special political and decolonization (specpol)through. since its inception, specpol has passed many...

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LONDON INTERNATIONAL MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2016 .

Special Political and Decolonization (SPECPOL) London International Model United Nations 17th Session | 2016

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Introduction Letter

We warmly welcome you to the Special Political and Decolonization

Committee of the 17th edition of LIMUN.

We are Panagiotis, Rituja and Viktoriya and we are very excited to guide

you through this experience. We have prepared this study guide after deep

research and with care, hoping that it will be a good start for your further work

and research. The topics that our committee touch upon very interesting and

important issues, to which we hope you will find solutions through fruitful

debate.

As much as we love good committee sessions we also encourage you

to enjoy the conference as a whole with all its socials and, of course, an

awesome crowd of motivated and smart diplomats from around the globe.

We sincerely can’t wait to be a part of your unique experience at LIMUN

2016! Research thoroughly and prepare for passionate debates! See you soon!


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Introduction to SPECPOL

The fourth committee of the General Assembly of the United Nations, The

Special Political and Decolonization Committee deals with a variety of subjects

which include those related to decolonization, Palestinian refugees and

human rights, peacekeeping, mine action, outer space, public information,

atomic radiation and University for Peace.1

SPECPOL includes all 193 Member States, uniting to alleviate developing

countries and their dependency on former colonizing powers. The committee

derives power from its mandate in Chapter XI of the United Nations Charter,

which commits to the preservation of the rights and dignities of people living in

non-self-governing territories.2 While SPECPOL was derived from the

Disarmament and International Security Committee, it takes on issues that the

First Committee does not address, as well as looking at topics with a wider

scope.3 Unlike other UN committees, SPECPOL shines a spotlight on issues

pertaining to occupation, colonization, and subjugation, with the primary goal

of making all countries independent and self-sufficient from outside powers.4

Also according to its mandate, SPECPOL is not able to take military action and

many of its resolutions are passed along as suggestions to the Security Council,

which ultimately decides whether or not the plan of action will be carried

through. Since its inception, SPECPOL has passed many resolutions addressing

the quality and framework of information technology in developing countries,

paying special attention to the development of the United Nations’

Department of Public Information.5 The Committee has also attempted to

develop a consensus among member states regarding the issue of the

peaceful uses of outer space.6


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Topic A: Review of United Nations

peacebuilding architecture

Key Terms

Peacebuilding

The concept of post-conflict peacebuilding emerged after the Cold War, at a

time when the worldview on conflict, peace, and security was changing

significantly.1 In 1992, peacebuilding was defined as “[the] action to identify

and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order

to avoid a relapse into conflict.”2 This definition was further specified in the

landmark Brahimi Report of 2000, which stated that the scope of

peacebuilding activities should be: holding “free and fair elections” to ensure

the legitimacy of a post-conflict government; building governmental

institutions, “upholding the rule of law and respect for human rights”, and the

promotion of national reconciliation.3 Further, it recommended the

establishment of Demobilization, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR)

programs, which call for “comprehensively disarming combatants, (…)

providing them with opportunities for sustainable social and economic

reintegration.”4

Brahimi Report

The Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, commonly

called the Brahimi Report, aimed to suggest ways to:

1. Enhance rapid deployment of peacekeeping operations;

2. Strengthen the relationship with Member States and legislative bodies;

3. Reform the management culture of peacekeeping operations;

4. Reform the peacekeeping operations relationship with field missions;

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5. Strengthen relationships with other United Nations bodies.5

Security Sector Reform

Currently, peacebuilding also endorses the concept of Security Sector Reform

(SSR), which aims to ensure the security of a country by reforming its military

and police, and strengthening its legislative and judicial institutions. 1

The Peacebuilding Commission

The Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) was established on December 20, 2005,

through General Assembly Resolution 60/180 and Security Council Resolution

1645 (2005). It was created to help post-conflict societies rebuild and stabilize,

by providing collaborative support and consultative services to these states.

The Peacebuilding Fund and the Peacebuilding Support Office

The Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) works with two entities associated with

the UN Secretariat. The Peacebuilding Support Office (PBSO) was created “to

assist and support the Peacebuilding Commission, administer the

Peacebuilding Fund (PBF), and serve the Secretary-General in coordinating UN

agencies in their peacebuilding efforts.”4 The Peacebuilding Fund was created

to provide monetary support for peacebuilding activities. Funded by

donations from Member States and other organizations, the PBF can also

finance other “[activities] designed to respond to imminent threats to the

peace process.”4 Although the PBF prioritizes those countries on the

Commission’s agenda, any country can ask for monetary support from the

fund. 5

Mandate of the Peacebuilding Commission

In the resolutions establishing the Peacebuilding Commission, 60/180 and

1645 (2005), the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council

mandated the Commission to:

bring together all relevant actors to marshal resources and to advise on

and propose integrated strategies for post-conflict peacebuilding and

recovery;

1Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform, A Beginner’s Guide to Security Sector Reform

(SSR), 2007. 4United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, Peacebuilding Support Office. 5 United Nations Peacebuilding Fund, Guidelines for Applying to the United Nations Peacebuilding Fund

(PBF), 2009, p. 3. 6United Nations Peacebuilding Fund, UN Peacebuilding Fund: Preventing a Relapse Into Violent Conflict

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/60/180

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1645%20(2005)

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focus attention on the reconstruction and institution-building efforts

necessary for recovery from conflict and to support the development of

integrated strategies in order to lay the foundation for sustainable

development;

provide recommendations and information to improve the coordination

of all relevant actors within and outside the United Nations, to develop

best practices, to help to ensure predictable financing for early recovery

activities and to extend the period of attention given by the

international community to post-conflict recovery.

