in both medical and agricultural research. MBL activities are in two major domains, medical and agricultural. Medical research constitutes about 90 % of the scientific activity while agricultural biotechnology comprises less than 10 %. All research at this time is funded by grants from international organizations such as the World


Health Organization (WHO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and from one private company in the United States, New England Biolabs. The medical research uses molecular techniques to study the epidemiology of malaria and to develop diagnostics (focusing the mosquito vectors of this disease). Anti-malarial drugs and vaccines are also being investigated.

The agricultural research involves the development of molecular markers for determining cyanogenic glucoside content in cassava. Another biotechnology-related research project involves the search for novel restriction enzymes.

This laboratory possesses probably the best research library in Uganda, with on-line access to a number of standard molecular, cell biology, parasitology, and medical journals. The online access is achieved through an arrangement with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in the United States. MBL also conducts some training of university students, providing them with hands-on experience in molecular biology techniques.

F: Agro Genetic Laboratories Ltd. (AGT)

Agro Genetic Laboratories Ltd. (AGT) another private laboratory, was established as Uganda’s first commercial agricultural biotechnology laboratory. The laboratory is a joint venture by Ugandan and Swedish investors, AGT was granted approval by Uganda’s National Council of Science and Technology to produce coffee and banana plantlets using tissue culture.

2.7.3 Other Key Players

2.7.3.1 Rockefeller Foundation

Biotechnology-related work being supported by the Rockefeller Foundation includes the production of disease-free stocks of banana and cassava, and the development of maize resistant to the plant parasite, Striga.

2.7.3.2 International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)

The Ugandan government, realizing the need to develop technical expertise in crop biotechnology in Uganda, budgeted US$500,000 annually to the CGIAR system for this purpose. The vehicle for acquiring the technical capacity is a project to improve Uganda’s East African Highland Bananas by genetically engineering resistance to Black Sigatoka, Banana Weevil, and nematodes. Actual funding for this project, which began in 2001, was US$300,000; the expected funding level for 2002 was US$200,000. Funding from USAID (US$120,000), the Belgian government, and the Rockefeller Foundation covering the shortfall.


Support for training has come from Belgian Government, and a Ph.D. student has been working at KUL, learning techniques for transformation of banana (Cavendish). Upon his return to Uganda, he will attempt to adapt those techniques to the East African Highland Banana.

2.7.3.4 International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA)

A Ugandan government funded project to develop coffee virus resistance is being conducted in collaboration with IITA, located at NAARI. IITA is also cooperating with INIBAP in their efforts to develop resistance to banana weevil, nematodes, and Black Sigatoka.

2.7.3.5 CIMMYT

The research focus of CIMMYT is the development of insect-resistant and Striga-resistant maize.

2.7.3.6 CABI Biosciences

CABI Biosciences begun a Uganda Biotechnology Initiative (UBI), funded by the Monsanto Fund in 2001. This one-year funding is targeted towards projects that will move biotechnology applications closer to implementation in Uganda.

2.7.3.7 Investment in Developing Export Agriculture Project (IDEA)

This program has been working on the development of a biocontrol for termites, which a significant pest of maize. This fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, has been tested by NARO, and is at the product development stage. A commercial partner has been identified, and issues of production and commercialization have been explored in detail.

2.7.4 Status Of Human And Infrastructure Capacity For Biotechnology

In their survey conducted in 2000, Braunschweig and Sengooba (2001) identified 38 researchers and 31 technicians and support staff conducting research in all disciplines of biotechnology. The researchers were comprised of 15 Ph.D.-level, 17 M.Sc.-level, and 6 B.Sc.-level scientists. However, the authors pointed out that since not all researchers devoted 100% of their time to biotechnology research, the aggregate full time equivalent personnel engaged in biotechnology was only 18.5 (Braunschweig and Sengooba, 2001). Another finding of Braunschweig and Sengooba (2001) was that the ratio of technical support staff to principal investigators involved in biotechnology research in Uganda was below the recommended level. Within this short time period, it is unlikely that the figures for 2000 have significantly have improved.


2.7.5 Status Of Infrastructure (Laboratory And Greenhouse) Facilities

Braunschweig and Sengooba (2001) documented the status of laboratory facilities in Uganda. The authors found that 30% of the laboratories surveyed were deficient in resources.

At present, laboratory facilities in molecular biology at the Department of Crop Sciences at Makerere University are also used for teaching laboratories. Therefore, there is no dedicated research laboratory (which would also be used for graduate-level research) in this department. This is a deficiency that could inhibit the research progress of those Ph.D. students currently being trained abroad, who will eventually return to work on various projects. The research laboratory at the Institute of Environment and Natural Resources seems to be adequate for their biotechnology work, may not be adequate for long-term strategy with increased numbers.

Similarly, NARO has a laboratory at KARI that serves a key role for crop biotechnology in the country, and will most likely be the center for the transfer of technology for the INIBAP banana improvement projects. The focus of the work is apparently tissue culture/transformation, some molecular biology capacity would be needed in the future.

The most critical deficiency in allowing biotechnology research to progress is the lack of access to an adequate containment greenhouse for evaluation of material at an intermediate stage between the laboratory and the field observed in all institutions. Therefore, there are good reasons for providing access to such a resource, not only from a scientific point of view, but also from the standpoint of improving public confidence in the technology.

2.7.6 Current Status In Information Technology

A survey of biotechnology institutions showed that none of the people interviewed mentioned a severe need for personal computers, telephones, or fax machines. Therefore, the needs of the research community appeared to be adequately served by the present supply of these machines.

At the present time, all computing is being done with PC-based systems. At the Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, programs such as PAUP, PHYLIP, and GENEPAUP, are regularly used, with a reliance primarily on free, publicly available software. They are not using other commercial programs such as UWGCG, DNASIS, etc. While the present needs for computing power are met by PC’s, a more detailed assessment of the country’s research computing needs is needed to assure that this resource does not become a bottleneck in the near future.

At MBL, information technology software consists primarily of software packaged with their photodocumentation system, a commercial DNA analysis program (DNASIS), and


other DNA analysis and genomics software available via the Internet. The laboratory has recently acquired several PC’s, which will be used in a training course to educate researchers in Uganda regarding the tools available over the Internet for DNA analysis and genomics.


2.8 CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN TANZANIA

2.8.1 Background

Agriculture is the major driving force in the development of many economies of sub Saharan Africa. Its role in these countries is to contribute to the overall national goals of food security and poverty reduction. Its other stated goals are to facilitate provision of employment, improved health status and increased foreign exchange earnings. The agricultural sector is reported to be the main foundation of Tanzanian economy. It accounts for about 50% of the national income, 75% of the export earnings, and is source of food and provides employment opportunities to about 80 percent of Tanzanians. Despite its importance, food and agricultural production has continued to decrease. Some of the major factors limiting agricultural productivity include: occurrence of biotic and abiotic stresses, declining soil fertility, narrow technological base, inadequate policy supports as well as socio-economic factors.

Although Tanzania considers biotechnology as a tool that may provide new opportunities for achieving productivity gains in both agriculture and food, the progress in the adoption and utilization of this technology in Tanzania has remained rather slow. The level of biotechnology research, development and utilization is still in its infancy but the country is picking up quickly with agricultural sector being the most active.

2.8.2 Introduction

One of the targets of the Tanzanian National Development Vision 2025 is to reduce by 50% the number of people living in abject poverty by the year 2010 and to eradicate poverty by year 2025. By then “the economy of Tanzania would have been transformed from a low productivity predominantly rural based subsistence agriculture to diversified semi industrial economy with a modern rural sector and high productivity agriculture which ensures food security and food self sufficiency”. To realize this vision, Tanzania considers science and technology to be central to creating wealth and improving the quality of life and bringing sustainable development in contemporary society. It has been projected that, in order realize this Development Vision, the agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) annual growth rate should be about 8%. Therefore, it is imperative that more efficient agricultural production systems are developed and adopted by the farmer.

There is a general consensus that biotechnology, if applied wisely and judiciously, can contribute significantly to sustainable agricultural development and therefore to enhanced socio-economic development of our people. Integrating biotechnology into agricultural


research, including the development of transgenic crops and application of genomics and bioinformatics, can enhance food security by improving local crop productivity, reducing chemical inputs, protecting crops against pest and post-harvest losses, improving nutrition, increasing crop tolerance to stresses, and by producing value-added products.

The per capita arable land in Tanzania has decreased from about 5 ha in 1960’s to about 1.5 ha to date (Kullaya et al., 2001). Furthermore, declining soil fertility, abiotic stresses due to drought, water logging, salinity, deficiencies of nutrients, and biotic stresses due to weeds, pests and diseases take a heavy toll on the food and cash crop production.

Most of the on-going agricultural improvement programmes that have been adopted to overcome the prevailing constraints to agricultural production are based on conventional research and development (R&D) strategies, some of which cannot adequately solve some of these constraints. It is therefore imperative that more efficient agricultural production systems are developed in order to attain food security; and to produce enough to meet local and export demand for food and raw materials for industrial processing, which is increasing due to an ever-increasing population.

In a country like Tanzania, where agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, any improvement in agricultural productivity directly helps in improvement of the economy and biotechnology promises that improvement

2.8.3 Status of Agricultural Biotechnology in Tanzania

Although Tanzania considers biotechnology as a tool that may provides new opportunities for achieving productivity gains in both agriculture and food, the progress in the adoption and utilization of this technology in Tanzania has remained rather slow. The level of biotechnology research, development and utilization is still in its infancy but the country is picking up quickly with agricultural sector being the most active.

The current status of biotechnology R & D in some of the outstanding public and private institutions is outlined below:

2.8.4 Tissue Culture And Micropropagation

Of the biotechnology techniques, tissue culture and micropropagation are the most widely applied in Tanzania. Tissue culture techniques have been employed in various applications including mass propagation of virus-free planting material and in germplasm conservation, particularly of vegetatively propagated crops. In Tanzania, tissue culture activities are being carried out in the following laboratories/institutions:


The Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI) based in Dar es Salaam has been collaborating with some international institutions since 1992 in the implementation of different biotechnology research projects for various crops such as coconut, cashew, banana, pineapple, cassava, sweet potato, vanilla and coffee. The laboratory has adequate facilities for biotechnology research in tissue culture and micropropagation.

Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Mlingano in Tanga, has established, in collaboration with KATANI Ltd. a tissue culture laboratory for micropropagation of sisal (Mneney, 2000).

Laboratories at ARI Uyole in Mbeya and ARI Ukiriguru in Mwanza are at the last stage of establishment, and will be used to promote mass propagation of pyrethrum, coffee, cassava and banana and other crops through tissue culture.

ARI Tengeru based in Arusha has a TC laboratory that has never been operational because some facilities were lacking. The lab is been rehabilitated and will soon start operating. In the meantime, the institute is working on mass propagation and dissemination of disease free planting materials for horticultural crops, specifically banana and sweet potato, in collaboration with the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA).

Kizimbani Research Station in Zanzibar is currently working on mass propagation of banana planting material, which it receives in form of plantlets from the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantains (INIBAP) laboratories.

Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) based in Morogoro has a modest tissue culture laboratory for both research and training purposes.

National Plant Genetic Resources Centre (NPGRC) in Arusha has recently established a tissue culture laboratory for long term in vitro conservation of plant genetic resources.

Tanzania Coffee Research Institute (TaCRI ), a private institute that was established in 2000 to oversee all coffee production and promotion activities in Tanzania will soon have a tissue culture facility for micropropagation of coffee (through somatic embryogenesis) with technical support from Centre de cooperation internationale en recherché Agronomique pour le development (CIRAD) and financial support from the EU.

2.8.5GenotypeIdentificationAndDiversityStudies

The application of molecular markers to genetic fingerprint and measure genetic diversity within and among populations, is of value in guiding genetic conservation activities and in the development of breeding populations in crops. Despite the fact that DNA marker


technology is now routinely applied in agricultural research throughout the world, its use in Tanzania has been limited to two institutions, namely MARI and SUA. Examples of ongoing research projects in marker technology include:

2.8.6 Application of DNA Marker Technology to Germplasm Characterization and Breeding in Coconut

Over the last eight years Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute (MARI) has been collaborating with Max Planck Institut für Züchtungsforschung (MPIZ) of Germany, Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario (NEIKER) of Spain and Philippines Coconut Authority (PCA) of the Philippines in two EU funded projects aimed at applying different DNA markers to characterize coconut germplasm (Rohde 1996, Rohde et al., 1995, Rohde et al., 1999). The main activities of MARI were:

a) Characterization of different local and introduced coconut germplasm. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), Inverse-sequence Tagged Repeats (ISTR) and simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers have been used to study the genetic diversity within and between the local East Africa Talls (EATs) coconut sub-populations, as well as between different introduced coconut accessions. The results revealed that the tall coconut populations found in East and West Africa are closely related to coconut populations in India, thus supporting the theory that traders and missionaries introduced coconuts from India into the East Coast of Africa, and later to West Africa (Harries, 1977).

b) Establishment of a coconut linkage map and quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis. RAPDs, ISTR, Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and SSR markers have been used to develop the first linkage map of the coconut palm with 16 linkage groups, which correspond to the 16 chromosomes of the coconut palm. Two mapping populations have been produced and are being maintained in the field for further evaluation and for QTL analysis.

