IntroductionNow a days the demand of Electrical power in increasing day by day but the presence of coal and fossils fuels are towards the end. So it is the time to find find another way to generate the power. Sometimes it is also difficult to transmit power to the remote and hilly places which are far away for the main generating station. In order to improve energy efficiency and power quality issues. The use of solar cell energy is considered to be a primary resource, because there are several countries located in tropical and temperate regions, where the direct solar density may reach up to 1000W/m. At present, solar cell (PV) generation is assuming increased importance as a renewable energy sources application because of distinctive advantages such as simplicity of allocation, high dependability, absence of fuel cost, low maintenance and lack of noise and wear due to the absence of moving parts. So here we are trying to model a non-conventional energy generation system using wind and solar sources. No pollution is emitted here i.e.100% environmental friendly

Solar Energy PotentialAs of February 2006, Photovoltaic technology accounted for less than 1% of worldwide electricity generation.The amount of solar energy that reaches the Earths surface every hour is greater than humankinds total demand for energy in one year

Non-Electric Solar PowerSolar Water HeatingPassive Solar Heating/Lighting

Solar Water Heating

Solar Water HeatingAdvantagesReplacing or supplementing other water heating methods: natural gas, electricityDisadvantagesMore expensive in cooler climates

Passive Solar Heating/CoolingPassive solar heating can use overhangs to shield the home from the sun in the summer, and warm the home when the sun is lower in the winter sky

Solar Heating/Cooling

Non-Electric Solar Power & Energy IndependenceLowered Energy ConsumptionBroadening of Energy PortfolioReduced Need for Fossil Fuel Imports

Solar Generated ElectricityConcentrating Solar PowerPhotovoltaic (PV) Cells

Concentrating Solar PowerRequire Direct SunlightConcentrating solar power systems cannot reflect diffuse sunlight, making them ineffective in cloudy conditionsTwo ApproachesPower TowerParabolic TroughDirect normal solar resource in the Southwest. Image courtesy of Tackling Climate Change In the US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by 2030 (Charles F. Kutcher ed.). Darker colors signify greater solar radiance.

CSP PotentialExisting US Generation Capacity (2003) = 1,000 GWTotal Potential CSP Generation in Southwest = 7,000 GW- Direct normal solar resource in the Southwest, filtered by resource, land use, and topology. Image courtesy of Tackling Climate Change In the US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by 2030 (Charles F. Kutcher ed.)

StateAvailable AreaCapacity (MW)Arizona19,2002,467,700California6,900877,200Colorado2,100271,900Nevada5,600715,400New Mexico15,2001,940,000Texas1,200148,700Utah3,600456,100Total53,9006,877,000

Power TowerSolar One (CA)Steam Heat Transfer10 MWSolar Two (CA)Molten Salt Heat Transfer10 MWSolar Tres (Spain)Molten Salt Heat Transfer15 MW

Solar Tower

Parabolic TroughSunlight focused on heat transfer fluid (HTF), which then runs steam turbine

Parabolic Trough Generating Plant Image of parabolic trough power plant in Kramer Junction, CA, which supplies power for the greater Los Angeles area. This plant, in conjunction 4 other parabolic trough plants in California, can produce as much as 354MW of electricity.

Photovoltaic Cells

Photovoltaic PotentialThe basic resource potential for solar PV in the United States is virtually unlimited compared to any foreseeable demand for energy.Paul Denholm, Robert Margolis, & Ken Zweibel, Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Solar Photovoltaics by 2030, in Tackling Climate Change In The US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions From Energy Efficiency And Renewable Energy By 2030, p.99 (Charles F. Kutcher, ed., 2007)PV is flexible enough that it can be adapted for use in many areas.