Discussion of the Problem

Peacebuilding

Peacebuilding is a wide and multi-faceted set of actions. These actions mainly

aim to reduce the risk of relapsing into conflict by strengthening national

capacities in the form of infrastructure rebuilding, government functionality,

law enforcement and social reconciliation, so as to lay the foundation for

sustainable peace and development. It is a complex, long-term process of

creating the necessary conditions for sustainable peace.

“The boundaries between conflict prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping,

peacebuilding and peace enforcement have become increasingly blurred.

Peace operations are rarely limited to one type of activity. While

UN peacekeeping operations are, in principle, deployed to support the

implementation of a ceasefire or peace agreement, they are often required

to play an active role in peacemaking efforts and may also be involved in

early peacebuilding activities. Today’s multidimensional peacekeeping

operations facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist in

the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants;

support the organization of elections, protect and promote human rights and

assist in restoring the rule of law. UN peacekeeping operations may use force

to defend themselves, their mandate, and civilians, particularly in situations

where the State is unable to provide security and maintain public order.”2

2 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/peace.shtml

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/peacekeeping.shtml

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/civilian.shtml

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/ddr.shtml

http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/issues/ruleoflaw.shtml

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Background Information

The first reference to United Nations Peacebuilding (UNPB) was made in

Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali’s Agenda for Peace report in 1992,3

followed in 2000 by the Brahimi Report and by the famed 2004 report of the

High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change.4 One year later, the

World Summit of 2005 focused on the concept of UNPB and formed the

Peacebuilding Commission (PBC), an intergovernmental advisory body that

supports peace efforts in countries emerging from conflict. The PBC’s role

consist in:

I. bringing together all of the relevant actors, including international

donors, the international financial institutions, national governments,

troop contributing countries;

II. marshalling resources;

III. advising on and proposing integrated strategies for post-conflict

peacebuilding and recovery and where appropriate, highlighting any

gaps that threaten to undermine peace.5

At this given moment, Burundi, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia

and Central African Republic are on the PBC Agenda.

The 2005 World Summit also established two extra entities to support the

Peacebuilding Commission (PBC): The Peacebuilding Support Office (PBSO)

and the Peacebuilding Fund (PBF).6 Alongside the PBC, the PBF, a multi-donor

fund, was formed to fill gaps and catalyze longer-term funding, and the PBSO

was entrusted with administering the PBF, advising the PBC and coordinating

peacebuilding strategy and policy-learning within the UN.7

The Peacebuilding Commission

The PBC is the UN’s main “tool” to tackle the issue of peacebuilding. It operates

in three principal configurations to marshal resources at the disposal of the

international community and propose integrated strategies for post-conflict

peacebuilding in countries emerging from conflict:

The Organizational Committee

3Carolyn McAskie (2010), 2020 Vision: Visioning the Future of the United Nations Peacebuilding

Architecture. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs. Available at:

http://cips.uottawa.ca/eng/documents/McAskie.pdf 4 Lakhdar Brahimi (2000), Report of the Panel on the United Nations Peace Operations .. United Nations:

New York. Available at: www.undocs. org/s/2000/809 6 General Assembly (2004), Report of the High

Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change. . United Nations: New York. Available at: http://

www.unrol.org/files/gaA.59.565_En.pdf 5 http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/ 6 http://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/un_peace_architecture.pdf 7 General Assembly Resolution 60/180 (2005), The Peacebuilding Commission. United Nations: New York.

Available at: http://www.un.org/ ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/60/180

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o Consists of seven members of the UNSC (P5 included) according

to S/RES/1645 (2005) 05-65417 3;

o Seven members of the Economic and Social Council, elected

from regional groups according to rules and procedures decided

by the Council and giving due consideration to those countries

that have experienced post-conflict recovery;

o Five top providers of assessed contributions to United Nations

budgets and of voluntary contributions to United Nations funds,

programmes and agencies, including the peacebuilding fund;

o Five top providers of military personnel and civilian police to

United Nations missions;

o Seven additional members elected according to rules and

procedures decided by the General Assembly.

Country-Specific Configurations

o Consist of the country under consideration;

o Countries in the region engaged in the post-conflict process and

other countries that are involved in relief efforts and/or political

dialogue, as well as relevant regional and subregional

organizations;

o The major financial, troop and civilian police contributors involved

in the recovery effort;

o The senior United Nations representative in the field and other

relevant United Nations representatives;

o Such regional and international financial institutions as may be

relevant;8

Working Group on Lessons Learned 9

Members of the Organizational Committee serve for renewable terms of two

years, and composition gives due consideration to representation from all

regional groups, representation from countries that have experienced post-

conflict recovery.

The Peacebuilding Fund

The UN Peacebuilding Fund was launched in 2006 to provide fast and flexible

funding to countries at risk of relapsing into conflict. It has four priorities:

Responding to imminent threats to the peace process and support

peace agreements and political dialogue;

8 A/RES/60/180 & S/RES/1645 9 http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/structuremember.shtml

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Building or strengthening national capacities to promote coexistence

and peaceful resolution of conflict;

Initiate economic revitalization and generate peace dividends for the

population at large; and

Re-establishing essential administrative services.

