Fall Exam ReviewBiology

(9) Science concepts. The student knows the significance of various molecules involved in metabolic processes and energy conversions that occur

in living organisms. The student is expected to:

• (A) compare the structures and functions of different types of biomolecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids;

• (B) compare the reactants and products of photosynthesis and cellular respiration in terms of energy and matter;

• (C) identify and investigate the role of enzymes; and• (D) analyze and evaluate the evidence regarding

formation of simple organic molecules and their organization into long complex molecules having information such as the DNA molecule for self-replicating life.

• Dehydration Rxn

• Condensation Rxn

– Forms polymers by removing a water

• Hydrolysis

– Breaks apart polymers by adding a water

Water

–

+ +H H

O

H2O

Carbohydrates

• C:H:O

1:2:1

EXAMPLES

• Glucose

• Fructose

• Chitin

• Cellulose– Any thing with

an –ose suffix

Lipids

LipidsPrimary component of

cell membranes

Hydrophobic and

Hydrophilic regions

Proteins

- Amino Acid monomers

- Connected by peptide

bonds

- 20 Different amino acids

- Identified by amine and

carboxyl functional

groups

Nucleic Acids

Enzymes

Enzymes

(11) Science concepts. The student knows that biological systems work to achieve and maintain

balance. The student is expected to:

• (A) describe the role of internal feedback mechanisms in the maintenance of homeostasis;

• (B) investigate and analyze how organisms, populations, and communities respond to external factors;

• (C) summarize the role of microorganisms in both maintaining and disrupting the health of both organisms and ecosystems; and

• (D) describe how events and processes that occur during ecological succession can change populations and species diversity.

Organism Homeostasis

Population Response

Biotic Factors

Abiotic Factors

Community Response

Succession

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Symbiosis

• Mutualism + +

• Parasitism + -

• Commensalism + /

Competition

Adaptations

Food Chain

Food Web

Ecological Pyramid

Limited Resources

• Competition for limited resources

• Limiting resource prevents runaway growth

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

Disruptions in Ecosystems

Biological Magnification

(4) Science concepts. The student knows that cells are the basic structures of all living things with specialized parts that perform specific functions and that viruses are different from cells. The

student is expected to:

• (A) compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells;

• (B) investigate and explain cellular processes, including homeostasis, energy conversions, transport of molecules, and synthesis of new molecules; and

• (C) compare the structures of viruses to cells, describe viral reproduction, and describe the role of viruses in causing diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and influenza.

Prokaryotes

• No Nucleus

• No Membrane Bound Organelles

– NO MITOCHONDRIA

– NO ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

– NO GOLGI APPARATUS

• Small and Simple

Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote

•PRO NO –Simple, no nucleus

•EU DO– Complex, do have nucleus

Plant Cells and Animal Cells

Cell Membrane

Cellular Homeostasis

Fig. 7-13

Hypotonic solution

(a) Animalcell

(b) Plantcell

H2O

Lysed

H2O

Turgid (normal)

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Normal

Isotonic solution

Flaccid

H2O

H2O

Shriveled

Plasmolyzed

Hypertonic solution

Moving Stuff in and Out of a Cell

• WATER MOVES BY OSMOSIS!

Moving Stuff in and Out of a Cell

• Diffusion is movement from high to low

Moving Stuff in and Out of a Cell

• Facilitated Diffusion – protein helps with movement

Moving Stuff in and Out of a Cell

• Active Transport –Energy needed

• Moving from low to high

• Against the concentration gradient

Moving Stuff in and Out of a Cell

Moving Stuff in and Out of a Cell

• Exocytosis

• Endocytosis

Organism Homeostasis

• Negative feedback

Or

• Feedback inhibition

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Energy Conversion

• Photosynthesis

Energy Conversions

• Cellular Respiration

PhotosynthesisCellular Respiration

(5) Science concepts. The student knows how an organism grows and the importance of cell

differentiation. The student is expected to:• (A) describe the stages of the cell cycle, including

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) replication and mitosis, and the importance of the cell cycle to the growth of organisms;

• (B) examine specialized cells, including roots, stems, and leaves of plants; and animal cells such as blood, muscle, and epithelium;

• (C) describe the roles of DNA, ribonucleic acid (RNA), and environmental factors in cell differentiation; and

• (D) recognize that disruptions of the cell cycle lead to diseases such as cancer.

Cell Cycle

Cell Cycle

Synthesis Phase

• DNA Replication

Cell Cycle

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Cell Specialization

DNA and Cell Specialization

Cell Cycle and Cancer

• Disruptions in the control mechanisms of cell division can lead to uncontrolled cell divsion

(6) Science concepts. The student knows the mechanisms of genetics, including the role of nucleic acids and the principles of

Mendelian Genetics. The student is expected to:

• (A) identify components of DNA, and describe how information for specifying the traits of an organism is carried in the DNA;

• (B) recognize that components that make up the genetic code are common to all organisms;

• (C) explain the purpose and process of transcription and translation using models of DNA and RNA;

• (D) recognize that gene expression is a regulated process;

• (E) identify and illustrate changes in DNA and evaluate the significance of these changes;

• (F) predict possible outcomes of various genetic combinations such as monohybrid crosses, dihybrid crosses and non-Mendelian inheritance;

• (G) recognize the significance of meiosis to sexual reproduction; and

• (H) describe how techniques such as DNA fingerprinting, genetic modifications, and chromosomal analysis are used to study the genomes of organisms.