Photoelectric EffectBasic process by which a photovoltaic cell converts absorbed sunlight into electricityPhotons knock electrons free from the silicon structure, freeing them to enter electric current and power a load (like a light bulb)

Solar Generated Electricity Distribution ApproachesCentralized (CSP)Advantages and DisadvantagesDistributed (PV Roof Installations)Advantages and DisadvantagesDistributed PV Generation & Energy Independence

CentralizedAdvantagesTraditional model of distributionNo fuel costsDisadvantagesNon-Constant PowerVulnerabilityThis PV Array is part of the Sacramento Municipal Utility District, generating 3.2 MW, enough for 2,200 homes.

Distributed Solar (PV)AdvantagesNet-meteringGrid StorageFlexibilityReduced vulnerability to terrorist attackAlmost no maintenanceNegligible environmental impactDomestic Production (?)DisadvantagesCostExtensive Individual InvestmentLow Conversion EfficiencyCCRsIntermittency

Net-MeteringPeak generation from PV occurs during the dayNet-metering allows users to bank electricity they generate, and credit it against the electricity they useMost states wont pay users if they generate more electricity than they use, but they can zero-out their accountsAs of 2007, net-metering is offered to some degree in 41 states and D.C.California, New York, TexasNet-metering is offered in Illinois by one or more individual utilitiesEPAct of 2005 requires all states to offer net-metering by 2008

Grid-Connected PV

Solar Cell ArrayCCR

PV FlexibilityStand-AloneWater pumpsFansBattery BackupIsolated AreasGenerator BackupHybridRemote applicationsGrid ConnectedGrid storageUtility ScaleEasy & Quick to build

PV Applications

Reduced VulnerabilityRoof-by-roof power generation makes it too difficult for one strike to have a crippling effectVulnerability of centralized generation was illustrated in the August 2003 US blackoutcaused by a series of tripped generation facilities and transmission linesWithin the first 2 hours:3 Coal Fired Power Plants9 Nuclear Power Plants5 Major Transmission LinesEstimated loss from the August 2003 blackout has been placed at $5-6 billion.

Distributed Solar Power and Energy IndependenceThe ultimate in Energy Independence self-sufficiencyConsumers becoming producers

PV DisadvantagesPriceEfficiencyCommunity Associations CCRsIntermittency

PriceStill not price-competitive with traditional sources of electricityIf you don't include the environmental costs of coal-fired electricity when comparing them with solar, it becomes very difficult. [Saving money] is not what motivates me and if that's all that motivates the consumer, then perhaps solar isn't for them.Dr. Richard Corkish, University of New South Wales, School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy EngineeringPaying for ItselfAbility of a PV system to pay for itself depends on the size of the installation, electricity demands it is meeting.Residential PV system may pay for itself within first half of its estimated lifespan (30 years)

Price ReductionsGoals for DOEs Solar America Initiative for cost reduction in PV Residential (2-4kW) Systems:2015 = 10-12 cents/kWh2030 = 6-8 cents/kWh$148M in 2007 Funding for Solar America Initiative to spark R&D

Year$/W (Goal)Residential Installation Cost (2-4 kW)2005$8.50$17,000-34,0002010$5.50$11,000-$22,0002015$3.25$6500-13,0002030$2.00$4000-8,000

EfficiencyConversion Efficiency the percentage of solar energy shining on a device that is converted into electrical energyTypical EfficienciesSingle Crystalline Silicon = 14%Thin Film = 7%

CCRsAs of 1999, 42 Million Americans lived in community associationsMany of these communities seek to establish aesthetic uniformity, protecting homeowner and developer investment and lessening the risk of undesirable activities in the communityThe Declaration of Conditions, Covenants, and Restrictions are one method used to ensure that homes retain a common design theme w/in a community

Typical CCR Provisions Restricting Solar SystemsPrior Approval of Architectural CommitteeExplicit Restrictions on Placement of Solar EquipmentHeight RestrictionsRestrictions on secondary buildings or structuresRequirements that utilities be screenedRestrictions on the placement of improvementsSpecifications regarding roofing materialsRestrictions pertaining to architectural style