By the end of April 2010, the PBF had supported 137 projects in 16 countries

that can be grouped by results in 13 outcome areas. Support to the

implementation of peace agreements and building capacity to resolve

conflict peacefully are the largest PBF priority areas, receiving approximately

45% and 27% respectively of PBF funds.10

The Peacebuilding Support Office

The PBSO is responsible for the institutional co-ordination and administration of

the PBC and PBF within UN committees and entities. It also assists in the

monitoring and final assessment of the work done by the PBC and PBF through

the production of reports. Its main duties include:

“Training: PBSO can advise on what training courses on peacebuilding

are available

“Knowledge management: PBSO runs the web-based Peacebuilding

Community of Practice, uniting peacebuilding practitioners across the

UN electronically. It provides real-time responses to questions from the

field, online access to peacebuilding information, monthly newsletters

and an annual workshop.

“Research: PBSO will not normally sponsor research, but it brings together

institutions, policy makers and practitioners to promote greater

relevance and usefulness in peacebuilding research. PBSO should also

be able to direct you to the right place for advice on:

o Assessment, planning and monitoring tools

o Conflict analysis and planning Thematic areas of peacebuilding

(e.g. DDR, security sector reform, rule of law, etc.)

o Peacebuilding resources (civilian capacity, UN volunteers, etc.)” 11

Recommendations for Reform

The 2015 Report on Peacebuilding came to realize that since the creation of

the PBC, PBSO and PBF back in 2005 certain variables changed drastically and

as a consequence it is crucial that the Peacebuilding Architecture be

updated. Specifically, modern conflicts have become far more complex due

10 http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pbso/pdf/peacebuilding_orientation.pdf 11 http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pbso/pdf/peacebuilding_orientation.pdf

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to the rise of new religious and political trends but also because of the

increasing number of civil wars combined with the incredible role of the web

in such incidents. Member states prefer to choose military means to combat

such situations but only offer short-term solutions, failing to address the root

causes of problems. The report also notes that further coherence between UN

tools must be pursued.

“Peacebuilding has been relegated to a peripheral activity. Within the UN,

efforts to sustain peace should take high priority in terms of resources,

capacities and organizational hierarchy. A change in mind-set is needed:

rather than waiting until crisis breaks out and then making a default recourse

to a crisis response, timely efforts to prevent conflict and then sustain peace

need to be embedded across all sectors and phases of action. When peace

operations are deployed, they must, from the beginning, see their purpose as

to maximize the creation of space and opportunity for peacebuilding efforts

to advance. And from the beginning they should also plan for and 47

benchmark their own exit strategies, with a vision of how to ensure effective

and appropriately timed follow-on engagement. “12

Furthermore, it is of great importance that the UNSC and ECOSOC committees

realize their protagonist role in the process of peacebuilding and further assist

the PBC, specifically when it comes to the transitional process from conflict to

peace. The report further notes that multi and bi-lateral alliances with regional

actors, governments, institutions and organizations are key to success.

The report finishes by suggesting some possible avenues for reform of the

Peacebuilding Architecture. First, it is essential that key terms are redefined so

that the goals and practice of peacebuilding become clearer. It is crucial that

peacebuilding be understood also as a preventive measure, rather than

merely a response to conflict. Peacebuilding is therefore both reactive and

proactive. In addition, situations Burundi, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, the

Central African Republic and such places should garner more attention. At

the same time, changes at the UN chain of command should be made with

the PBC working directly with lead departments within the UN (DPKO, DFS, and

DPA) and communicating directly with the Secretariat. By being limited to an

advisory role with the enforcer of its decisions being the UNSC, the PBC is often

unappreciated – a good connection with principal organs would indeed

12 REPORT OF THE ADVISORY GROUP OF EXPERTS FOR THE 2015 REVIEW OF THE UNITED NATIONS

PEACEBUILDING ARCHITECTURE

http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pdf/150630%20Report%20of%20the%20AGE%20on%20the%20201

5%20Peacebuilding%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

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promote a more coherent, integrated and holistic peace. Furthermore,

closer cooperation between the PBC and military command (either UN

Peacekeepers or regional forces) should be sought since peacebuilding takes

place in volatile environments. The relapse of a country back into war is mainly

due to the lack of monitoring by the UN stemming from the trend of UN

departments to avoid accountability. Many times has bureaucracy been

condemned as one of the most important obstacles in the effectiveness of the

UN. The PBC is also bound and strictly tied with the official UN agenda and its

operation becomes rigid due to its inability to have a broader spectrum of

actions and monitoring, which undermines its preventative role.

A lack of funding is certain to jeopardize UN peacekeeping operations. The

PBF in fact has a really small base and provides little funding (less than 100m

USD in 2012) in comparison to the extent of these operations. The PBF must seek

new ways to ensure better funding coming from multiple sources.

Country Information

Australia. Regarding its peacebuilding efforts, Australia has provided ongoing

support for the core components of the United Nations’ peacebuilding

architecture. The country is engaged in many UN peace and security

operations across the globe, including the missions in South Sudan (UNMISS)

and in Afghanistan (UNAMA). In the Pacific region, Australia has played a

leading role in successful missions in the Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste and

Papua New Guinea (Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade). In

addition to engaging in the PBC’s work and seconding staff to the

Peacebuilding Support Office, the country contributed 12 million USD to the

Peacebuilding Fund from 2012 to 2016, making it the 12th largest donor to the

Fund. (DAFT, n.b.d)

Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina, through the General

Assembly, is one of the seven elected members of the Peacebuilding

Commission (Organizational Committee Members, n.d.). After the war,

transitioning to peace largely relegated women to subordinate positions within

the post-war polity, society, and economy, women were denied meaningful

participation and representation in peace-making 4 (O'Reily, 2014).