DNA components

Purines Pyrimidines

A

G

T

C

Nucleotide types

Nucleotide Parts

Nitrogen

Base

Phosphate 5 Carbon

Sugar

DNA is anti-parallel

DNA forms a

double helix

Structure of DNA

G

A

T

G

3 Base Pairs

1

2

3

Transcription

Transcription

Fig. 17-7

Promoter Transcription unit

Start pointDNA

RNA polymerase

5533

Initiation1

2

3

5533

UnwoundDNA

RNAtranscript

Template strandof DNA

Elongation

RewoundDNA

5

55

5

5

33

3

3

RNAtranscript

Termination

5533

35Completed RNA transcript

Newly madeRNA

Templatestrand of DNA

Direction oftranscription(“downstream”)

3 end

RNApolymerase

RNA nucleotides

Nontemplatestrand of DNA

Elongation

RNA Editing

Fig. 17-10

Pre-mRNA

mRNA

Codingsegment

Introns cut out andexons spliced together

5 Cap

Exon Intron5

1 30 31 104

Exon Intron

105

Exon

146

3

Poly-A tail

Poly-A tail5 Cap

5 UTR 3 UTR1 146

Translation

Fig. 17-18-4

Amino endof polypeptide

mRNA

5

3E

Psite

Asite

GTP

GDP

E

P A

E

P A

GDP

GTP

Ribosome ready fornext aminoacyl tRNA

E

P A

Fig. 17-25

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA PROCESSING

DNA

RNAtranscript

3

5RNApolymerase

RNA transcript(pre-mRNA)

Intron

Exon

NUCLEUS

Aminoacyl-tRNAsynthetase

AMINO ACID ACTIVATIONAminoacid

tRNACYTOPLASM

Growingpolypeptide

3

Activatedamino acid

mRNA

TRANSLATION

Ribosomalsubunits

5

E

P

A

AAnticodon

Ribosome

Codon

E

The code

• AUGCCCAAUCGCUAA

The code

• AUGCCCAAUCGCUAA

The code

• AUGCCCAAUCGCUAA

The code

• AUGCCCAAUCGCUAA

The code

• AUGCCCAAUCGCUAA

Methionine

The code

• AUGCCCAAUCGCUAA

Fig. 17-5

Second mRNA base

Firs

t m

RN

A b

ase

(5

en

d o

f co

do

n)

Thir

d m

RN

A b

ase

(3

en

d o

f co

do

n)

Mutations

• Gene Mutations– Point Mutations

– Frameshift

• Chromosomal Mutations– Deletion

– Duplication

– Inversion

– Translocation

Fig. 17-23Wild-type

3DNA template strand

5

5

5

3

3

Stop

Carboxyl endAmino end

Protein

mRNA

3

3

3

5

5

5

A instead of G

U instead of C

Silent (no effect on amino acid sequence)

Stop

T instead of C

3

3

3

5

5

5

A instead of G

Stop

Missense

A instead of T

U instead of A

3

3

3

5

5

5

Stop

Nonsense No frameshift, but one amino acid missing (3 base-pair deletion)

Frameshift causing extensive missense (1 base-pair deletion)

Frameshift causing immediate nonsense (1 base-pair insertion)

5

5

53

3

3

Stop

missing

missing

3

3

3

5

5

5

missing

missing

Stop

5

5

53

3

3

Extra U

Extra A

(a) Base-pair substitution (b) Base-pair insertion or deletion

Fig. 17-23a

Wild type

3DNA templatestrand

3

35

5

5mRNA

Protein

Amino end

Stop

Carboxyl end

A instead of G

3

3

3

U instead of C

5

5

5

Stop

Silent (no effect on amino acid sequence)

Fig. 17-23b

Wild type

DNA templatestrand

3

5

mRNA

Protein

5

Amino end

Stop

Carboxyl end

5

3

3

T instead of C

A instead of G

3

3

3

5

5

5

Stop

Missense

Fig. 17-23cWild type

DNA templatestrand

3

5

mRNA

Protein

5

Amino end

Stop

Carboxyl end

5

3

3

A instead of T

U instead of A

3

3

3

5

5

5

Stop

Nonsense

Fig. 17-23d

Wild type

DNA templatestrand

3

5

mRNA

Protein

5

Amino end

Stop

Carboxyl end

5

3

3

Extra A

Extra U

3

3

3

5

5

5

Stop

Frameshift causing immediate nonsense (1 base-pair insertion)

Fig. 17-23e

Wild type

DNA templatestrand

3

5

mRNA

Protein

5

Amino end

Stop

Carboxyl end

5

3

3

missing

missing

3

3

3

5

5

5

Frameshift causing extensive missense (1 base-pair deletion)

Fig. 17-23f

Wild type

DNA templatestrand

3

5

mRNA

Protein

5

Amino end

Stop

Carboxyl end

5

3

3

missing

missing

3

3

3

5

5

5

No frameshift, but one amino acid missing (3 base-pair deletion)

Stop

Meiosis

• Makes 4 haploid cells

• One replication and two divisions

Crossing Over

• Genes exchanged between chromosomes

Probability

Monohybrid cross

Dihybrid Cross

• Shows different genes are no necessarily connected just because one parent had both

• Demonstrates the principle of Independent Assortment

Fig. 14-UN2

Degree of dominance

Complete dominanceof one allele

Incomplete dominanceof either allele

Codominance

Description

Heterozygous phenotypesame as that of homo-zygous dominant

Heterozygous phenotypeintermediate betweenthe two homozygousphenotypes

Heterozygotes: Bothphenotypes expressed

Multiple alleles In the whole population,some genes have morethan two alleles

CRCR CRCW CWCW

IAIB

IA , IB , i

ABO blood group alleles

PP Pp

Example

Biotechnology

• Karyotype

• Disorders visible using karyotype include:

– Klinefelter Syndrome

– Down Syndrome

– Turner Syndrome

Normal Male Karyotype

PCR

Restriction Enzymes

Biotechnology

• Gel electrophoresis can separate DNA fragments cut by restriction enzymes

Biotechnology