Architectural RestrictionsArizona HOA is battling resident over black solar collector which doesnt match his light-brown roofSome state laws have attempted to limit the ability of CCRs to restrict solar improvements

IntermittencyObviously, solar power requires sunlight to generate powerThis means that:No power is can be generated at nightPower generation may be reduced by cloud coverHowever, PV will still work with overcast skiesGeneration techniques requiring direct sunlight (CSP) are ineffective w/o optimum conditionsSolutions:Generators, Batteries, Hybrid FacilitiesHydrogen

HydrogenHydrogen can be used as an energy carrierHydrogen can be created from water through a process called electrolysisDC current is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygenEnergy from renewable sources, like solar power, can be used to manufacture hydrogenCommercial feasibility of solar generated hydrogen is far off

Solar Power and Energy IndependenceLessen Reliance on Fossil FuelStabilize Energy CostsRe-conceptualize Distribution of EnergyEnd-user productionDistributed system lessens large-scale vulnerabilityProduction Method for Hydrogen Economy

The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Soitec, CEA-Leti and the Helmholtz Center Berlin jointly announced today having achieved a new world record for the conversion of sunlight into electricity using a new solar cell structure with four solar subcells. Surpassing competition after only over three years of research, and entering the roadmap at world class level, a new record efficiency of 44.7% was measured at a concentration of 297 suns.

We are very proud of this new result, confirming the broad path that exists in solar technologies for advanced III-V semiconductor processing, said Leti CEO Laurent Malier.Concentrator modules are produced by Soitec (started in 2005 under the name Concentrix Solar, a spin-off of Fraunhofer ISE). This particularly efficient technology is employed in solar power plants located in sun-rich regions with a high percentage of direct radiation. Presently Soitec has CPV installations in 18 different countries including Italy, France, South Africa and California.

IV-characteristic for the current best four-junction solar cell under AM1.5d ASTM G173-03 spectrum at a concentration of 297 suns.

*See National Economic Council Advanced Energy Initiative, p.13 (Feb. 2006) available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/energy/energy_booklet.pdfSee http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_cell_light.html**Image Taken From http://www.humboldt.edu/~ccat/solarheating/hotwaterheating/andySP2002/DHW_scheme.gif*Image taken from http://www.endless-solar.com/photos/30%20tube%20red%20tile.JPG*See NESEA, Solar Energy for Homes - http://www.nesea.org/buildings/passive.htmlImage taken from http://www.nesea.org/images/overhang.gif*Large south-facing windows allow sunlight in, which can be trapped as heat by floors and walls. For cooling, open the bottom windows (allowing cool air in) and top windows (letting hot air out), creating a convection current. This home near Traverse City, MI gets 85% of its heat from the sun.- See http://www.urbanoptions.org/RenewableEnergy/SolarSpaceHeatingPassive.htmImage taken from http://www.urbanoptions.org/RenewableEnergy/images/SolarPassive1.jpg***Image from Charles F. Kutcher (ed.) Tackling Climate Change In the US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by 2030, p.82 (pdf). Published by American Solar Energy Society, PDF available at http://www.ases.org/climatechange. Note that darker colors indicate higher solar radiance.

*Data from from Charles F. Kutcher (ed.) Tackling Climate Change In the US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by 2030, p.82-83 (pdf). Published by American Solar Energy Society, PDF available at http://www.ases.org/climatechange. CSP requires certain land features in conjunction with solar radiance; this data and map indicate the optimal areas for CSP generation plants.