Brazil. Brazil has taken part on several peace operations throughout the globe

and currently has contingents in nine United Nations Peace Operations,

among which figure the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH),

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United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic

Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) United Nations Mission in the Republic of

South Sudan (UNMISS) (Centro Conjunto de Operações de Paz do Brasil

[CCOPAB], n.d). The country was elected as Chair of the Peacebuilding

Commission in 2014 and its representative, Ambassador Antonio de Aguiar

Patriota, stressed out the importance of strengthening women’s participation

and economic conditions for more democratic and peaceful societies (United

Nations Peacebuilding Commission [PBC], 2014).

Chad. From September 2007 to December 2010, a UN peacekeeping mission

was held in Chad. The United Nations Mission in the African Republic and Chad

(MINURCAT) did not have any specific political mandate, being demanded

only to the protection of civilians. Despite the end of the mission's mandate,

UN troops remain in the region in the task of peacebuilding (UN Missions, 2015).

China. The People’s Republic of China has emerged in the international

scenario as a fast-growing regional and international power respectful of

sovereignty and wary of sensitive political issues. Its increased participation and

involvement in international affairs have led it to soften its hardline stance on

non-intervention, which, in turn, reduced China’s direct influences on

peacebuilding efforts. Despite that, China is strongly committed to the UN

Peacebuilding Fund, having donated 5 million dollars to the fund between

2006 and 2012 (Richmond & Tellidis, 2013).

Ethiopia. One of the fastest growing economies in Africa, Ethiopia puts the

conflict prevention as one of its main priorities. The achievement of the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by the country is directly related to the

pursuit of national peace (UNDP [United Nations Development Program],

2012).

France. The French Republic is a member of the PBC elected by the United

Nations Security Council (Organizational Committee Members, n.d.). Early

European 1325 National Action Plans (NAPs), rather than involving specific

peace building processes, were part of each country’s foreign policy (Miller et

al., 2014). After recent accusations of young boys being violated by French

troops in the Central African Republic, an internal UN report shows that the Blue

Helmets are constantly paying for sex with prostitutes in Haiti and Liberia,

despite a strict ban of the organization (“Soldados de paz (...)”, 2015).

Germany. Germany is one of the top providers of assessed contributions to

United Nations budgets and of voluntary contributions to the United Nations

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funds, programmes and agencies, including a standing peacebuilding

fund is the Federal Republic of Germany, which guarantees its membership on

the PBC (Organizational Committee Members, n.d.). It has many programmes,

courses, workshops, and publications for integrating gender into

peacebuilding training.

Guatemala. Guatemala suffered about 36 years of internal armed conflict,

that came to an end with the signing of the Peace Accords in 1996 (Global

Security, n.d), and has been the stage to the United Nations Verification Mission

in Guatemala (MINUGUA) in 1997, when the UN Security Council authorized,

for a three months period, an attachment of 155 military observers and

medical personnel for the verification of the agreements on ceasefire [United

Nations Security Council [UNSC], 1997).

Japan. The State of Japan recognizes that efforts to ensure international

stability contribute to its own security and prosperity. Therefore, the country

places great importance on participating in global peacebuilding efforts and

extending assistance to those who are trapped in a vicious cycle of conflict.

The country has been on the PBC since its establishment in 2005, contributing

proactively to its activities (Permanent Mission of Japan to the United Nations,

2012).

Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 2012, the Kingdom of the Netherlands was

the 9th top provider of assessed contributions to United Nations budgets and

of voluntary contributions to the United Nations funds, programmes and

agencies, including the standing Peacebuilding Fund, donating an average

of 1.18 billion US Dollars per year between 2009 and 2011 (Ban Ki, 2012).

Kingdom of Sweden. As of 2012, the Kingdom of Sweden was the 8th top

provider of assessed contributions to United Nations budgets and of voluntary

contributions to the United Nations funds, programmes and agencies,

including the standing Peacebuilding Fund, donating an average of 1.19

billion US Dollars per year between 2009 and 2011 (Ban Ki, 2012).

Malaysia. Malaysia strives to set up a respectable image in the international

scenario, being a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC),

the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and Chair of the Association of Southeast

Asian Nations (ASEAN) for 2015 (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia, n.d.a). In

that sense, it has established itself as a moderated Muslim country that can

play a vital role in peacebuilding and conflict issues in its region and in other

Muslim countries (Initiatives for International Dialogue, n.d.).

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Nepal. In 2006, the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal saw the end of a

decade long armed conflict that left the Nepalese society strongly damaged,

especially its 17 women (Shrestha, 2015). Since then, the country has had help

from the UN and other external actors in its transition towards peace.

Formulated by the UN Country Team in Nepal, the “Peace-Building Strategy for

Nepal” promotes the UN standard gender-sensitive approach of

peacebuilding, promoting gender inclusion in the social, political and judicial

spheres (United Nations [UN], 2011).

Russia. Russia attributes great significance to its decision-making role in the UN

Security Council, wishing to keep peace and security issues at its level. Similarly,

most of its peacebuilding efforts are led through a military perspective,

providing little to no space for policies against discrimination. Similar, to China,

in spite of 20 being a member of the PBC, Russia is not a noteworthy supporter

of the peacebuilding agenda in practice, since it rarely shows much

consideration to discussions related to gender and human security (Richmond

& Tellidis, 2013). In a UNSC meeting regarding peacebuilding, for instance,

Russia objected to a synergic approach of the Peacebuilding Architecture,

the review of UN peace operations and the implementation of Resolution 1325,

advocating that the topics represented three distinct processes (What’s in

Blue, 2015).