2.8.7 Characterization And Diversity Studies Of Cashew Germplasm

The Cashew Biotechnology Unit at MARI has also been applying various DNA based markers such as RAPD (Mneney, 2001), SSR and AFLP (Mneney, 2004) to characterize cashew genetic materials that are being used in the cashew improvement programme. So far the cashew project has identified 30 microsatellite and 6 AFLP markers suitable for cashew. The unit has also initiated some work that will lead to the establishment of a linkage map of the cashew and quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis.


2.8.8 Application of DNA Marker Technology For Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) in Cassava

RAPD markers (Herzberg, 1999) and SSR markers (Masumba, 2005) have been employed to study the genetic diversity in cassava germplasm in Tanzania. Currently five Agricultural Research Institutes (ARIs) under the Directorate of Research and Training (DRT) in the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Co-operatives (MAFSC) are implementing a project on “Molecular marker-assisted and farmer participatory improvement of cassava germplasm for farmer/market preferred traits in Tanzania”. This project is funded by Rockefeller Foundation, and seeks to use new tools of molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) and farmer participatory research to develop high yielding, pest and disease resistant cassava varieties upon which many rural communities in Tanzania depend for their food security and livelihoods.

Local cassava varieties selected by farmers from the three major agro-ecologies, namely Eastern, Lake and Southern Zones of Tanzania have been crossed with genotypes from CIAT, Cali, Colombia with resistance to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD), cassava bacterial blight (CBB) and the cassava green mites (CGM). Molecular markers for CMD, CBB and CGM will be employed to identify the resistant F1 progenies. These will be further subjected to on-farm evaluation in a participatory manner to identify those preferred by farmers and market. This project also aims to understand the mode of resistance of cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) and to develop quantitative trait loci (QTLs) to be used for breeding purposes (Kullaya et al. 2005).

2.8.9 Application of DNA Marker Technology To Other CropsMARI has been collaborating with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences since 1999 to characterize and study diversity of sweet potato and coffee genetic materials in the framework of the East African Regional Programme and Research Network for Biotechnology, Biosafety and Biotechnology Policy Development (BIO-EARN) programme. This programme, which is being funded by SIDA/SAREC, has increased significantly the level of biotechnology capacity in Eastern Africa.

MARI will, from April 2006, start implementing two biotechnology research projects funded by BIOEARN Phase three programme. The projects are:

i) Development of biotechnologies to ameliorate biotic and abiotic stresses in sorghum. The purpose of this project is to develop and test DNA markers to support breeding for tolerance to Al toxicity and improved P uptake in sorghum.

ii) Towards sustainable cassava and sweet potato production in Eastern Africa. This project will study epidemiology management of cassava brown streak virus and optimize in vitro and molecular protocols for production of ‘clean’ cassava and sweet potato planting materials


At SUA, genomic studies are also conducted at the Crop Science department to support training of BSc and postgraduate students.

2.6.10 Application Of Molecular Techniques For Disease Diagnostics And Epidemiology

The MARI has been collaborating with international institutions in the development of molecular techniques for diagnosing coconut lethal disease phytoplasma. Pathogen specific DNA probes and PCR primers have been developed (Mpunami et al. 1996), and the PCR technique is now used for routine diagnosis of infections in palms. By use of specific primers, it has also been possible to detect the phytoplasma in two species of homoptera; Diastrombus mkurangai and Meenoplus spp., and these are suspected to be the potential vectors of the disease.

The Institute is also involved in developing molecular markers for virus disease complex in sweet potato in collaboration with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (Tairo et al., 2006). Molecular detection of cassava mosaic disease and genetic diversity studies of cassava brown streak virus are also being implemented by IITA at MARI.

2.8.11 Production Of Agricultural Bioinputs For Crop Development

At the University of Dar es Salaam, the Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (DMBB) is engaged in developing various biotechnology techniques such as use of microorganisms for bioconversion of waste and other organic residues for production of iofertilizers. In addition the DMBB is also involved in bioprospecting for microorganisms with potential applications in crop protection as biopesticides such as use of microbial-based insecticides (Bacillus thuringiensis).

The Sokoine University of Agriculture has developed a biofertilizer called Nitrosua through inoculation of soybeans with various strains of Rhizobium. Nitrosua is an economical way to increase soil nitrogen compared to the use of chemical fertilizer. Although the technology is very attractive to small scale farmers, there is no reliable mechanism for up-scaling, packaging and dissemination.

2.8.12 Genetic Engineering

Tanzania has not yet exploited the recent third generation (GM-technology) or approved any GM crop for commercial release. There is not yet an institution that has the capacity to conduct research in genetic engineering or that can handle genetically engineered plants


(GEP) and products of GEP. The development of GM technology and biosafety in Tanzania is impeded by shortage of skilled human resource and sufficient infrastructure.

2.8.13 Training And Human Capacity Building In Crop Biotechnology

Training in biotechnology and human resource capacity building is taking place in Tanzania at different levels at universities and R & D institutions. Some Universities have now established formal training programmes in biotechnology. Examples include the University of Dar Es Salaam-Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, which is offering a BSc in molecular biology and biotechnology and the Sokoine University of Agriculture offering BSc in Biotechnology and laboratory studies. There is no explicit biotechnology training for MSc and PhD, but training in biological sciences and agriculture has a biotechnology component. There is no formal training for technicians or other technical personnel. This is creating a serious imbalance between professionals and technicians.

2.8.14 Policy Legal And Institutional Framework

2.8.14.1 National Biotechnology Policy

In 2002, the Government of Tanzania established its National Biotechnology Advisor Committee (NBAC) with the mandate of advising the Government on all issues pertaining to safe development and application of biotechnology. This Committee spearheaded the development of the national biotechnology policy, which is now at its advanced stage of completion. The main objective of the policy is to ensure that Tanzania has the capacity and capability to capture the proven benefits arising from health, agriculture, industry and environmental applications of biotechnology while protecting and sustaining the safety of the community and the environment. Once the biotechnology policy has been approved, it will be necessary for the Government to formulate an implementation strategy and plans that will lead to the attainment of the specific objectives, which are to:

develop a coordinated biotechnology strategy;

link R&D and industrial capacity for biotechnology in Tanzania;

develop innovative financing mechanism for biotechnology;

develop Intellectual Property Rights of biotechnology inventions, innovations and services;

apply biotechnology for the conservation and development of genetic resources;

develop of adequate institutional and human resources capacity for biotechnology;


establish public – private sector partnerships and linkages;

promote public awareness on the nature, benefits and risks of biotechnology ;

develop priority areas for biotechnology R&D in the relevant sectors;

strengthening national and international collaboration; and

develop strategy and give guidance on ethical issues associated with biotechnology.

2.8.14.2 National Biosafety Framework

In 2002 the Government started developing the National Biosafety Framework (NBF) with technical and financial support from the UNEP/GEF. The NBF is based on the Environmental Policy and the Environmental Management Act (2004). The main objectives of the NBF are to:

establish science-based, holistic and integrated, efficient, transparent and participatory • administrative and decision making system so that Tanzania can benefit from modern biotechnology while avoiding or minimizing the inherent environmental, health and socio-economic risks; andensure that the research, development, handling, transboundary movement, transit, • use, release and management of GMOs are undertaken in a manner that prevents or reduces risks to human and animal health, biological diversity and the environment.

The NBF seeks to establish Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBCs) at all institutions that are involved in the import, export, handling, contained use, release or placing on the market of GMOs or GM products to institute and control safety mechanism; Ministerial Competent Authorities to review relevant sector specific biosafety applications; a National Biosafety Committee with multi-sectoral representation to review all applications and make recommendations to the Biosafety Focal Point for decision making. Arrangements are now being made to prepare the relevant biosafety regulations before the different relevant committees can be appointed.

Recognizing that NBF will take a while before it is implemented, the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives decided, as an interim measure, to establish in 2004 the Agricultural Biosafety Scientific Advisory Committee (ABSAC) as the ministerial competent authority responsible for advising the Ministry on all issues pertaining to safe application of biotechnology. It will also conduct scientific biosafety reviews for contained and confined research in GM plants and make recommendations for approval by relevant authority. Currently ABSAC draws its powers from the Plant Protection Act (1997). In January 2005, through the technical and financial support from the Programme for Biosafety Systems (PBS), the ABSAC members were trained on how to conduct biosafety reviews for confined field trials. Albeit these efforts, it is fair to say that these scientists have limited


expertise and they lack experience in biosafety issues.

In terms of infrastructure, the biotechnology research institutes haves adequate IT facilities, which can also be used for biosafety data management, analysis and information exchange. However, the institutes lack facilities for safe handling of and disposing hazardous chemicals and waste (e.g. radioactive materials), and containment facilities for conducting research involving GMOs in the laboratory and under greenhouse conditions.

2.8.15 Institutional Biosafety Capacity

Since the NBF is not yet operational, none the institutions that are involved in biotechnology research in the country has an institutional biosafety committee to foresee biotechnology R&D activities. Most institutes do not yet have sufficient capacity, competence and experience in biosafety assessment and management. However, at the some institutes a limited number of scientists have attended short courses and workshops related to biosafety risk assessment and risk management organized by various international and regional organizations such as PBS, the BIO-EARN and ASARECA programmes.

2.8.16 Intellectual Property Rights

In Tanzania, there is no national IPR policy framework that provides guidance on protection of agricultural inventions. However, there are few institutions such as the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) that have developed some institutional IPR policy.

Although Tanzania has no IP policy, there is an Act of Parliament enacted in 2002 to provide for the protection of plant breeders’ rights (PBRs). The legislation is entitled ‘The Protection of New Plant Varieties (Plant Breeders’ Rights) Act of 20021. The Act became operational on 01/02/2004 and has some IP management modalities. This Act establishes an office of the Registrar of Plant Breeders’ Rights which started its operations within the Ministry of Agriculture in Jan 2005 to oversee the registration of PBRs and to provide legal framework for protection of plant varieties and plant breeders’ rights. To date, the office has received about 17 applications for registration, which are at different stages of processing.

The Business Registration and Licensing Agency (BRELLA) is an executive agency responsible for administration of Industrial property laws in Tanzania. It administers the Patent Act of 1987 and Trade and Service Marks Act of 1996.

1 The Tanzanian PBR Act is a sui generic legislation and the country is no a member of UPOV.


2.8.17 Dissemination of biotechnology products to farmers and other end users

In Tanzania there are only two crops that are produced through tissue culture (TC) that are being grown by farmers. The crops are sisal produced at Mlingano Agricultural Research Institute through a joint venture with the private sector, and TC bananas produced through collaboration with Genetics technology Ltd (GTL) in Kenya under the support of ISAAA and introduced in the country by Horti Tengeru. The SUA, MARI and Kizimbani Research Station in Zanzibar have also distributed limited quantities of TC banana to some farmers. In the Lake Zone, The Kagera Cooperative Development Program (KCDP)-banana project produced and disseminated TC banana in collaboration with technical support from TC laboratories based in Belgium.

2.8.18 Constraints of Biotechnology in Tanzania

Much as there are about eight laboratories that are involved in crop biotechnology research, most activities are limited in scope and have no guarantee for sustainability. Some of the main constraints that limit biotechnology research, development and utilization in the country include:

lack of a national biotechnology policy and functioning biosafety regulatory framework;

limited institutional capacity and inadequate government support. A large proportion of the financial support for training, infrastructure development and for implementation of a number of project activities at our National Agricultural Research Station (NARS) institutions comes from foreign donors;

lack of critical mass of highly trained scientists, technicians and entrepreneurs for the implementation of biotechnology, biosafety and biotechnology policy issues. Furthermore, after training, some research scientists decide to leave for more lucrative positions outside of the civil service because the remuneration package offered by Government is generally not attractive enough;

inadequate and unreliable financial resources to develop and sustain biotechnology research;

lack of public awareness and clear understanding of both the potential promise and perils of biotechnology. This is conducive to creation of an atmosphere of suspicion among consumers and for decision makers to take uninformed decisions;

poor utilization of existing technical, human resources and infrastructure capacities in biotechnology;


inadequate logistic support services e.g. in procurement of supplies and in maintenance and repair of scientific equipment; and

lack of adequate and suitable facilities for safe handling of radioactive wastes, and handling of genetically modified organisms (GMO), thus limiting the type and scope of research that can be undertaken.

2.8.19 The Way forward

Science and technology is expected to play an important role in transforming the economy from a predominantly agricultural one with low productivity to a diversified and semi-industrialized economy with a modern rural sector and high productivity in agricultural production that generates reasonably high incomes and ensures food security and food self-sufficiency. Experience from other countries suggests that biotechnology, if applied wisely and judiciously, can contribute significantly to sustainable agricultural development and enhanced food security by improving local crop productivity, reducing chemical inputs, protecting crops against pest and post-harvest losses, improving nutrition, increasing crop tolerance to stress, and by producing value-added products.

Therefore, for Tanzania to be able to take maximum advantage of the potential benefits, while minimizing any possible risks of biotechnology, urgent actions and deliberate efforts are necessary, particularly in, but not limited to:

Developing a national biotechnology policy framework, including intellectual property right (IPR) systems harmonized with national needs and international legislation. It is encouraging to note that the national biotechnology policy is at its final stage of development. Now what is required are deliberate efforts by the Government and other stakeholders to implement the policy;

Building and sustaining competent human resources capacity through training as well as adequate infrastructure with well equipped laboratories and adequate R&D funds. In view of the high investment costs that are required to build and sustain a meaningful biotechnology R&D capacity, the strategy should be for the NARS to establish one or two main laboratories that are well equipped for all kinds of agricultural biotechnology R&D work. These should be complemented by tissue culture laboratories at the different NARS institutions. Apart from adequate infrastructure support, a critical mass of well-trained and experienced manpower that can carry out quality research independently has to be developed and maintained at the two main and three subsidiary laboratories;

Developing an efficient and effective biosafety regulatory framework to ensure safe biotechnology research, development and application in the country.