Image from Charles F. Kutcher (ed.) Tackling Climate Change In the US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by 2030, p.83 (pdf). Published by American Solar Energy Society, PDF available at http://www.ases.org/climatechange

*Diagram taken from http://www.solarpaces.org/SOLARTRES.HTMGraph taken from http://www.energylan.sandia.gov/sunlab/Snapshot/STFUTURE.HTM*Image taken from http://www.fv-sonnenenergie.de/images/solar_two.jpg*See http://www.powerfromthesun.net/chapter1/Chapter1.htmImage taken from http://www.trec-uk.org.uk/images/schott_parabolic_trough.jpgDiagram taken from http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/csp.html*Image taken from http://www.fplenergy.com/portfolio/pdf/solar_factsheet.pdf*- See http://www.powerfromthesun.net/chapter1/Chapter1.htmImage taken from http://www.solarmillenium.com/get_blob.php?id=311*Image taken from http://intraweb.stockton.edu/eyos/energy_studies/content/images/as_solarcells.jpg*See Paul Denholm, Robert Margolis, & Ken Zweibel, Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Solar Photovoltaics by 2030, in Tackling Climate Change In The US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions From Energy Efficiency And Renewable Energy By 2030, p.99 (Charles F. Kutcher, ed., 2007)*IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme - http://www.iea-pvps.org/pv/index.htmImage taken from http://www.specmat.com/Overview%20of%20Solar%20Cells.htm**See http://www.smud.org/news/multimedia.htmlImage taken from http://www.smud.org/news/media%20gallery/otherimages/PV_anniv.jpg*http://www.iea-pvps.org/pv/index.htmhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_important.html*See P.Denholm and R. Margolis, Very Large Scale-Scale Deployment of Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaics in the United States: Challenges and Opportunities, Conference Paper (April 2006), published by National Renewable Energy LaboratorySee http://www.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets/netmetering.shtmlhttp://www.dsireusa.org/documents/SummaryMaps/NetMetering_Map.ppthttp://www.eere.energy.gov/states/alternatives/net_metering.cfm*Graphs taken from P.Denholm and R. Margolis, Very Large Scale-Scale Deployment of Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaics in the United States: Challenges and Opportunities, Conference Paper (April 2006), published by National Renewable Energy Laboratory

*See http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_use.htmlhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_important.html*Images taken from the following pages:http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/grid_connect.htmlhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_generators.htmlhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/hybrid_systems.htmlhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/to_economy.html

*See Donald Aitken, Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future p.13 (International Solar Energy Society, 2003) available at http://whitepaper.ises.org/ISES-WP-600.pdf***Peter Vincent, How Solar Ran Out of Puff, Sydney Morning Herald, http://www.smh.com.au/news/environment/how-solar-ran-out-of-puff/2007/04/16/1176696757654.htmlhttp://sunlightandpower.com/faqs/#payforself*Graph taken from Charles F. Kutcher (ed.) Tackling Climate Change In the US: Potential Carbon Emissions Reductions from Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by 2030, p.86 (pdf). Published by American Solar Energy Society, PDF available at http://www.ases.org/climatechangeSee See National Economic Council Advanced Energy Initiative, p.13 (Feb. 2006) available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/energy/energy_booklet.pdf

*http://www.iea-pvps.org/pv/materials.htm*See Thomas Starrs, Les Nelson, Fred Zalcman, Brining Solar Energy to the Planned Community: A Handbook on Rooftop Solar Systems and Private Land Use Restrictions. (1999) Available at http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/erprebate/documents/CC+Rs_and_solar_rights.pdf*See Thomas Starrs, Les Nelson, Fred Zalcman, Brining Solar Energy to the Planned Community: A Handbook on Rooftop Solar Systems and Private Land Use Restrictions. (1999) Available at http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/erprebate/documents/CC+Rs_and_solar_rights.pdf

*See http://www.azcentral.com/community/chandler/articles/0329cr-solar0329Z6.htmlImage taken from http://www.azcentral.com/community/chandler/articles/0329cr-solar0329Z6.html*http://www.iea-pvps.org/pv/resource.htm*See Kroposki, Levene, Harrison, Sen, & Novachek, Electrolysis: Information and Opportunities for Electric Power Utilities (September 2006), available at http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/pdfs/39534.pdf*