Pakistan. Regarding international security and peace, Pakistan has a lead role

in United Nations peacekeeping operations. As pointed out by the Secretary-

General, Ban Ki-moon, more than 100 countries contribute troops and police

for the UN peacekeeping operations, being Pakistan number one. He also

stressed that about 8.000 of Pakistan's men and women serve in complex

missions, from Darfur to the Democratic Republic of Congo (UN News Centre,

2013). The importance of women in peace operations was reinforced by the

country when Deputy Superintendent Shahzadi Gulfam, from Pakistan,

received the International Female Police Peacekeeper Award for acting in the

United Nations Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT). Officer Gulfam was the first

female police officer to represent Pakistan when she was deployed in the UN

Mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1997 (United Nations Police [UNPOL], n.d.).

South Africa. The post-Apartheid and newly democratized South Africa has

tried to place an emphasis on peacebuilding, rethinking security both

nationally and regionally. By doing so, South Africa has contributed to the UN

missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi and Sudan, at the

same time that it takes an active part in the regional security efforts. Therefore,

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the country expects to be a model of good governance to the continent

(Klerk, 2010). In the largest UN peacebuilding mission, the MONUSCO (French

acronym of United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic

Republic of Congo), the South African troops have the bigger portion of

female peacekeepers and the only designated gender adviser.

Switzerland. The Center for Peacebuilding (KOFF) is Switzerland's networking

platform for state and non-governmental peacebuilding actors to promote

processes of common learning and policy dialogue. KOFF offers consultancy

services, strategy development and training programs tailored to its members’

needs, in addition to roundtables and workshops devoted to specific countries

and topics. (Mladiinfo, 2014). Boosted by the diversity of members and its

position at the interface between everyday reality and normative frameworks,

KOFF aims helping create a scope for sharing local experiences, and thus,

enable this supply of knowledge to be fed back into national peace policy.

Turkey. Internationally, the country attributes great responsibility to the

Peacebuilding Commission and provides significant amounts to the

Peacebuilding Fund. Although gendered policies do not usually play a central

role in the peacebuilding missions led by Turkey, the country publicly states that

gender perspective should be an inseparable element of the PBC’s work,

emphasizing the need for women’s full involvement in decision-making

processes. (Permanent Mission of Turkey to the United Nations, 2009).

The United Kingdom. The UK is another Security Council-elected member of the

PBC (Organizational Committee Members, n.d.). As a part of a broader study

commissioned by UK's Department for International Development [DFID], there

are reviews from existing evidence to develop a more practice-oriented

analytical framework to guide an effective integration of a gender

perspective into peacebuilding and state building efforts and programmes.

The United States of America. The USA is extensively involved in conflicts outside

of its borders, and, as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, its

influence in global security is unquestionable: it is engaged in numerous military

operations, has multiple permanent and temporary military bases, and is a

major troop contributor to NATO (PeaceWomen, n.d.c.).

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Questions a Resolution Should Address

Re-Defining UN Peacebuilding Architecture

Is the current Architecture efficient?

Which are the main problems?

Should the role of the PBC, PBF, PBSO be expanded/reformed? How?

How can structural readjustment be achieved?

How to promote structural co-operation inside the UN?

Should new Organs be created within the UN?

How to increase the efficiency of the PBC?

What role should amongst others the UNSC, GA, ECOSOC and the

secretariat have in the decision making and enforcing of

Peacebuilding policies?

How to achieve better funding?

How should accountability for each operation be distributed?

How to upgrade the preventative role of all UN entities in regard to

Peacebuilding?

Further Reading Report Of The Advisory Group Of Experts For The 2015 Review Of The United Nations

Peacebuilding Architecture, 29 June 2015

http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pdf/150630%20Report%20of%20the%20AGE%20on%20t

he%202015%20Peacebuilding%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

General Assembly, United Nations, Ten-year Review of the Peacebuilding Architecture

(2015), 31 October 2014

http://www.un.org/pga/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/12/41114_ten-year-review-

peacebuilding-architecture.pdf

Hearn, S et al. (2014) The United Nations “Peacebuilding Architecture”: Past, Present and

Future

http://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/un_peace_architecture.pdf

United Nations Secretary-General. (1992). An Agenda for Peace. Preventive diplomacy,

peacemaking and peacekeeping. Retrieved on December 17, 2015, from

http://www.unrol.org/files/A_47_277.pdf

World Bank. (2006). Civil Society and Peacebuilding. Potential, Limitations and Critical

Factors. Retrieved December 18 2015, from

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-

1164107274725/3182370-1164110717447/Civil_Society_and_Peacebuilding.pdf

Bellamy, A. (2010). The institutionalization of peacebuilding: what role for the Un

Peacebuilding Commission? In: O. Richmond. Palgrave Advances in Peacebuilding, Critical

Developments and Approaches (pp. 193-212). Hampshire, United Kingdom: Palgrave

Macmillan.