The way forward should be to develop short, medium and long-term strategies for building and strengthening agricultural biotechnology R&D capacity in:

Tissue culture and mass micropropagation techniques. These will greatly contribute to the development of disease free cash and subsistence crops like coffee, pyrethrum, banana, cassava; sweet potatoes;

development and application of molecular disease diagnostics techniques, which can greatly promote crop production;

development and application of molecular marker techniques to improve the breeding efficiency of our crop improvement programmes, e.g. in breeding for disease resistant cassava, maize and other crop varieties;

adapting GM technologies or products that are safe, socially acceptable and that are likely to have positive impact on socio-economic benefits of our society;

Development of capacity in modern biotechnology, including genetic engineering, genomics and proteomics in the medium and long-term future.

Finally it should be mentioned that biotechnology is not a panacea for all agricultural problems in the country. It cannot overcome the gaps in infrastructure, markets, breeding capacity, input delivery systems and extension services that hinder efforts to promote crop development. For agricultural biotechnology R&D strategies to be effective, they must be based on clear and realistic research priorities, which are closely linked to farmers’ needs. Lack of relevant and realistic research priorities will result in limited technology diffusion and inability to meet the demand of Tanzanian farmers and other stakeholders. The potential of biotechnology can only be realized if due attention is paid to the whole array of policies and programs needed for sustainable development.


Table 2.2: Overview of institutions currently involved in Crop Biotechnology R&D

Institution Activities/technology and capacities Sector

Mikocheni Agricultural Research Institute

(Public)

Development of DNA-based disease diagnostic • techniques, in particular for the coconut lethal disease phytoplasma, and sweet potato virus complex

Diversity studies of the cassava brown streak • virus

Genetic diversity and fingerprinting of different • crop species (coconut, cashew, cassava, sweet potato, coffee)

Tissue culture of crops like cassava, banana, • pineapples, coconut, vanilla and cashew

Application of MAS for cassava improvement•

Lab facilities for basic biotech research available ie PCR machine and equipments for RAPDS, SSRs, ISTR etc

TC facilities for in vitro propagation of virus-free material, diagnostics and indexing available

Not equipped for complex research, e.g. sequencing, genomics and genetic engineering

Human capacity: 6 Biotechnologists (4PhD and 2 MSc), 2 MSc under training, 6 technicians

Agro-biotechnology

Sokoine University of Agriculture (Public-semi autonomous)

Tissue culture for micropropagation of different • crops banana and horticultural crops

Analysis of genetic diversity in crops for research • and training of undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Molecular biology and biotechnology

Laboratory for tissue culture in place

Agro-biotechnology

Mlingano Agricultural Research Institute (Public)

Tissue culture facilities fo micropropagation of • sisal

Human capacity is modest•

Agro-biotechnology



Kizimbani Agricultural Research Institute, (Public)

Tissue culture and micropropagation of different • crops

Modest tissue culture facility available

Agro-biotechnology

Tengeru Horticultural Research and Training Institute (Public)

Rapid multiplication of disease-free planting • material through tissue cultureBasic tissue culture facilities available-but the lab is currently being upgradedHuman resources capacity very limited

Agro-biotechnology

Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (Public-semi autonomous)

Development of food processing techniques • (cereal and cassava fermentation), including microbial biotechnologies. modest laboratory for food processing and quality analysis available

Industrial/ food biotechnology

Uyole agricultural Research institute(Public)

Rapid multiplication of disease-free planting • material through tissue culture (pyrethrum, root crops, banana) Lab facilities for basic biotech research available but is currently being upgraded

Agro-biotechnology

Plant Genetic Resources Centre(Public)

In vitro• culture techniques for long-term storage of plant germplasm. Lab facilities for in vitro storage and research available

Agro-biotechnology

University of Dar Es Salaam –Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology DMBB(Public-semi autonomous)

Rapid and correct identification of microorganism • strains and genes)Molecular taxonomy• bio-prospecting for micro-organisms with • potential applications in food processing and beverage industryproduction of biopesticides and biofertilizers• mushroom science in cultivation and ligninolytic • enzymes

Industrial and environmental biotechnology



Tropical Pest Research Institute- TPRI (Public-semi autonomous)

Functions as the Secretariat of ABSAC• have inspectors, who are well trained for • enforcement of Phytosanitary requirement and who have received short term training in confined field experiments of GM crops.

Regulatory

Commission of science and technology -COSTECH (Public)

overseer and coordinator of all Science and • Technology in TanzaniaFocal point of various biotechnology projects like • BIOEARN, Programme for Biosafety systems (PBS)

Policy development and coordination

Vice Presidents office (Public)

responsible for development of Biosafety policy • and regulationsFocal point for UNEP/GEF project• Development of National Biosafety Frame work • and biosafety guidelines

Biotechnology Policy and Biosafety

Business registration and licensing Agency -BRELLA (Public-semi autonomous)

Administer of the law of patents• Intellectual property rights (IPR) - ensure • biotechnological inventions are registered and protected

Biotechnology policy – IPR,Regulatory

Registrar Plant Breeders Right (Public)

Established in 2005• Responsible for registration of plant breeders • rights

Biotechnology policy - IPR

Tanzania Coffee Research Institute –TaCRI (Private)

The institute was established in 2000 to oversee • all coffee production and promotion activities.

TaCRI will soon have a tissue culture facility • for micropropagation of coffee through somatic embryogenesis with technical support from Centre de cooperation internationale en recherché Agronomique pour le development (CIRAD) and financial support from the EU.

Agro-biotechnology



Katani Limited (Private)

Have shown interest of collaborating with ARI-• Mlingano through Public Private Partnership (PPP) on tissue culture of sisal

Agro-biotechnology

Tanzania Pyrethrum Processing and Marketing Company Limited –TPPMCL (Private)

The company has shown interest up scaling • the tissue culture and dissemination system of Pyrethrum in partnership with ARI-Uyole. ARI Uyole has a tissue culture facility

Agro-biotechnology

Mbegu Technologies Limited (Private)

Have shown interest of collaborating with NARs-• in production and promotion of improved seeds of cereals and disease free planting materials of cassava

Have land and seed processing facilities but still • soliciting for funds

Agro-biotechnology

Genetic Technologies (T) Ltd. in Arusha (private)

This is a private company currently producing • Hybrid Eucalyptus seedlings via vegetative propagation and tissue culture Banana seedlings in collaboration with GTL (Kenya).

Agro-biotechnology

ENVIROCARE

(NGO)

ENVIROCARE is a non-governmental • organisation that has been actively involved in biotechnology, particularly in the areas of awareness creation and sensitization of various stakeholders

Awareness creation

PERLUM-Tanzania

(NGO)

Awareness creation with emphasis on Biosafety•

Produce and disseminate biosafety materials such • as leaflets posters, booklets etc

Awareness creation


3CHAPTER THREE

3.0 CROP BIOTECH APPLICATIONS IN WEST AFRICA REGION3.1 STATUS OF CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY IN GHANA

3.1.1 Preamble

Modern biotechnology is a promising technology with the potential to improve the living conditions of the people and increase food security in Ghana. This country report on Ghana focuses on work done in plant biotechnology with reference to (i) tissue culture and micro propagation, molecular breeding or marker assisted selection, genetic engineering/transformation biosafety framework intellectual property system in biotechnology and capacity building both human and institutional. The biosafety framework is yet to be passed into law by the parliament of Ghana. This would pave the way for developing and testing genetically modified living organisms in Ghana.

The need for strengthening linkages among institutions engaged in agricultural biotechnology for effective and efficient use of resources was emphasized. Commercialization of biotechnology especially tissue culture should be private–sector driven. Government’s intervention with incentive packages will facilitate investments in biotechnology by the private sector.

3.1.1 Background

Ghana’s vision of becoming a middle income country is now the bench-mark for all socio-economic activities in the country. Technological development is a key factor in raising income levels and improving livelihoods of the people. It is imperative that new technologies such as biotechnology is given prominence in the key sectors of the Ghanaian economy especially agriculture which contributes 36% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture also employs over 60% of the population in Ghana.


Simply put biotechnology is a range of tools and techniques of varying levels of technical complexity, ranging from small scale traditional fermentation of foods and beverages through to cutting-edge recombinant DNA technology (Klu et al 1999, Kitch et al., 2002). Capacity building for modern biotechnology would involve harnessing expertise from various disciplines, developing managerial skills, establishing a wide range of technical facilities, formulating policies and regulating guidelines which would facilitate the effective and efficient use of available resources. This country report aims at modern plant biotechnology in Ghana. It focuses on work done on plant biotechnology with reference to (i) tissue culture and micro-propagation, molecular breeding and marker assisted selection genetic engineering/transformation, biotechnology policy and biosafety framework, intellectual property system on biotechnology and biotechnology capacity building (both human and institutional).

3.1.3 Tissue Culture And Micro-Propagation:

Plant tissue culture refers to the growth of whole plants, parts of plants or even single cells on artificial growth media under controlled conditions in the laboratory. It encompasses the cocktail of techniques whose main application is mass propagation of disease free clonal planting materials. (Ofori, 2003). Plantlets equivalent to conventional seedlings from minute pieces are produced. Tissue culture is predicated on the concept that each living cell of a multi-cellular organism should be capable of developing to regenerate a whole organism when the enabling external conditions have been provided. This is because each cell has the full complements of the genetic material of the organism. (Amoatey and Essegbey, 2003, Johanson, 2000).

The application of tissue culture as a micro propagation has been employed since the late 1980’s in Ghana. It has mainly served research purposes as well as the production of “clean” planting materials. Tissue culture laboratories have been the point for receiving in-vitro materials when they arrive in the country. The tissue culture facilities have been used for the in-vitro conservation of germplasm using slow growth techniques. Recent developments have been towards the development of cryopreservation techniques for the conservation of root and tuber germplasm.

The pressing need for farmers to produce large quantities of a variety of pineapple urgently needed for the European market, led to the use of tissue culture as a tool to meet the required targets. Since December 2002, the tissue culture laboratory of the Department of Botany, University of Ghana, Legon, has helped a private commercial farmer to establish a commercial tissue culture laboratory, by providing expertise and training personnel. The current turnover at the faculty is over 200 000 sucker per month. The tissue culture laboratories at Crops Research Institute and Legon have been jointly involved in projects to produce clean released sweet potato varieties; planting material for nurseries. The virus-free materials were further multiplied and given out to farmers as vine cutting planting materials


3.1.4 Advantages Of Plant Tissue Culture Include Among Others The Following.

small space is required because tiny tissue are usedi.

Propagation is carried out under sterile conditions, hence little or no ii. contamination

Virus-free material is use for initiating cultureiii.

(iv) Tissue culture is carried out under controlled conditions hence variation in environmental conditions does not affect cultured materials.

Continuous production throughout the year without variation in season.i.

Minimal labor cost because watering, weeding and spraying are not required ii. between sub-cultures.

It allows for the propagation of plants species difficult to propagate using iii. conventional techniques.

It is possible for propagation procedures to be automated for certain species to iv. minimize requirements for labor

Production of true to type material (Amoatey and Essegbey, 2003, Ofori, 2003)v.

3.1.5 Among The Disadvantages Are:

Fairly expensive specialized facilities are required (cold rooms, lamina flow i. hood)

Staff must be trained to work under sterile conditions and to decide when to ii. divide different cultures.

Contamination during early multiplication by fungus and bacterial may result in iii. losing potential propagates.

Specific methods for efficient micro propagation would have to be developed iv. for each species. This includes conditions for rootings and establishment of plantlets.

Limited plantlets produced are small.v.

Techniques for propagation should not introduce genetic instability. Some clonal vi. varieties may arise through frequent sub cultures

Cost of plantlets is relatively high and must be offset by a large scale production vii.


and by high added value of the plantlets produced (Amoatey and Essegbey, 2003, Johansen, 2000).

Research institutes and universities in Ghana with tissue culture facilities are presented in table 1 in appendix. It is worthy of note that the institutions work mostly on the local crops. This is heartwarming since the advanced laboratories do not work on local African crop species.

3.1.6 Molecular Breeding Or Marker Assisted Selection

Marker assisted selection is the use of molecular markers to increase the response to selection. DNA markers are a specific type of molecular markers that are identifiable DNA sequences found at specific location of the genome (Kitch et al., 2002). Differences may be observed between individuals of the same population. Molecular markers enable breeders to identify actual genes present in a plant without environmental influence. In conventional breeding, selection is based on the phenotype. This is a combination of the gene and the environment in which the organism grows.

Molecular breeding or marker assisted selection enables identification and evaluation of plants with desirable traits in breeding populations.It must however be noted that, molecular breeding through marker assisted selection is limited in scope. This is because compared to genetic engineering:

it only works in traits already present in a crop. (ii) it cannot be used to breed crops i. with long generation cycle like citrus. (iii) it cannot be used effectively in crops which are clonally propagated. This is because such crops are sterile or do not breed true. Examples are cassava, pineapple.