Bibliography

United Nations Peacebuilding Commission. (2010). Review of the outcome of the High-level

Special Session of the Peacebuilding Commission on Sierra Leone. Retrieved on December

18, 2015, from http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=PBC/4/SLE/3

http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pdf/150630%20Report%20of%20the%20AGE%20on%20the%202015%20Peacebuilding%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pdf/150630%20Report%20of%20the%20AGE%20on%20the%202015%20Peacebuilding%20Review%20FINAL.pdf

http://www.un.org/pga/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/12/41114_ten-year-review-peacebuilding-architecture.pdf

http://www.un.org/pga/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2014/12/41114_ten-year-review-peacebuilding-architecture.pdf

http://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/un_peace_architecture.pdf

http://www.unrol.org/files/A_47_277.pdf

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-%201164107274725/3182370-1164110717447/Civil_Society_and_Peacebuilding.pdf

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-%201164107274725/3182370-1164110717447/Civil_Society_and_Peacebuilding.pdf

http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=PBC/4/SLE/3

17


United Nations Peacebuilding Commission. (N.A.). Partners. Retrieved on December 20

2015, from http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/partners.shtml

United Nations Peacebuilding Commission. (N.A.). Peacebuilding Support Office. Retrieved

on December 20, 2015, from http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/pbso.shtml

United Nations Peacebuilding Commission. (2011). Progress in the implementation of the PBC

Chair’s Roadmap for Actions in 2011 “Review of the United Nations Peacebuilding

Architecture Mid-year report by the Chairperson. Retrieved on December 18, 2015, from

http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/pdf/roadmap_implementation_update_chairs_re

port.pdf

United Nations Peacebuilding Commission. (2007). Provisional rules of procedure of the

Peacebuilding Commission, as adopted by the Organizational Committee at its first meeting

on 23 June 2006. Retrieved on December 19, 2015, from

http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=PBC/1/OC/3

United Nations Peacebuilding Commission. (2011). Report of the Peacebuilding Commission

on its Fourth Session. Retrieved on December 20, 2015, from

http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=A/65/701

United Nations Peacebuilding Commission. (2008). Report of the Peacebuilding Commission

on its Second Session. Retrieved on December 19, 2015, from


Permanent Mission of the Republic of Sierra Leone to the United Nations. (2006). Invitation to

the Peace Building Commission to Operate in Sierra Leone. Retrieved December 19, 2015,

from

http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/CountrySpecific%20Configurations/Sierra%20Leon

e/country%20request%20SL.pdf

United Nations, Guidance Note of the Secretary General. United Nations Approach to

Transitional Justice, 2010, p. 3; PBC Working Group on Lessons Learned, Justice in Times of

Transition. Chairs Summary, 2008, p. 1.

http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/partners.shtml

http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/pbso.shtml

http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/pdf/roadmap_implementation_update_chairs_report.pdf

http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/pdf/roadmap_implementation_update_chairs_report.pdf

http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=PBC/1/OC/3



http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/CountrySpecific%20Configurations/Sierra%20Leone/country%20request%20SL.pdf

http://www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/CountrySpecific%20Configurations/Sierra%20Leone/country%20request%20SL.pdf

18


Topic B: Safe disposal of radioactive materials

Introduction

Nuclear waste has been of great concern to the world ever since the first

nuclear test in Alamogordo in 194513. Approximately 7. 3 million cubic meters

of waste has been produced to the present day. The attitude to Nuclear

energy has also shifted quite swiftly from positive to negative throughout 20th

century due to its aggressive use in the Second World War and the threat it

posed during the Cold War. However, during the first decade of the 21st

Century, nuclear energy potential was revived with the creation of new

generations of reactors and various agreements that secured peaceful ways

of using it14. Thus, presently nuclear energy takes a very important part in our

modern industrial development; it is used in production of electricity, also for

agricultural and medical purposes15. Thus, it is important to keep in mind that

we will not discuss the abandonment of the use of nuclear energy; rather this

committee will try to contribute to international efforts in securing the safest

way of disposing of nuclear waste.

Levels of Nuclear wastes:

Not all waste produced by is dangerous, hence it is important to distinguish

different types in order to understand different mechanisms of waste disposals:

13 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy/ 14 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy/ 15 https://www.iaea.org/technicalcooperation/documents/Brochures/Joint/Waste.pdf


http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy/




https://www.iaea.org/technicalcooperation/documents/Brochures/Joint/Waste.pdf

19


Exempt waste & very low level waste Exempt waste and very low-level

waste contains radioactive

materials at a level which is not

considered harmful to people or the

environment. It consists mainly of

demolished material (such as

concrete, plaster, bricks, metal)

produced during rehabilitation or

dismantling operations on nuclear

industrial sites. The waste is therefore

disposed of with domestic refuse.

Low-level waste Low-level waste (LLW) is generated

from hospitals and industry, as well as

the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises

paper, rags, tools, and clothing,

which contain small amounts of

mostly short-lived radioactivity. It

does not require shielding during

handling and transport and is

suitable for shallow land burial.

Comprises some 90% of the volume

but only 1% of the radioactivity of all

radioactive waste.

Intermediate-level waste Intermediate-level waste (ILW)

contains higher amounts of

radioactivity and some requires

shielding. It typically comprises

resins, chemical sludge and metal

fuel cladding, as well as

contaminated materials from

reactor decommissioning. Its

radioactive decay generates heat

of less than about 2 kW/m3 so does

not require heating to be taken into

account in design of storage or

disposal facilities.

High-level waste16 High-level waste (HLW) arises from

the 'burning' of uranium fuel in a

nuclear reactor. HLW contains the

fission products and transuranic

elements generated in the reactor

core. It is highly radioactive and hot

due to decay heat, so requires

16 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management/

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management/


20


cooling and shielding. HLW

accounts for over 95% of the total

radioactivity produced in the

process of electricity generation.

HLW has both long-lived and short-

lived components, depending on

the length of time it will take for the

radioactivity of particular

radionuclides to decrease to levels

that are considered no longer

hazardous for people and the

surrounding environment. If

generally short-lived fission products

can be separated from long-lived

actinides, this distinction becomes

important in management and

disposal of HLW.

Discussion of the Problem

Main ways of disposal

Different examples or radioactive wastes require different ways of storage.

While low level wastes are disposed of domestic refuse, high-level wastes

require a very specific and highly secure ways of disposal.

Near-surface disposal

Performed at ground level, or in caverns below ground level (at depths of tens

of meters).

• Near-surface disposal facilities at ground level. These facilities are

on or below the surface where the protective covering is of the order of

a few meters thick. Waste containers are placed in constructed vaults

and when full the vaults are backfilled. Eventually they will be covered

and capped with an impermeable membrane and topsoil. These

facilities may incorporate some form of drainage and possibly a gas

venting system.

• Near-surface disposal facilities in caverns below ground level. Unlike

near- surface disposal at ground level where the excavations are

conducted from the surface, shallow disposal requires underground

excavation of caverns but the facility is at a depth of several tens of

meters below the Earth's surface and accessed through a drift.17

Deep geological disposal

17 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--storage-and-disposal-options/

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--storage-and-disposal-options/



21


Mines

(250m to 1000m)

The main concept is for a repository comprising mined tunnels or caverns into

which packaged waste would be placed. The choice of waste container

materials and design and buffer/backfill material varies depending on the

type of waste to be contained and the nature of the host rock-type

available.18

Boreholes

(2000m to 5000m)

The concept consists of drilling a boreholes into crystalline basement rock to a

depth of about 5000 meters, emplacing waste canisters containing used

nuclear fuel or vitrified radioactive waste from reprocessing in the lower 2000

meters of the borehole, and sealing the upper 3000 meters of the borehole

with materials such as bentonite, asphalt or concrete.19

All these methods are widely practiced by countries that possess large nuclear

facilities as well as by countries that produce relatively small amount of nuclear

wastes. Less used include Long-term above ground storage, Disposal at

subduction zones, Sea disposal, Sub seabed disposal, Disposal in ice sheets20.

These methods used geographically.

Financing of nuclear waste disposal:

The management of the nuclear waste can cost up to 5 % of the total cost of

electricity generated. Each government requires its nuclear utilities to provide

specific funds in order to secure sufficient amount of money when they are

required. There are number of specific funds that should be distinguished:

Provisions on the balance sheet

Companies include their estimated costs of waste management into balance

sheet as a liability. By that creating a mechanism that ensures their sufficient

investments meet necessary payments.

18 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--storage-and-disposal-options/ 19 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--storage-and-disposal-options/ 20 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--storage-and-disposal-options/










22


Internal fund

Special fund within the company made in order to cover the cost of nuclear

wastes disposal. The rules for the management of the fund vary, but many

countries allow the fund to be re-invested in the assets of the company, subject

to adequate securities and investment returns.

External fund

The fund is established outside of the company, usually by the government

and operates with the board of trustees. Management varies from country to

country. Some countries only allow the fund to be used for waste management

and decommissioning purposes, others allow companies to borrow a

percentage of the fund to reinvest in their business.

Regional and International Regulatory bodies:

Throughout the last 60 years of the nuclear energy use and waste

management Governments have developed various levels of cooperation

both internationally and regionally. Such agencies as International Atomic

Energy Agency (IAEA), the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organization

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the European

Commission (EC) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection

(ICRP) created a very well established framework for governments to follow

and implement domestically.

International Atomic Energy Agency

The IAEA is the international organization that advises on the safe and

peaceful uses of nuclear technology.

Founded in 1957 and it currently has 134 member states from countries

with and without nuclear energy programs.

The IAEA develops safety standards, guidelines and recommendations

and inter alia provides technical guidance to member states on

radioactive waste principles. Member states use the standards and

guidelines in developing their own legislation, regulatory documents

and guidelines. It also verifies through a safeguards inspection program

compliance with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

The IAEA's Waste and Environmental Safety Section works to develop

internationally agreed standards on the safety of radioactive waste. 21

Nuclear Energy Agency

The Nuclear Energy Agency of the OECD is based in Paris, France.

21 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management/



23


It has a variety of waste management programs involving its 28 member

states.

The organization aims to assist these states in developing safe waste

disposal strategies and policies for spent nuclear fuel, HLW and waste

from decommissioning nuclear facilities. It also works closely with the

IAEA on nuclear safety standards and other technical activities.

The NEA has a project aimed at preserving records, knowledge and

management (RK&M) of long-lived nuclear waste disposal for future

generations.22

European Commission

For several years, the European Commission (EC) has attempted to pass

Directives aimed at ensuring a common approach to nuclear safety

and radioactive waste management.

The so-called 'Nuclear Package' of Directives on nuclear safety and

waste management was a top-down approach which met with

considerable opposition from several Member States and was revised

on several occasions leading to the 2011 adoption of a scaled-back

version.

In July 2011 the European Union adopted a directive for the disposal of

used nuclear fuel and radioactive wastes, which required member

countries to develop national waste management plans for European

Commission, review by 2015.

The plans must include firm timetables for the construction of disposal

facilities, descriptions of needed implementation activities, cost

assessments, and financing schemes.