The tool of molecular finger printing has been applied in crops including cassava, yam, frafra potato, Musa species and cocoa. The techniques of marker assisted selection for traits of interests, genotyping and characterization have been well utilized. Some of the PCR-based techniques that have been applied include Randomly Amplified Polymopghic DNA (RAPD), inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR), and simple sequence repeats (SSR). Table 2 in appendix outlines biotechnology projects undertaken in Ghana since 2002.Some potential benefits of agricultural biotechnology have been summarized in Table 3.

3.1.6 Genetic Engineering/Transformation

The manipulation of genes through the use of recombinant DNA technique for the purpose of modifying the function ofa gene or genes for a specific purpose (kitch,et al 2002.). Consequently, modern genetically improved crops can contain genes from other species


that imparts agronomic and environmental benefits (Kitch et al., 2002). Simply put, genetic modification describes a series of techniques used to transfer genes from one organism to another or to alter the expression of an organism’s genes. Presently, due toe the status of Biosafety guidelines in Ghana, no known research activity is being carried out in line with the production of genetically transformed crop varieties. With the application of Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation, there is the need to develop somatic embryogenesis protocols for our germplasm. Therefore, tissue culture based research, developing somatic embryogenesis protocols may be of much use when the need for transforming our germplasm arises. However in collaboration with laboratories outside Ghana, the transformation efficiency of yam and frafra potato have been investigated.

3.1.7 Biotechnology Policy And Biosafety Framework

There is no biotechnology policy per se in Ghana. However, the National Science and Technology Policy (NSTP) captures biotechnology capacity development as part of the strategies to achieve stated objective for agriculture and industry. The NSTP seeks to: (i) promote the research and application of new technologies including biotechnology, genetic engineering etc which hold potential for increasing production and productivity. (ii) to promote scientific knowledge and development of technologies in the new and emerging sciences such as plant biotechnology (MEST,2000) The NSTP is not explicit enough on what and how the country intends to apply biotechnology to enhance national development.

It is worthy of note that the document which captures the vision of S&T application in Ghana’s socio-economic development acknowledges the role biotechnology can play in the vision of making S&T the engine of development activities. The policy document only outlines the framework for specific initiatives including biotechnology development and biosafety.

The thrust of Ghana’s development policy is the achievement of equitable economic growth and accelerated poverty reduction. (G.G,2001). Biotechnology has a major role to play to achieve government economic policy. The development and application of biotechnology should be given priority and supported with the required resource allocation.

Government alone cannot provide the resources needed for biotechnology development, deployment and utilization. There is need for private sector involvement. This calls for the appropriate laws and legislative instruments to provide incentives to the private sector. Government should encourage the banks to provide venture capital for commercializing various aspects of biotechnology such as tissue culture, There is the need for intellectual property mechanisms to be up-dated and streamlined. The Ghana Patent law of 1992 gives protection for technical inventors which may cover some biotechnology novel applications. However, it cannot be applied in all situations as the patent law excludes patenting of living materials.


There is a draft law.- the Protection of Plant Varieties Bill to legitimize breeders rights in line with the UPOV Act. This bill seeks to implement the UPOV Act in Ghana in consonance with Ghana’s obligations under World Trade Organization (WTO) agreement. The proposed law protecting plant varieties may be the panacea to the protection of research and developed biological innovations. It would provide incentives for scientists to develop new crop varieties for farmers. It must be emphasized that the UPOV convention does not address sufficiently the issue of potentially negative impact on the subsistence farmers especially when the protected material is foreign. This implies that Ghana has the option of a sui generis system for the protection of biotechnology inventors as a way of stimulating research and development and as an incentive for investment could still be employed.

A national biosafety framework: This is a combination of policy, legal, administrative and technical instruments. It is developed to ensure an adequate level, of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effect on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking into account risks to human health. The Ghana Biosafety Framework evolved through the contribution of the people, several ministries and stakeholders to ensure that the framework is country owned. It has the following elements:

A Government policy on biosafety, which in part is a broader policy on a. biotechnology. The current policy duration to the framework is in the Nation;\l Science and Technology Policy which states that innovative and modern technologies including biotechnology shall be harnessed to address problems in agriculture, health and industry. The policy duration is further strengthened by the constitutional obligation to promote agriculture and industry and at the same time ensure protection of the environment and our national resources.

A regulating system set in place to address safety in the field of modern b. biotechnology. This includes a biosafety Act (a proposed bill in progress), a set of National Biosafety Guidelines and regulation/guidelines to be made periodically to guide practices in modern biotechnology.

An administrative system to handle requests for permits for certain activities c. such as release of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) which is the focuse of the administrative guidance document.

A decision making system that includes risk assessment and management for d. the release of LMOs , a guidance document on “Risk Assessment of GMOs in Ghana has been developed to assist in the decision making process.

Mechanism for public participation information sharing. Guidance document on e. public participation. Information sharing and access to Justice with respect to Genetically Modified Organisms has also been developed .


The scope of the biosafety bill (2004) draft law regulates all activities in biotechnology including contained use, releases into the environment and placement in the market, export and transit of GMOs. The only exemption is on GMOs that are pharmaceutical for human use which are regulated by other international agreements. A schematic presentation of the regulatory system and procedure for handling applications have been presented in figures 1 and 2 in appendix.

3.1.8 Biotechnology Capacity Building (Human and Institutional) In Ghana

Ghana, as a developing country is making every effort to build a national capacity in modern biotechnology in terms of the physical human organizational or institutional resources. Biotechnology stakeholder institutions and main functions in Ghana has been presented in Table 4 in appendix. The stakeholder categories are to highlight the functional responsibilities of identifiable institutions and organizations. The functions outlined translate the various activities the institutions carry out for which biotechnology is key.

The importance of the functions of each category of stakeholder cannot be over emphasized. One function generally connects to the other. It is vital that all functions are addressed properly for the realization of the systematic synergy required for making the desired impact. This calls for institutionalized and effective linkages among the stakeholders. Users of biotechnology products are paramount to biotechnology activities. Farmers and industrialists should be sensitized to understand the technology and its potential impact to enable them contribute to its development. Ghana is relatively endowed with high level human resource in biotechnology and related disciplines. These include molecular biologists, virologists, plant breeders, geneticists, pathologists, microbiologists, physiologists, entomologists, tissue culture specialists.

Out of 50 scientists interviewed, over 65% had PhD degrees and were specialized in areas of crop breeding, biochemistry, physiology and molecular biology and tissue culture.(Table 3 in appendix) A number of students are undergoing training in modern biotechnology related disciplines in Ghanaian universities. It is note worthy that most of the graduate training in biotechnology was acquired outside Ghana. However, in recent times three of the national public universities namely, University of Ghana, Crop Science and Botany Departments, Biochemistry and Crop Science Departments of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology and University of Cape Coast are offering undergraduate and post-graduate courses in Plant biotechnology. (Stepri & Bnari, 2003).

3.1.8.1 Physical Facilities

Various institutions have a wide range of facilities to address their respective functions. The


typology of the laboratories-molecular biology, tissue culture, analytical and general/other in a decreasing order of complexity in terms of biotechnology activities as presented in (Table 4 in appendix). Various laboratories have been set up to meet institutional mandates. What requires to be addressed at the national and institutional levels are the relevance and sustainability of the outputs from these laboratories to the needs of Ghana. It is heartwarming to note that almost eight institutions have molecular, tissue culture laboratories, backstopping with analytical and general laboratories (table 5 in appendix)

The need to build a national capacity in genetic engineering is firstly an assurance of Ghana to determine what products to develop. It strategically positions the country to monitor the inflow of foreign products. Techniques such as PCR, ELISA, DNA extraction and splicing have become routing among the scientists in the relevant institutions. These are often used in agricultural sector. The emerging innovative capacity in biotechnology is in the areas of diagnostics, genetic characterization, multiplication of planting materials of desirable traits as well as transformation and improvement of genetic resources for sustainable use.

3.1.9 Conclusion:

It can be concluded from the presentation on the status of plant biotechnology in Ghana that;

Institutions in Ghana are to varying degrees building capacities for biotechnology application with special focus on biosafety.

Institutions with molecular characterization and marker selection capacity should be encouraged to advance into the status of genetic engineering to develop new products from local crop varieties currently beyond the reach of conventional breeding tools.

Draft National biosafety framework for Ghana is in place awaiting passage into law.

Commercialization of modern biotechnology especially tissue culture should be private sector-driven.

There is the need to improve the capacity of research institutions in Ghana to provide the needed support.

Government’s intervention with incentive mechanisms such as tax relief in investment in commercial modern biotechnology would (i) enhance agricultural production and export (ii) facilitate rural agriculture (iii) create jobs for the youth in particular

There is urgent need to improve linkages among research institutions and other stakeholders through net working for effective and efficient use of the available resources.


3.2 CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN NIGERIA

3.2.1 Background Information

Nigeria, Africa’s most populous nation (146 million), is a food deficit country. Formally a net food exporter, Nigeria’s subsistence agriculture can no longer supply the needs of its growing population. According to trade sources, Nigeria imported about $3 billion worth of agricultural commodities in 2008. Nigeria is largely a bulk commodity market and imports wheat, soybean products, tallow, rice and high value products. In MY 2008/09, U.S. agricultural exports to Nigeria surpassed $1 billion, primarily wheat. Nigeria was the second largest buyer of U.S. wheat in the world in 2008/09.

Agricultural biotechnology in Nigeria is increasingly being taken advantage of both at the research and application levels. In the last few years, many institutions have initiated active research and development programmes in arable crops, root and tubers, tree crops and forestry as well as livestock. Some examples include the development of livestock vaccines at the National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, plantain and banana improvement at the Sheda Science and Technology Complex (SHETSCO), Abuja, Rice biotechnology at SHETSCO and the National Cereals Research Institute, Badegi, cowpea biotechnology at the Institute of Agricultural Research, Zaria, cassava biotechnology research at the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, date palm oil palm, coconut and Shea biotechnology work at the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research, Benin City, work on gum Arabic and natural rubber (Hevea) at the Rubber Research Institute of NIgeria, work on cassava and other herbs and vegetables at the National Centre for Genetic resources and Biotechnology (NACGRAB) Ibadan. Many training activities on biotechnology go on regularly at the University of Agriculture, Abeokuta.

IITA as a cgiar institution is a case apart having more advanced programmes in biotechnology research and development. In the last few years collaborative research between international partners and two national institutions have progressed to point of beginning confined field trials on cassava and cowpea. The National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA) is actively participating along with AATF is some of these efforts. In December 2009, the Biosafety bill passed through the second reading at the National Assembly and it is expected to be passed into law in 2010. The passage of the bill will strengthen biotechnology research and development (including deployment and international collaborations) in Nigeria. Before this time the country was operating a Biosafety framework as an interim measure.


3.2.2 Commercial Production of Biotechnology Crops

Nigeria does not currently produce any biotechnology crops commercially. A recent meeting organized by the NABDA, recommended that Nigeria should commence the commercialization of GM crops starting with crops with high industrial uses. With the commencement of commercial production of biotech cotton in neighboring Burkina Faso, Nigerian farmers have indicated strong interest in conducting field trials.

3.2.3 Biotechnology Research Efforts

Capacity exists at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and to some extent at the GON’s Sheda Science and Technology Complex (SHESTCO), to conduct and apply biotechnology research. Sustained research using modern agricultural biotechnology methods in Nigeria is being conducted at the IITA. The institute is doing preliminary work on bio-engineered cowpea. IITA also collaborates with the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) on biotech cassava research.

3.2.4 Biotechnology Crops under Development

There is no biotechnology crop under development in Nigeria that will be on the market in the near future

3.2.4.1 Field Testing

In 2001, the GON adopted the National Biosafety Guidelines. The guidelines have a provision for field-testing bio-engineered crops. The National Biosafety Committee has granted approval to the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike and Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), Zaria to carry out Confined Field Trials on transgenic cassava and cowpea, respectively.

3.2.5 Biosafety Frameworks in Nigeria

Nigeria’s draft biosafety bill was finally presented to the National Assembly (Congress) as a private bill for consideration and passage into law. Efforts to put in place a regulatory framework for the practice of biotechnology have been in the works since the 1990s, with the Federal Ministry of Environment providing the lead. Although the Government of Nigeria (GON) signed and ratified the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in 1991 as a mark of interest in the technology, very little was done to create the needed regulatory environment. The process leading to the presentation of the bill has been extremely slow. The enactment of


biosafety laws in South Africa, Mali, Burkina Faso and Kenya bolstered Nigeria’s interest to move the process forward.

3.2.5.1 Current Status Of The Biosafety Bill

The Biosafety bill has gone through the first and second readings at the House of Representatives. In May 2009, a study tour trip was organized by USAID Reforms Project to Philippines GM crop farms for member of the House Committees on Agriculture, Environment and Science and Technology. The goal of this trip was to have a practical experience on GMOs and how they are being regulated as well as the legislation procedure. This trip was very successful.

Major stakeholders in the country have urged Congress to expedite action on the bill in order for the country to benefit from the technology. When passed into law, it will provide the necessary regulatory framework for the practice of biotechnology. At the first reading of the bill held recently, Hon. Gbenga Makanjuola, Chairman House Committee on Agriculture noted that “the potentials of biotechnology are immense, as it can enhance food security, wealth creation and environmental sustainability”. He further said that “the vision of Nigeria’s biosafety is to ensure that the practice of modern biotechnology is undertaken within the scope of a regulatory system that will guarantee its safe application, protect Nigeria’s biodiversity and minimize or eliminate.


4CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 CROP BIOTECH APPLICATIONS SOUTHERN AFRICA REGION

4.1 STATUS OF CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY IN REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

4.1.1 Background of Biotechnology

In 1994 and 1995, the Agricultural Research Council’s fruit research institute, Infruitec, developed and field tested strawberries resistant to the herbicide Ignite. The results were extremely good, but the project was shelved because it was too expensive for the company involved to license Ignite for use on strawberries in South Africa.

Scientists in the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology at the University of Cape Town are working on maize resistant to the African endemic Maize streak virus and tolerant of drought and other abiotic stresses. They are also investigating the use of transgenic tobacco to produce vaccines against HIV and human papilloma virus—the largest cause of cervical cancer in African women.

Because MSV is a DNA virus, expressing the viral coat protein (which has resulted in excellent resistance to RNA viruses) is not appropriate. We have used a multiply mutated, truncated version of the gene encoding the replication-associated protein. Laboratory trials have shown excellent levels of resistance. We are in partnership with a South African seed company to test the plants in greenhouses and embark on a breeding program to cross the transgenic lines into commercially viable varieties.

The source of the genes for abiotic stress resistance is the endemic South African


resurrection plant, Xerophyta viscosa;. Our first transgenic lines of Arabidopsis and tobacco, carrying a membrane protein are showing good resistance to osmotic stress, heat, and salinity. Transgenic maize plants are currently being tested in the laboratory; we will then embark on a breeding program with scientists at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. A South African seed company has expressed interest in becoming a partner in this project. Another group at the University of Cape Town is introducing genes into tobacco for the production of vaccines against the South African HIV subgroup and papilloma virus, the biggest cause of cervical cancer among women in Africa.

The South African Sugar Experiment Station has had considerable success in developing sugarcane resistant to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium (‘Buster’). It showed phenotypic stability through five ratoons in field trials.

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research has genetically engineered maize with a gene isolated from beans to develop resistance to the most serious fungal pathogen, Stenocarpella maydis. Field trials are currently underway. In collaboration with overseas partners, the researchers have introduced four antifungal genes into maize to confer resistance to Fusarium moniliforme. In addition, pearl millet has been engineered with a ß-1,3-glucanase gene isolated from the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma harzianum to render the crop resistant to Sclerospora graminicola, which causes downy mildew.

South Africa has a GMO Act and a set of regulations passed by parliament that are the basis for the monitoring of imports, trials, and commercialization by the National Department of Agriculture. Thus, regulatory issues are not a constraint to the development of genetically modified (GM) crops in South Africa

4.1.2 Biotech Overview

Currently the only commercially grown GM crops in South Africa are maize, cotton (containing either Bt or Round Up Ready herbicide tolerance, as well as the two traits stacked together); and soyabean (herbicide tolerance only). GM maize was approved in 1998 and GM cotton and soyabean in 2001. In 2007, 2.8 million ha of GM maize were planted; 180 000 ha of soyabeans, and 10 000 ha of cotton. Currently research is going into the following: Bt potato: Risk assessment and field trials were carried out by the Agricultural Research

Council (ARC); however, commercial release was turned down in 2009;

Cassava resistant to cassava mosaic virus (research done by Donald Danforth Centre in the USA, as well as at Wits University, SA). Research has also gone into modifying the starch content of cassava;


Ground nut resistant to GRAV (Groundnut rosette assistor virus);

Ornithogalum resistant to OMV (Ornithogalum mosaic virus);

Grapevine resistant to GLRaV (Grapevine leafroll-associated virus - conducted at Stellenbosch University). Also field trials to test transgenic grapevine containing the GUS marker gene were approved in 2009.

Sorghum with improved nutrition content (“super-sorghum”) - project headed by the Council for Industrial and Scientific Research (CSIR);

Maize tolerant to drought (developed by Monsanto - field trials are currently taking place in SA). Drought-tolerant maize is also being researched at University of Cape Town;

Maize tolerant to Maize streak virus (University of Cape Town and Pannar Seed, Greytown, Natal) - this is close to field trial stage;

Sugarcane resistant to sugarcane mosaic virus (SA Sugarcane Research Institute - SASRI). Field trials were conducted but commercialisation was deferred.

4.1.3 Overview of Agricultural Biotechnology Frameworks South Africa

The South African government ran an interim biosafety assessment and decision-making process from 1990 to 1999 that led to the establishment of the GMO Act (Act No. 15 of 1997).

Controlled field trials with GMOs began in 1990 and resulted in the 1997 issuance of the first conditional commercial release permit by the National Department of Agriculture.

The first GM crop tested was Bt cotton in 1990. Approval for commercial release was only given in 1997.

Adoption was very rapid after full assessments had been carried out. The national cotton crop in 2007 is over 90% GM. Over 90% of small scale farmers grow GM cotton.

GM maize was approved for commercial release in 1998 and the first application comprised some six yellow maize hybrids.

GM soybeans were approved in 2000 and some 5% of the 2001/2002 crops was GM. The 2007 crop is about 80% GM.


The first double trait GM crop, GM cotton with bollworm resistance and herbicide tolerance, was approved for commercial release in 2005. The second stacked trait, GM maize with stem borer resistance and herbicide tolerance, was approved in February 2007.

Permission for field trials with drought-tolerant maize was granted in February 2007.

The South African GMO Act was amended in 2006 and promulgated in 2007. There were two important amendments relative to biotech/GM crops. Firstly a change in the composition of the statutory decision making body, GMO Executive council, increased from six representative governments departments to eight, with Water Affairs and Forestry and Arts and Culture as the two new members. Secondly, the amended Act specifies that the ten person scientific advisory committee must include one person with expertise in human health and pharmaceuticals, and one person with ecological expertise.

Other amendments covered improved definitions and insertions to ensure compliance with the Biosafety Protocol. The GMO Amendment Bill amending the 1997 Act on GMOs has sparked a wide reaction from the South African Public and Stakeholders.

South Africa developed into the 8th largest producer of biotech crops in the world (Clive James, 2009) and remains the pioneer and a role model for the adoption of biotechnology by the rest of Africa. The commercial hectares totals for all the commercially available transgenic crops in South Africa grew from an estimated 197 000 ha in 2001 to 1 813 000 ha in 20081.

Biotech maize, cotton and soybean are grown in South Africa and their area has increased every single year since the first plantings in 1998.

2Brookes,G.& Barfoot, P. 2009. GM crops: global socio-economic and environmental impacts 1996-2007 PG Economics Ltd., Dorchester, U.K.


South Africa is estimated to have enhanced farm income from biotech maize, soybean and cotton by US$ 383 million in the period between 1998 and 2007 with benefits for 2007 alone estimated at US$227 million22

Figure 4.1: Adoption of GM crops in South Africa1

4.1.4 GMO activities approved under the GMO Act. 1997.

Type of approval: General release – conditional

Use of the event: Importation/exportation

Commercial planting

Food and/or feed

3 Brookes,G.& Barfoot, P. 2009. GM crops: global socio-economic and environmental impacts 1996-2007 PG Economics Ltd., Dorchester, U.K.


Table 4.1: Examples of GM crops approved for cultivation in South Africa

Event Crop Trait Company Y e a r approved

Yieldgard RR Maize Insect resistant Herbicide tolerant Monsanto 2007

RR Flex Cotton Herbicide tolerant Monsanto 2007

Bollgard RR CottonInsect resistantHerbicide tolerant Monsanto 2005

Bollgard II, line 15985 Cotton Insect resistant Monsanto 2003

Bt11 Maize Insect resistant Syngenta 2003

NK603 Maize Herbicide tolerant Monsanto 2002

GTS40-3-2 Soybean Herbicide tolerant Monsanto 2001

RR lines 1445 & 1698 Cotton Herbicide tolerant Monsanto 2000

Line 531 / Bollgard Cotton Insect resistant Monsanto 1997

MON810 / Yieldgard Maize Insect resistant Monsanto 1997

Type of approval: Commodity clearance (Excludes events that have obtained general release clearance before commodity clearance)

Use of the event: Importation for use as food or feed


Table 4.2: Examples of commodities approved for importation into South Africa

Event Crop Trait Company Year approved

MON810 x NK603 Maize Insect resistantHerbicide tolerant Monsanto 2004

MON810 x GA21 Maize Insect resistantHerbicide tolerant Monsanto 2003

TC1507 Maize Insect resistantHerbicide tolerant Pioneer Hi-Bred 2002

NK603 Maize Herbicide tolerant Monsanto 2002

GA21 Maize Herbicide tolerant Monsanto 2002

Bt11 Maize Insect resistant Syngenta 2002

T25 Maize Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo 2001

Bt176 Maize Insect resistant Syngenta 2001Topas 19/2, Ms1Rf1, Ms1Rf2, Ms8Rf3

O i l s e e d rape Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo 2001

A2704-12 Soybean Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo 2001

Type of approval: Trial Release

Use of the event: Field trials/ Contained use

Table 4.3: Examples of commodities approved for Trial Release/contained use in South Africa

Event Crop Trait Company Year approved

MON MaizeA biotic Stress(drought tolerance)

Monsanto 2007

TMS60444 Cassava Starch enhanced ARC-IIC 2007

G2 Spunta Potato Insect resistant ARC-OVI 2007


4.1.5 South African Biotechnology Regulations

4.1.5.1TheGeneticallyModifiedOrganismsAct,1997

The GMO Act, 1997 (Act No. 15 of 1997) was implemented on 1st December 1999, making provision for the biosafety assessments of GMOs.The objectives of the Act are to provide safety measures for human and animal as well as protect the environment and establish acceptable standards for risk assessment for the application of biotechnology in South Africa.

4.1.5.2 South African Labeling Legislation

The new South African labeling Legislation came into effect on the 16th of January 2004. This is to guide the labeling of a foodstuff significantly different in respect of the composition, nutritional value, and mode of storage, preparation or cooking, allergenicity or containing genes of human or animal origin. The full labeling legislation can be found on the South African Department of Health website, at: www.doh.gov.za. The new Consumer Protection Act however has a labeling clause in it, which requires that all products containing GMOs be labeled.

4.1.5.3 Biosafety Protocol

South Africa has signed and ratified the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB).The national focal point is the Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism(DEAT) while the Competent Authority and government agency with responsibility for implementing the CPB is the DoA. CPB implementation is meant to be gradual, and accordingly DoA’s implementation strategy will be in phases, with the most significant issues being handled first. South Africa, under the leadership of DoA’s GMO Regulatory Office, has modified the GMO Act to comply with the CPB.

4.1.5.4 National Biodiversity Act

The National Biodiversity Act, which gives significant powers to the Minister of Environmental Affairs & Tourism (DEAT) on biosafety issues. There are two acts that have a direct bearing on GM crops. They are:

The National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998) which provides for cooperative environmental governance by establishing principles for decision making on matters affecting the environment, institutions that will promote cooperative governance and procedures for coordinating environmental functions


exercised by organs of state; and to provide for matters connected therewith.

The National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No. 10 of 2004) This Act provides for the management and conservation of South Africa’s biodiversity within the framework of the National Environmental Management Act, 1998; the protection of species and ecosystems that warrant national protection; the sustainable use of indigenous biological resources; the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from bioprospecting involving indigenous biological resources; the establishment and functions of a South African National Biodiversity Institute; and for matters connected therewith.

4.1.5.5 Other Legislation

Other legislation relevant to biotechnology in South Africa includes the Patents Act of 1978 (Act No. 57 of 1978) and two amendments bills passed in 1997, the Counterfeit Goods Bill of 1997 (Act No. 37 of 1997) and the Intellectual Property Laws Amendment bill of 1947 (Act No. 36 of 1947) governing agricultural products; Plant Breeders’ Rights, 1976 (Act No. 15 of 1976); the Medicines Control Act, 1965 (Act No. 101 of 1965) and the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act, 1972 (Act No. 54 of 1972). In addition to the above legislation, South Africa has signed bilateral agreements with at least 12 countries that include co-operation on biotechnology.

4.1.6 National Biotechnology Strategy for South Africa

This national strategy, implemented in 2003, was designed to stimulate the growth of biotechnology innovation in South Africa. The strategy will go a long way toward removing the uncertainties that have existed in South Africa, and which have delayed local and foreign investment in biotechnology. The strategy identifies the need to develop at least three Biotechnology Regional Innovation Centers (BRICs) to facilitate commercialization and develop biotechnology companies in South Africa.


4.2 CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN ZAMBIA

4.2.1 INTRODUCTION

The eradication of poverty and hunger in the developing countries represent a major challenge to national governments. The ethical imperative of eliminating hunger and starvation is, or rather, should be the pre occupation of every government worth its salt in developing countries. It has been recognized in most developing countries that agriculture is the main employer of the people. Hence Increasing food security and alleviating poverty is dependent on agricultural productivity and the discerning application of science and technology.

Biotechnology has potential of playing a very important role in increasing food production and thereby reducing poverty in the developing countries. When used in conjunction with other with other agricultural research, it has the potential to help enhance agricultural productivity in developing countries in a way that further reduces poverty, improves food security and nutrition, and promotes sustainable use of natural resources. It has the potential for reducing input use, reduce risk to biotic and abiotic stress, increase yields and enhance quality – all traits which should enable the development of new crop varieties that are appropriate to resource-poor producers and consumers. However, modern biotechnology is not a panacea for achieving food security, it has to be used in conjunction with other agricultural research in a holistic manner if its contributions to solutions to the problems facing small scale farmers in developing countries are to benefit both farmers and consumers.

Zambia has received adverse international coverage with regards to the country’s stand on biotechnology. We have been portrayed as being an anti biotechnology country. Which arose from the country declining to receive Bt. Maize from the United States of America in 2004, following a serious drought of the 2003-2004 growing season. Admittedly the refusal by our politicians to allow Bt. Maize in the country was preceded by a lot of negative public opinion of the Genetically Modified maize and the whole science of Biotechnology. It was as a result of people’s concerns about the risks of Genetically Modified Foods that the government decided not to receive this Bt maize donation from the U. S. A. The concerns were largely not based on scientific facts, but nevertheless, they were genuine concerns which the government had to listen to. Despite the appearance of being anti Biotechnology, Zambia has in fact embraced this science and has developed a comprehensive Biotechnology Policy and Biosafety framework that articulates how the country will benefit from the science of Biotechnology.

4.2.2 Biotechnology Policy And Biosafety Framework

A Biotechnology Policy has already been developed and has already been ratified by


Parliament. The irony of the whole issue is that it took the Bt. .Maize food aid to act as a catalyst on the debate about the whole issue of Biotechnology which fortunately ended in the country developing a very comprehensive policy which was based on wide consultations with many stakeholders. The Policy specifies strategies for Human Resources Capacity Building and Institutional Capacity building.

A draft Biosafety Legal frame work has been developed and is being studied by the Government. This is expected to be ratified by Government this year. Also a draft proposal on Plant Breeders Rights has been developed and is being studied by Government.

4.2.3 The Status Of Biotechnology Research In Zambia.

4.2.3.1 Tissue Culture and Micro Propagation.

There has been very little application of biotechnology in crop improvement in Zambia. A Plant Breeding survey done for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations showed that application of biotechnology in crop improvement was virtually non-existent in Zambia. However the University of Zambia has had a tissue culture Laboratory since 1990 for graduate teaching and research. The institution has done some micro propagation of potatoes and bananas and there have been M.Sc. students who have doe their thesis research topics in tissue culture. Since 2004 the University has been involved in a collaborative research project with the National Institute for Industrial and Scientific Research (NISIR) on invitro mutagenesis of cassava.

The project involved raising cassava plantlets invitro, subjecting them to gamma irradiation and sub culturing them to M1V6 for the purpose of dissociating chimerism. The M1V6 plants were then planted in the field for field evaluation and selection of desirable mutants in the field. Currently there are 4000 M1V6 cassava plants under field evaluation from this project. This was an IAEA supported research Project which ended in 2005. Hence with regards to basic biotechnology research, that is, tissue culture and micro propagation, we can say that there has been some research work in that area.

The Tree Improvement Centre of NISIR has also been involved in tissue culture research work since the late 1980’s. This work involved invitro propagation of a tree plant Uaparca kirkiana whose fruits can be used to make very good wine. The research work which was supported by the IAEA involved irradiation of Uaparca kirkiana plantlets raised invitro and subculturing them to dissociate chimeras and hopefully select desirable mutants. The objective was to develop dwarf high yielding and early maturing trees of this plant species. However after this project run for some time, it was discontinued and no desirable mutants of Uarpaca kirkiana were developed.


4.2.3.2 Molecular Marker Breeding Selection

There is no private seed company or a public institution involved in plant breeding that is using Marker Assisted Plant Breeding in Zambia. The desire to use these tools in crop improvement is there but there will be need to train young scientists at both M.Sc. and Ph.D levels in both Conventional Plant Breeding and Marker Assisted Plant Breeding. The teachable older conventional plant breeders would need retooling in these Plant Breeding techniques.

4.2.3.3 Genetic Engineering/Transformation

There is no institution currently doing any research work in this aspect of biotechnology.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Detection Laboratory

A new laboratory has been set up with the help of the Norwegian government for detecting the genetic modification in GMO and foods. This laboratory which will be under NISIR has not yet been commissioned. The process of human resource capacity building to run the laboratory has been effected. It is our hope that this laboratory will do more than just detecting genetic modification in GMO and GMO products but that it will be the focal point for Agricultural Plant Biotechnology Research in Zambia.


4.3 CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN ZIMBABWE

4.3.1 Introduction

Crop production is a major source of employment, food, farm income and foreign exchange earnings in Zimbabwe. The main crops that are grown include maize, wheat, rice, sorghum, field beans, soyabeans, cowpea, cotton, tobacco, finger and pearl millets. Increased crop productivity is constrained by a number of environmental, political and socio-economic constraints such as persistent droughts, a high incidence of pests and diseases, inadequate investment in agricultural services, poor soil fertility, low input use, low plant populations, late planting, poor weeding and labour bottlenecks. Plant biotechnology can therefore be expected to make significant contributions towards increased crop productivity, stability and sustainability of production systems. Other than being considered as a panacea for crop production constraints being faced, biotechnology should only be expected to complement other efforts being done through conventional technologies.

The basic tools and technologies that are discussed in this chapter include the use of tissue culture to rapidly propagate disease-free seedling plants, use of DNA-based genetic markers that allow breeders to follow and select for important traits more easily, recombinant antigens used in diagnostics, use of microbial products and processes, and crop breeding. The regulatory policy issues relating to research, testing, release and importation of genetically modified (GM) crops and products into Zimbabwe has also been reviewed.

4.3.2 Status of Research and use of crop biotechnology in Zimbabwe

A number of institutions are involved in crop biotechnology research and application in Zimbabwe (Table 4.3). These institutions include universities, government research institutions, parastatal (state-funded), and private organizations (Sithole-Niang, 2001). As a result, numerous technologies are already being transferred to end-users, thus contributing to economic and social development.

4.3.3 Government institutions

4.3.3.1 The Biotechnology Research Institute (BRI)

The biotechnology research institute (BRI) is one of the 10 institutes of the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC). The BRI is using marker-assisted selection (MAS) to develop maize varieties that are drought tolerant and resistant to pests. As an initial step, quantitative trait loci (QTL) underlying drought tolerance and insect


resistance were identified in the local population that was used. Superior quality inbreds that are drought tolerant and are resistant to stalk borer attack were then developed using MAS. Hybrids resulting from crossing these parent lines are undergoing multilocational trials in the country. This project was initially funded by the DGIS, the Dutch Ministry of foreign affairs, through the Biotechnology trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ), and was done in collaboration with CIMMYT (Mexico) and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). The mushroom project aims at developing, producing and selling high quality oyster, button and chanterelle spawn as a commercial activity. Additionally, they also do virus cleaning of sweet potato vines.

Table 4.4: The status of research and use of crop biotechnology activities in Zimbabwe

Technology Target crop and Traits Instutues and Linkages1 Stage of development2

Tissue culture Sweet potatoIrish potato, strawberry, sweet potato & roses, hops

Anther culture, cleaning & multiplication, maternal haploids

Sweet potato, cassava, coffee Clonal propagation of trees

BRI/TRB/HRIBluedale EnterprisesDelta beverages

TRB

UZ Crop Science

Forestry Commission

DeployedDeployed

Deployed

R/application

R/applicationR/application

Diagnostics (ELISA, PCR, dsRNA)

Tobacco, Various crops

Bean, Tamato, Maize

Identification of athropod pests

TRB, BRI

UZ Crop Sc

AREX/PPRI

Routine

Biological Nitrogen FixationUse of inoculants

Legumes UZ Soil Sc./ BTZ/ AREX/HRI

Routine

Biological control Water hyacinth AREX/PPRI routine

Mutation Breeding (irradiation by gamma rays)

Bambara groundnut, Cowpea, Groundnut, Beans, Soybean, Sunflower

AREX/CBI/IAEA Development


Molecular markersRAPDs & SSRs

RAPDs, PCR-RFLPs & SSRs

RFLPs & PCRIsozyme & seed protein analysis

Maize drought and insect tolerance -MAS

Maize, sorghum, Pearl/finger millet – Gene tagging and diversity studies

Maize, barley, sorghum, wheat, groundnuts, Tobacco, Maize, Cultivar identification, Gene tagging, diversity studies

BRI/AREX/CIMMYT

UZ Crop Sc., CIMMYT/Texas A&M, AREX/John Innes Centre

UZBCH

TRB

M/locational trials

R/application

R/application

R/application

Gene isolation SPFMV CP geneCowpea psab ACowpea galactinol synthase (gol S)Bovine-specific microsatelliteSorghum mybDihydroflavanol reductase (dfr)CABMV viral genome

Snowdrop lectin

UZ Crop Sci/WAUUZBCH/CNRSUZBCHUZBCH

UZBCHUZBCHUZBCH

UZBCH/WAU/Wisc/INRAUZ Crop Sc

All isolated

Development

Sequencing Cowpea psb A geneCowpea galactinol synthase sub-fragmentEntire CABMV genomeSorghum myb Sorghum dfrP. rotandifolius lectin

UZBCHUZBCHUZBCHUZBCH/WAUUZBCHUZBCHUZBCH

All sequenced

Genetic transformation

Bt maizeBt tomatoSPFMV-CP S/potatoTobacco, CABMV-CP geneTobacco, tentoxin

BRIBRIUZ Crop ScienceUZBCH

TRB

DevelopmentDevelopment DevelopmentGreenhouse

Field tested

BRI=Biotechnology Research Institute; TRB=Tobacco Research Board; HRI=Horticultural Research Institute; UZ=University of Zimbabwe; AREX=Agricultural Research and Extension; PPRI=Plant Protection Research Institute; BTZ=Biotechnology Trust of Zimabwe; IAEA=International Atomic Energy Agency; BCH=Biochemistry; WAU=; WISC=Wisconsin; INRA= Source: Sithole-Niang, Mujaji and Chikosi, 2004.


4.3.3.2 Agricultural Research and Extension (AREX)

The Crop Breeding Institute (CBI) has embarked on mutation breeding projects, funded by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The major objective is development of drought tolerant cowpea, bambara groundnut, groundnut, field bean, soybean and sunflower. Each crop also has other characters for which genetic variability is being sought, such as rust-resistance in soybean, and high oil content in sunflower. Natural hybridization of crops such as bambara groundnut and groundnut is also difficult. Mutation techniques will therefore provide an effective way of creating new recombinants. The crops are sent for radiation using gamma rays at NECSA, Isotope Centre in South Africa. The resulting mutation generations are then screened for the desired traits under appropriate conditions

The CBI is also conducting field trials of New Rice for Africa (NERICA). Zimbabwe is therefore on the verge of benefiting from the use of embryo rescue and anther culture that was done by breeders from the West African Rice Development Association (WARDA), in Benin. After crossing Oryza sativa (Asian rice) with Oryza glaberima (African rice) that are incompatible, these two techniques were needed to come up with NERICA. Trials of NERICAs 1-7 are being done to determine appropriate planting date, adaptation, yield, tolerance to diseases etc. Seed of NERICAS 8-17 is already in the country, and the seed is being multiplied prior to field-testing. This work is being done in collaboration with the co-ordinator for NERICA production for Eastern and Southern Africa, through the Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) offices in Harare.

4.3.3.3 Universities

There is modest scientific capacity at the University of Zimbabwe and at the National University of Science and Technology (NUST). There is capacity for tissue culture, molecular marker applications and for genetic engineering.

4.3.3.3.1 Department of Biochemistry

Projects underway involve application of markers for various purposes, gene isolation, sequencing and transformation (Table 4.3). The Departments of Biochemistry, Biological Sciences and Crop Science are jointly offering a Master of Science in Biotechnology Degree Programme. It is seen as one way of building human resource capacity in biotechnology. Teaching and research covers the major biotechnology areas such as molecular biology/rDNA technology, enzymology and fermentation, tissue culture and immunology. This is a new phase that only started with local funding in 2005. Previously, this programme was well endowed with funding from both Swedish and Dutch donors (1991-92, then fully Dutch funded (1993-2002).


4.3.3.3.2 Department of Crop Science

Research is being done to introduce mealybug resistance in cassava using the snowdrop lectin gene. There is potential for the gene to be useful in a lot of crops such as cotton, maize, potato etc as it might confer resistance against sap-sucking pests. Regeneration protocols for some of the most important crops in Zimbabwe have also been developed in the Tissue Culture laboratory. This includes relish crops such as covo, rugare and choumolia; potato varieties amethyst and BP1; several varieties of local maize inbred lines and sorghum varieties. Having such protocols, the only limitation is acquiring genes and the permission to use them for transformation. Under the present circumstances, possibilities for utilizing these genes include: (i) using out of patent genes, (ii) extract own Bt genes from soil bacteria and (iii) to get permission to use Monsanto’s Bt genes.

Research on virus elimination of other crops such as garlic, ginger and yams is on-going. In another project on sorghum, work was initiated to identify molecular markers that are linked to witchweed (Striga asiatica) resistance, for eventual use in MAS (Mutengwa, 2004). Related to this, the occurrence of inter-specific and intra-specific strains of S. asiatica was investigated (Musimwa et al., 2001). The genetic diversity of 52 sorghum and 47 pearl millet landraces from two districts of Zimbabwe (Nyanga North and Tsolotsho) were studied using isozyme and microsatellite techniques (Chakauya, 2002). Breeders continue to be trained through an MSc Degree programme on Plant Breeding and Agronomy. The training includes a section on Crop breeding biotechnology. Master of philosophy (MPhil) students are also trained in collaboration with other institutes such as CIMMYT, TRB, AREX and private seed companies.