Safety standards promulgated by the IAEA would become legally

binding within the EU-wide policy framework. International peer reviews

should be invited at least every ten years.23

International Commission on Radiological Protection

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) is an

independent registered charity that issues recommendations for

protection against all sources of radiation.

The IAEA interprets these recommendations into international safety

standards and guidelines for radiological protection.

National regulators may also adopt the recommendations by the ICRP

for their own radiation protection standards.

22 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management/ 23 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management/

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32011L0070&from=EN

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32011L0070&from=EN





24


In March 2007, the ICRP approved its new fundamental

Recommendations on radiological protection replacing the

Commission’s previous Recommendations from 1990. 24

Existing frameworks and challenges:

Despite seemingly active international cooperation, there have been only two

international agreements reached on the subject of the matter: the Joint

Convention on Nuclear Safety and the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent

Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management.

Joint Convention on Nuclear Safety of 1994 obliges parties to follow the

principles promulgated by the IAEA in accordance with “Fundamental Safety

Principles (SF-1)". These obligations cover for instance, siting, design,

construction, operation, the availability of adequate financial and human

resources, the assessment and verification of safety, quality assurance and

emergency preparedness.

The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the

Safety of Radioactive Waste Management of 1997 considered the first legally

binding document that tackles the issue of waste management. It is a wide-

ranging document that includes the following:

Parties must adhere to a number of key principles and points to ensure

the safety of radioactive waste

Existing facilities are largely exempt, with a commitment only to review

their safety and “if necessary” to upgrade such a facility

Few specific requirements in the document, largely leaving it up to

individual parties to the treaty to enforce acceptable safety standards

using the guidelines and principles in the Convention

Requires signatories to establish their own legislative and regulatory

framework “to govern the safety of spent fuel and radioactive waste

management”, including a regulatory body

Covers emergency preparedness and trans boundary movement of

nuclear waste

However, in terms of real international cooperation and action countries seem

to be quite reluctant. For instance, the attempts to introduce a concept of

Multinational Repositories failed as none of the countries agreed to the terms

proposed.25 Due to the failure of some countries to secure their own proper

nuclear waste disposal it was suggested to create multinational and regional

repositories that could be located in more suitable for such purposes countries.

24 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management/ 25http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--

storage-and-disposal-options/





25


Despite such suggestions, all the potential developments were shut down

as countries listed their national laws and regulations that in most of the cases

prohibit such actions.

Meanwhile, nationally governmental approach differs drastically, which

creates even more difficult conditions for international cooperation. As it was

mentioned earlier some courtiers treat Highly Level Nuclear wastes differently

than others. Management of radioactive waste has been within the purview

of each national government, with any attempt at an international waste

disposal site or binding framework having failed. Even within the European

Union, the efforts to create an international framework or disposal site has

failed repeatedly.

Questions a Resolution Must Answer

What is SPECPOL’s role regarding the issue? What contributions can this

committee make to create better international cooperation?

How existing joint conventions can be strengthened and/or changed?

How should international Community further respond to this issue?

What about Low Level Disposals, shouldn’t they be safely disposed as

well?

How could the national management of the nuclear wastes be merged

with international cooperation?

Sources

IAEA, 2009. Classification of Radioactive Waste - General Safety Guide

No. GSG-1. New York: United Nations International Atomic Energy

Agency.

IAEA, 2010. Estimation of Global Inventories of Radioactive Waste and

Other Radioactive Materials. Geneva: International Atomic Energy

Agency.

Declarations and reservations on the Convention:

http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Conventions/jointconv_r

eserv.pdf

Full text of the Convention on Nuclear Safety:

https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc449.pdf The Guardian

news section on nuclear waste:

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/nuclear-waste

Article from The Conversation on nuclear waste:

http://theconversation.com/nuclear-waste-is-safe-to-store-in-our-

suburbs-not-just-the-bush-28206

International Atomic Energy Agency Website: https://www.iaea.org

Factsheets about Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Wastes:

https://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html

http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Conventions/jointconv_reserv.pdf

http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Conventions/jointconv_reserv.pdf

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/nuclear-waste

http://theconversation.com/nuclear-waste-is-safe-to-store-in-our-suburbs-not-just-the-bush-28206

http://theconversation.com/nuclear-waste-is-safe-to-store-in-our-suburbs-not-just-the-bush-28206

https://www.iaea.org/

https://www.iaea.org/Publications/Factsheets/English/manradwa.html

26


Bibliography:

1. ARPANSA, 2014. The Joint Convention. [Online] Available at:

http://www.arpansa.gov.au/aboutus/collaboration/jointconv.cfm

2. IAEA, 2015. Storage and Disposal of Spent Fuel and High Level

Radioactive Waste. [Online] Available at:

http://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/GC50/GC50InfDocuments/Engl

ish/gc50inf-3-att5_en.pdf

3. Outline History of Nuclear Energy: http://www.world-

nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-

nuclear-energy/

4. http://www-ns.iaea.org/conventions/nuclear-safety.asp

5. Radioactive Waste Management: http://www.world-

nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-

management/

6. Storage and Disposal Options: http://www.world-

nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-

wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--

storage-and-disposal-options/

http://www.arpansa.gov.au/aboutus/collaboration/jointconv.cfm

http://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/GC50/GC50InfDocuments/English/gc50inf-3-att5_en.pdf

http://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/GC50/GC50InfDocuments/English/gc50inf-3-att5_en.pdf




http://www-ns.iaea.org/conventions/nuclear-safety.asp








27


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28


Position Papers

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words.

29


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