4.3.3.3.3 Department of Biological Sciences

The Biological Sciences Department is carrying out a Mushroom Project that was initially supported by the BTZ (Table 4.4). The objective is to improve the nutritional base and income of resource poor farmers through the cultivation and sale of a tropical mushroom, Pleurotus sajor-caju, initially covering Buhera and Wedza districts. A “Mushroom House” that can function as a mushroom cultivation facility under SH farmers’ conditions was designed and constructed as a Model. A total of 12 such mushroom houses were constructed, and 20 other houses were constructed by independent groups of farmers who adopted the technology (Mnyulwa, 2002). The project has since grown to a national scale assisting in creating employment, and in developing awareness and the need to recycle agricultural waste materials and by-products.

Efforts have been made to ensure sustainability of mushroom production after Donor withdrawal. For instance, a practical guide to mushroom production (in both English and Shona languages) has been produced. A production manual for spawn production was also produced (Kashangura et al., 2005), in addition to the training of extension personnel in mushroom production. One of the limiting factors to mushroom production is insufficient


quantity of spawn on the market (Chinyemba, et al., 2003).

The two major laboratories that are producing most of the spawn in Zimbabwe are in the Biological Sciences Department and the BRI. They are unable to meet the demand. In addition, they are too far from some of the farmers who are willing to cultivate mushrooms. As a result, the majority of mushroom production for export is within a 40 km radius outside Harare. Farmers in remote areas are mostly producing for the local market. A centralized and specialized Mushroom Spawn Laboratory is needed. It will have outlets in various districts for effective marketing and distribution of this essential seed material.

Ongoing research is on improving existing techniques, optimizing growth conditions, investigating the effects of environmental factors on growth and fruiting (Kashangura, et al., 2006), low-cost spawn production techniques (Kashangura, 2004), low-cost media formulation for culturing Pleurotus species, substrate optimization for the Pleurotus species and genetic characterization of the Pleurotus strains by sequencing of Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) rDNA Polymerase Chain Reaction amplicons.

4.3.3.3.4 Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering

The Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering has made tremendous efforts in increasing utilisation of the Rhizobium inoculant and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) technologies in Zimbabwe (Table 4.4). The project focused on integrating legumes into the predominantly maize-based cropping systems. Farmers and extension personnel were trained in production, utilisation and marketing of legumes. The project resulted in farmers diversifying their sources of food and income, contributing to a general improvement in livelihoods (Mnyulwa, 2002). From an initial number of 100 farmers who were growing soyabean during the 1997/98 season in Hwedza and Buhera districts, the number had grown to above 3000 by the 2001/2002 rainy season (Chinyemba et al., 2003). This represented a very high level, 3000 %, of adoption of this technology.

Parallel to these efforts, numerous studies were conducted in this Department, and technology transfer activities were implemented outside Wedza and Buhera districts. To efficiently do this, a ‘Soyaben Task Force’ was formed in 1996. Extension activities involved promotion of promiscuously nodulating soyabean varieties. Promiscuous soyabean varieties are those that nodulate with a wide diversity of rhizobial strains (Mpepereki, et al., 2000). Studies that were initiated over the years in the Department of Soil Science investigated on issues to do with specificity and promiscuity in the legume/rhizobial symbiosis, rhizobial ecology.

These studies continue in order to understand the bacteria on one hand, and the host legumes on the other. Examples of some of the studies include the characterization of Rhizobia nodulating promiscuous soyabean in Zimbabwean soils’ (Musiyiwa, 2000), and determining the fate and impact of pesticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis sub-species in selected tropical soils (Muchaonerwa, 2002). The genetic diversity of these promiscuous soyabean


varieties was also studied using morphological and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers (Makanda, 2004). The Rockefeller Foundation funded this part of the work.

4.3.3.3.5 National University of Science and Technology (NUST)

Isozymes markers are being used to study gene flow between wild genotypes and commercial varieties of sorghum in the Department of Applied Biology at NUST, in Bulawayo. This research is being done to provide foresight in the event that a genetically modified (GM) sorghum is developed and released. What is of concern in this case is that the Centre of origin of sorghum is on this continent in East Africa. It is therefore important to know how the genetic diversity of sorghum is likely to be affected. This research team is currently looking for GM sorghum so that they can begin to trace the movement of the actual transgene between different populations. Results obtained in sorghum should be easily transferable to cotton, which is also self-pollinating. It is our opinion, however, that these studies should also be initiated using the local germplasm of Cotton.

4.3.4 Private sector and other donor organizations.

4.3.4.1 The Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ)

The BTZ is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that is funded by the government of the Netherlands. Its mission is to promote and facilitate the development and application of applied biotechnology with the full participation of the end-users in order to improve their livelihoods. They are funded a number of research projects that were implemented together with smallholder (SH) farmers in the Buhera and Hwedza districts. These districts cut across four of the six agro-ecological regions of Zimbabwe, namely regions IIb, III, IV and V over a relatively short distance. These are the natural regions where the majority of SH farmers reside. Project intervention has a mandatory involvement of the end-user in problem identification, priority setting and in making the decision on areas needing investigation within each crop. This ‘interactive bottom-up approach’ is meant to ensure maximum technology adoption and impact in each of the chosen areas.

The projects that the organization supported are scattered in both public and private sector organizations. Donor support of these projects ceased and they are now in sustainability phases in which farmers are deriving benefit from adopting the research results and demonstrations. The projects are listed in Table 4.5: Some of these projects are explained in different sections of this report.


Table 4.5: Biotechnology Trust of Zimbabwe (BTZ) Supported Projects

Commodity CollaboratingInstitutes

Project Title

Maize BRI & AREX Use of marker-assisted selection for the development off drought tolerant & insect resistant maize

Sweet potato BRI & TRB, & HRI

Provision of disease-free sweet potato vines

Mushroom Biosciences, UZ & BRI

Mushroom cultivation & spawn production

Indigenous tree & grain legumes

AU, GRI Silage fermentation & forage production

Students & staff UZ Biosciences, Crop Science & Biochemistry

MSc Biotechnology Programme

S & E Africa Region BTZ Biosafety

General Public BAZ Public awareness

Food, Feed, Grain, field crops, vegetables, fruits etc

RAEIN- Africa, TRB

Investigating the spread of GMOs in Southern Africa

Source: Adapted from Sithole-Niang et al., 2004.

In a collaborative project involving the HRI, TRB and BRI, nurseries of Pathogen-• free sweet potato planting stocks were initiated in Buhera and Wedza. They are being used for multiplication and distribution of planting material produced through tissue culture. These nurseries are operational, and the BTZ assists farmers when they run out of virus free planting material. In addition to supplying their farmers with planting materials, the BTZ is also producing and selling virus free sweet potato planting materials as a way of raising funds for the organization.

Public Awareness activities on biotechnology• . The BTZ participates actively in initiatives to raise public awareness of biotechnology and related issues. Through organizing workshops, debates discussions, etc, they have repeatedly proved their expertise and capacity to appropriately package and disseminate biotechnology information for diverse audiences. The Biotechnology Association of Zimbabwe


(BAZ) is a brainchild of the BTZ, and was formed in May 2000. Its mandate is to disseminate objective information about biotechnology so that people can make informed decisions about the technology and its products.

Regional initiative.• The Regional Agricultural Environmental initiatives Network-Africa (RAEIN-Africa) is directly funding a project that BTZ is implementing together with the TRB. This project is aimed at studying the spread of GMOs in Southern Africa. Targeted countries include Malawi, Zambia, Namibia and Zimbabwe. They are to test food/feed samples, grain samples from various places etc, for the presence of GMOs.

4.3.4.2 The Tobacco Research Board (TRB)

A number of research projects are in progress at the TRB. They include fingerprinting of tobacco cultivars u sing microsatellite markers for variety identification. Research to identify molecular markers that are linked to the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and angular leaf spot is in progress. This work is being done in collaboration with the University of Zimbabwe. Marker-assisted tobacco breeding will then be done using the linked markers. The 11 known Fusarium species are being identified and differentiated using universally primed PCR (UP-PCR) and taxon-selective amplification of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions. Molecular marker methods are also being used to identify and characterize Rhizoctonia solani isolates. Different molecular marker methods will be compared to determine their efficiency.

The department also offers commercial services from the application of various biotechnology tools. Among them is screening of tobacco, food and feed, and other plant and animal products for genetic modification. A PCR based diagnostic technique is used in this case. Disease-free planting materials of different crops such as Irish potatoes, flowers and sweet potatoes are produced through micropropagation. The demand for these disease-free planting materials is high, and the TRB is not being able to satisfy the market demands. Virus indexing is also being done using double stranded RNA (dsRNA) analysis and ELISA. While all tobacco materials are indexed for free, farmers are charged for any other samples.

4.3.4.3 Agri-biotech

Agri-biotech is private company that is working in collaboration with the Department of Crop Science, University of Zimbabwe. The research that brings refinement to the technologies Agribiotech transfers to farmers is done in the Crop Science Department. After being approached by farmers who were having problems of supply and pricing of Irish potato seeds, Agri-biotech started producing virus free Irish potatoes in 1994. After this worked well, virus elimination was extended to sweet potatoes in 1996, and then cassava in 1998. It was demonstrated in trials that locally sourced and uncleaned planting materials


of both cassava and sweet potatoes were giving yields of between 1-6t/ha. However, yields dramatically increased to between 25-40 t/ha for sweet potatoes, and from between 20-40 t/ha for cassava.

Average yield for any area is dependent on yield potential and management levels of the smallholder farmers. Forty tonnes per hectare of tubers equates to about 13 t/ha of carbohydrates, since the rest is water. Maize is therefore far out yielded, especially when looking at a yield of between 1-1,5 t/ha that is obtaining for maize in marginal rainfall areas of Zimbabwe. Micropropagation of cassava and sweet potatoes can therefore result in massive yield increases and this should improve food security in Zimbabwe.

There has been a transformation in the perception of cassava and sweet potatoes by most Zimbabweans. Cassava was regarded as a poor man’s crop, while sweet potato regarded a women’s crop. However, the perception is fast changing. With the help of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as CARE, Swedish Cooperative Centre, Save the Children, International Development Enterprise (IDE) and Help Germany. Agri-biotech has been able to reach out to about 20 000 smallholder (SH) sweet potato farmers in various parts of the country. The sweet potatoes are marketed as ‘born again’ sweet potatoes, to distinguish them as virus cleaned materials. They are establishing nurseries in most parts of the country. Disease-free planting materials are then distributed from nurseries into the community.

Farmers and extension workers have been trained in nursery management and in processing and utilization of tubers and leaves into simple and nutritious home-made products such as jam, bread, juice, bread, flour, relish etc. Disease-free planting material has more than tripled yields and is being grown by child headed families, the sick and widows. Agri-biotech is ploughing back into research through sponsoring some BSc, MSc and MPhil student projects at the University of Zimbabwe.

4.3.5 Biotechnology and Biopolicy status

Zimbabwe has a comprehensive national policy on biotechnology. The Ministry of Science and Technology Development and the Biosafety Board jointly developed it. The idea is to provide a conducive environment for the scientifically sound, economically viable, environmentally friendly and socially acceptable application of biotechnology in Zimbabwe. Cabinet approved the policy in August 2005 and the policy document should be officially launched in 2006. The National Biotechnology Policy provides a framework for promoting biotechnology for the country’s development, on the basis of a precautionary principle, guided by various national, sub-regional and international laws and policies. The policy focuses on three priority areas: biotechnology research and development, biotechnology regulation (managing the use of modern biotechnology and products), and biotechnology enterprise development. Related to enterprise development is the promotion of both public understanding of biotechnology, and that of regional and international linkages.


A National Biotechnology Authority will be established through the National Biotechnology Bill of 2005. The Authority’s function shall be to support and manage the import, research, development, production, application and release of all biotechnology techniques, processes and products, ensuring that such activities do not cause adverse effects on human health, the environment, the economy, national security and social norms and values. The Bill also provides for the establishment of the National Biotechnology Fund for the development and promotion of the products of biotechnology. This will provide a fund for R & D, and a tax break will be given and anyone failing to pay it will be liable to a charge. This will be under the Ministry of Science and Technology. Currently, the Biotechnology Bill is being tabled before Parliament and it is envisaged that the Bill will come into effect as an Act of Parliament by 2007.

The establishment of Zimbabwe’s national biosafety framework dates back to the early 1990s. It started with the establishment of bodies such as the Zimbabwe Biotechnology Forum (ZBF), which became ZIMBAC. Extensive consultation with various stakeholders characterized the entire process which culminated in the establishment of the Biosafety Board, in 1998, through an act of Parliament, the Research Amendment Act of 1998. The mandate of the board is to manage the use of modern biotechnology, ensuring that the nation derives maximum benefit from the application of the technology whilst minimising the potential adverse effects on health, environment, trade, national security and general human welfare.

Other supporting pieces of legislation include Statutory Instrument 20/2000; the Biosafety Regulations of 2000, which applies to techniques which are deemed to constitute potentially harmful research or undertakings, that is, GMOs, recombinant DNA, in vitro fertilisation in humans and animals, conjugation, transduction, transformation, polyploid induction; procedures for release of GMOs, and guidelines for import of GMOs. It is important to note a small-scale field trial of Bt maize was approved and done during the 2001/2002 cropping season. This effort (and two others, one on Bt maize and another on Bt cotton) was not continued, however (Keeley and Scoones, 2003).

4.3.6 Crop breeding biotechnology

Genetic improvement is an important approach because of the low-cost alternatives it presents to farmers. This is because the yield enhancing or stabilizing traits will be embodied in the seed. Therefore, breeding has a critical role to play in ensuring household and national food security. The majority of breeding institutions in Zimbabwe have not embraced molecular breeding on a routine basis. Use of MAS to successfully generate insect resistant and drought tolerant maize inbred lines (Mnyulwa, 2002) has already been discussed elsewhere in this report. There is need to increase the use of basic molecular marker applications to expedite breeding processes. This can be done through collaboration, and using the existing human and infrastructural capacity. Molecular fingerprinting should be done for all important food crops in order to improve the management and use of genetic resources. To facilitate


MAS, more effort should be geared towards identification of molecular markers linked to intractable traits such as tolerance to low nitrogen conditions, attack by pests/diseases and resistance to Striga. A constant source of worry, however, is the high rate of turnover of staff within institutions. Related to this is lack of donor funding.

4.3.7 Successes in conventional breeding

Crop breeding in Zimbabwe is either by the public, National Agricultural Research System (NARS), or private sector. Both sectors often have linkages with various institutions belonging to the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), and sometimes advanced laboratories in the developed world. The private sector places more emphasis on cash crops from which they can make huge profits. For example, almost 80 % of the registered maize varieties are from private seed companies (see Table 4.5). Numerous successes have been realized from conventional breeding of all the major and minor crops in Zimbabwe. Table 4.5 shows current plant breeding activities and registered varieties that have resulted from conventional breeding. In addition to CBI/AREX, there are other National research institutes that are doing breeding of various crops. These include the Horticulture Research Institute (HRI), which is working on Vegetables (exotic & indigenous), stone fruits, vines, cassava; Coffee Research Institute (CRI), which is working on Coffee; Lowveld Research Stations that are working on Subtropical fruits, nuts and vegetables.

Successes in maize breeding will be briefly reviewed, as an example. Maize is the staple food crop of the nation, and is also an important cash crop. Maize breeding has a long and distinguished history in Zimbabwe (Mashingaidze, 1994). Breeding was started in 1909 at Harare Research Station, now CBI. The hybrid development program was initiated in 1933 and by 1960, Zimbabwe became the first country in the world to release a single-cross hybrid (SR52). Development of early maturity three-way hybrids was initiated from the 1970s onwards. Three-way hybrids were more appropriate for marginal rainfall and fertility areas, resulting in widespread adoption of hybrids such as R201and R215 by SH farmers. Adoption of hybrids was stimulated by the presence of an efficient formal seed system that ensured, and still ensures, delivery of high quality seed.

The national maize-breeding program has institutionalized stress-breeding approaches. Stress breeding was introduced by CIMMYT through the Southern Africa Drought and Low Soil Fertility (SADLF) project, and the African Maize Stress (AMS) project (Banziger and Diallo, 2002). Germplasm is screened under managed low nitrogen, drought conditions and for tolerance to biotic stresses such maize streak virus (MSV) prior to inclusion in testcrosses. Promising hybrids and open pollinated varieties (OPVs) are submitted to the regional trial network that is coordinated by CIMMYT in East and Southern Africa. Outstanding hybrids from these multilocational trials are then taken to farmers for verification in on-farm trials that are done following the innovative mother-baby trial design (Snapp, 1999). The CBI often does mother baby trials in most districts across the country, involving farmers, farmers’ organizations, NGOs, seed houses, schools etc. The rate of uptake of maize varieties is high


because of the involvement of farmers and stakeholders who are responsible for technology transfer.

In addition to stress tolerant varieties suited for marginal rainfall and fertility areas, numerous objectives are also being pursued in maize breeding. For instance, both the public and private sector breeders are involved in breeding for quality protein maize (QPM) varieties. One QPM OPV hybrid is already on the market. Dwarf maize hybrid technology has also been embraced in Zimbabwe. The African Centre for Fertiliser Development (ACFD) is behind this work. They have released three dwarf maize hybrids so far. Among other attributes, these dwarf maize hybrids have a potential to withstand high plant populations and have a stay green characteristic that is associated with stress tolerance and good quality fodder production. These varieties have been widely adopted, though insufficient seed on the market is currently limiting their widespread use.

Table 4.6 : Registered Varieties from conventional plant breeding activities in Zimbabwe Crop Institute/

OrganisationName of breeders Type of Variety Target

environment3Number of registered Varieties1

Maize ACFD Dr. S. Muchena Dwarf Hybrid All areas 3

CBI Mr. X. Mhike, Mr D. Muungani

White Hybrid All areas 9

Yellow Hybrid High potential 4

White OPV Low potential 2

Seed Co Mr Chivasa, Mr Tembo, Mr Rupende, Mr Caulfield



OPV Low potential 3

Pioneer Mr G. MutseyekwaMr G. Mabuyaya



Pannar Mr B. Cowley White Hybrid All areas 16


Tobacco TRB Mr F. Magama Virginia, Burley & Oriental

All areas 21

Cotton CRI Mr Mandiveyi& Mr N. Mudada

OPV Medium rainfall to Semi-arid areas

10


Wheat CBI Mr T. Soko OPV High rainfall areas

4

Seed Co Dr Havazvidi OPV High rainfall areas

7

Pannar OPV High rainfall areas

2

Soyabean CB1 Mr E.T. Gwata OPV High rainfall areas

6

Seed Co Mr Tichagwa OPV High rainfall areas

4

Pannar OPV High rainfall areas

1

Sunflower CBI Miss C. Ganizani OPV Semi-arid 3

Seed Co OPV Semi-arid 2

Pannar OPV Semi-arid 4

Groundnuts CBI Mr T. Nyamayevu OPV Semi-arid 5


Pearl Millet Matopos SMIP/AREX

Mr M. Mativavarira OPV Semi-arid 3

Sorghum CBI Mr F. Samapenda OPV Semi-arid 3


Hybrid High potential 1

Pannar Hybrid High potential 2

Beans CBI Mr F. Mukoyi OPV All areas 1

Seed Co OPV All areas 1

Pannar OPV All areas 2

Bambara CBI Mr K. Simango OPV Semi-arid 2

Cowpea CBI Mrs. R. Madamba OPV Semi-arid 3

Barley CBI OPV High Potential 4

National Breweries

Mr C. Musimwa OPV High Potential 4

Source: Adapted from Sithole-Niang et al., 2004


4.3.8 Conclusion

Transfer of biotechnology applications will be determined essentially by their economic advantage over techniques currently in use. The regulatory framework and policy issues are increasingly becoming favourable in Zimbabwe. Maximum benefit from this science can be achieved if multinational companies will make their genes available through formation of linkages with public sector breeding programs. That will facilitate insertion of those genes into locally adapted germplasm, in addition to making the technology available to the SH farmers. There is need for human and infrastructural capacity building, and the development of innovative biotechnological interventions tailored to meet local needs.


APPENDIXTable 1 Institution in Ghana with facilities for Tissue culture and micro propagation

Research/University Major Crops Level of TC lab

Crops Research Inst Cassava, plantainSweet potato, bambara Groundnut,

Xxxx

Forestry Research Inst Wawa, Triplochi,scleroxylon Xxx

Cocoa Research Inst Cocoa Xxx

Biotechnology and Nuclear Plantain, banana, cassava, yam Xxx

Agric Research Inst (BNARI) cocoyam, sweet potato, Pawpaw, Pineapple

Xxxx

Botany Dept Univ. of Ghana potato, banana, yam Xxxx

Crop Science Dept KNUST Banana, yam Xxx

Botany Dept UCC Cassava, vegetable Xxx

Oil Palm Research Institute Coconut, oil palm Xxx

Xxxx NB Commercialized level with well-equipped laboratory, green house and available farm land for nurseries

Xxx Limited capacity for commercialization due to inadequately in laboratory green house or nursery facilities.

Xx Facilities adequate mainly for experimental purpose.

Table1 indicates major institutions with tissue culture laboratory facilities. These include :Lamina flow hoods, Auto clavs, Growth cabints and Assortment of instruments.

Table 2: Plant biotechnology research projects in Ghana – 2002


Research area Micro propagation

Biotech techniqueTissue culture

CommodityBananaPlantainCassavaPineappleGingerCitrusSheanutCocoaCocoyamOil palmCoconut

Lab responsibleBNARICSD/UGBOT/UGCSD/KNUSTCRIG (with IITA for Musa sp.OPRI with CP CIRAD & CSD/UG

Product desiredDisease free plants for mass propagation

Plantlets for mass propagation

Development stage Technology transfer safe for sheanut and citrus

Completed

Root crop germplasm characterization

Molecular characterization

CassavaYamCocoyam

CSD/UGBNARIPGRC

Characterized germplasm

Completed

Musa spp characterization

Molecular characterization

BananaPlantain

BNARICSD/UG

Germplams characterized

Completed

DNA protocol for lethal yellowing disease (LYD) Phytoplasma

Molecular markers

Coconut OPRICSD/UG

Phytoplasma protocol developed

Completed

Screening for coconut disease tolerance with high yield

Molecular markers

Coconut OPRI with IACR Rothamsted CP-CIRAD CSD/UG

Tolerant coconut varieties identified

Completed

Diagnostic probes development

Molecular markers

Plantaincoconut

CSD/UGIITA and NARS

Diagnostic probes

Monoclonal serological assays developed, PCR diagnostics developed

Source: (Alhassan, W.S.) Regional mechanisms for harmonization of biosafety activities . A survey report. 37pp

Table 2 contd-2006


Research areaMolecular characterization of groundnut Marker-assisted selection of groundnutMolecular characteristics

Biotech-tech.SSR

SSR

Commodity

Groundnut

groundnut

Responsible labCRI

CRI

Product desiredGermplasm characterizationGroundnut with fresh seed dormancy identified

Dev’t stageIn progress

In progress

Mass propagation of disease for materials

Tissue culture Wawa-Triplochitom scleroxylemOdum-Milicia regia & M. excelsa

FORIG Disease free planting materials developed

Genetic diversity for conservationof genetic resources & maintenance of biodiversity in Bamboo/Wawa/Cedrella odorata and Teak (Tectona glandis)

Molecular marker

BambooCedrella odorata (wawa)Teak (Tectona glandis)

FORIG Establishment and management of seed orchards.Selection for trait of interestGenetic diversity for selected trees determined

Table 3: Some potential benefits of agricultural biotechnology in Ghana.

Biotechnology product Benefit experienced

Disease-free planting material-Tissue culture

Improved growth and yield, uniform harvest time, product quality

Disease diagnosis Rapid identification of pathogens, cost effective, appropriate for rural areas

Marker-assisted breeding Reduces duration for breeding and volume of work and space required cost effective

Insect and virus tolerant crops Less pesticides used, benefits workers, consumers and environment


Table 4 Biotechnology stakeholders institutions and main functions in Ghana

Stakeholders Key institutions Summary of main functions

Educators Public universities Development of biotechnology human resource

Researchers BNARI, CSIR Institutes Universities

R & D for improvement of production in sectors of economy including agriculture

End-users Farmers, industrialist and consumers

Use of biotechnology products like improved seeds for farmers, starter cultures in food processing etc

Policy makers The relevant ministries, eg MOFA, MES, MOTI, STEPRI, NDPC

Policy formulation and oversight responsibility

Regulatory agencies

MDA eg Food & Drugs Board, Ghana Standard Board, PPRSD, CEPS

Ensure compliance of relevant stakeholders with existing laws and regulations

Legislators Parliament Make laws for useful and safe use of biotechnology

Civil Society Organization

NGO’s eg Friends of the Earth, Third World Network, etc

Provide advocacy for responsible application of biotechnology

Donors Bilateral and multilateral agencies, NGO’s

Provide funding to address functional mandates

Table 5 Biotechnology Human Resource in Ghana

Qualification Number Percentage

PhD 32 62.3

M. Phil/M. Sc 17 34.7

B. Sc 0 0

Source: Essegbey ea al (2000)


Table 6: Types of laboratories in selected institutions for biotechnology activities

Institution Molecular biology

Tissue culture Analytical General/other

Crops Research Institute x x x X

Univ. of Ghana (Faculties of Agriculture, Science & Medical School)

x x x X

BNARI x x x X

KNUST (School of Medical Sciences, Fac. Of Pharmacy, Science & Agriculture)

x x x X

Univ. of Cape Coast (Faculty of Science and School of Agriculture)

x x x X

Cocoa Research Institute x x x X

Forestry Research Institute x x x X

Veterinary Services Department

x x x X

Oil Palm Research Institute x x x X


Fig 1: Regulatory System-Schematic presentation

MDAs – Ministries, Departments & Agencies IBC – Institutional Biosafety Committees PIs – Principal Investigators

Board of NBA(DecisionMaking Body)

National Biosafety Authority (NBA)

Technical Advisory Committee (Scientific Reviewers)

Monitoring & Enforcement Regulatory Agencies, IBCs, PIs Researchers/applicants

Inspectors, Regulations, Guidelines, Appeals

Public

Applicant

MDAs, Private Sector & other stakeholders


Figure 2: System for handling applications – schematic presentation

Board of NBA (Decision making Body)

Technical Advisory Committee(s) (Scientific Reviews)

Institutional Biosafety Committees liase with NBA in handling applications

National Biosafety Authority Reviews Applications, Communicates outcomes to Applicant

Public-inputs

Applicant


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(Footnotes)

1 1 With other Institutes

2 2 Eg. Successful transformation, confined trials, commercialization etc.

3 3 Registered as per Second Schedule (section 3) of the Seed Certification Scheme as amended in 2006.

status of crop biotechnology...the most recent survey of the global impact of biotech crops for the...

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