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Sar Fus aArtiicia PhtsthsisScience and innovation to change ouruture energy options

January 2012

.rsc.r/sar-us

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i | Solar Fuels and Artiicial Photosynthesis

Aut this puicati

This report is intended or an audience o policy makers with interests in the UKs uture energy strategies, andin UK and EU research and innovation policy. It is a non-technical introduction to the potential o solar uels tobecome a viable alternative in our uture energy landscape.

The RSC is committed to raising awareness o the role o chemistry in addressing global challenges and it is hopedthat the report will be o interest to the wider public.

Aut th RSC

The Royal Society o Chemistry is the leading society and proessional body or chemical scientists. We arecommitted to ensuring that an enthusiastic, innovative and thriving scientiic community is in place to acethe uture.

The RSC has a global membership o over 47,500 and is actively involved in the spheres o education,qualiications and proessional conduct. We run conerences and meetings or chemical scientists, industrialists

and policy makers at both national and local levels.

We are a major publisher o scientiic books and journals, the majority o which are held in the RSC Libraryand Inormation Centre.

In all our work, the RSC is objective and impartial, and we are recognised throughout the world as anauthoritative voice or chemistry and chemists.

Th RSC a sustaia r

This report is supported by a wide range o ongoing RSC activities to advance renewable energy technologies,through chemistry and other sciences.

For more inormation on the RSCs many activities in this area, including scientiic publishing, internationalconerences and meetings, and policy activities, see Appendix C and the RSCs online portal or Sustainable Energy.

.rsc.r/sustaia-r

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Science and innovation to change our future energy options | 1

TAble oF ConTenTS

Frr 2

ecuti suar 3

Itructi 4

Part 1: Th pttia aki us usi suiht 5

1.1 What are solar uels? 51.2 How would solar uels change uture energy options? 6

1.2.1 A way to store and transport solar energy 61.2.2 A way o producing renewable liquid uels or transport 71.2.3 A source o renewable uels or established industries 8

1.3 Solar uels, hydrogen transport and carbon capture 8

Part 2: Sar us: scic a iati 10

2.1 Scientiic approaches to producing solar uels 10

2.2 Challenges in large-scale production o solar uels 112.3 Research and innovation in the UK 11

2.3.1 UK research 122.3.2 UK innovation and industry 12

2.4 Research and innovation globally 13

Part 3: opprtuitis r th UK 15

3.1 Research and innovation 153.1.1 Research and innovation supporters 153.1.2 Intellectual property 16

3.2 Capacity building 16

3.2.1 Higher education and research 163.2.2 A ramework or chemistry education 16

Appics 17

A othr ths harssi sar r 17

b Scitiic aacs i artiicia phtsthsis 18

C Th RSC a sar us 20

Rrcs 21

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2 | Solar Fuels and Artiicial Photosynthesis

FoRewoRd

For previous generations, the idea that we could use solar energy to produce electricityor uel may have appeared as a remote vision. But today, harnessing the power o the sunhas become a reality; photovoltaic solar panels are an increasingly common sight.

Scientists are now working towards another great breakthrough: mimickingphotosynthesis, natures way o making uel rom sunlight, on a commercial scale.

This human achievement is testament to the determination, creativity and hard work oscientists and engineers, each generation building on the knowledge gained by their

predecessors. Its a journey that began in the 19th century with the discovery o the photovoltaic eect, wherebyan electric current is produced in a material when exposed to light.

During the 20th century, we have made completely unoreseeable breakthroughs, including the discoveries anddevelopment o conducting materials which are used in modern solar cells. This pace o progress continues aschemists work closely with physicists, materials scientists and, more recently, biologists, to lay the oundation ornext-generation photovoltaic technologies.

Recent scientiic breakthroughs mean that, in the laboratory, it is now possible to mimic photosynthesis andto use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce uels. Scientists in the UK have played a key role inthese breakthroughs, most notably in developing materials to capture and channel sunlight; deepening ourunderstanding o photosynthesis; and discovering new catalysts to make the chemistry possible.

This report represents an important step in raising awareness o the potential o producing uels rom sunlight, sothat energy rom the sun can be stored and used whenever and wherever it is needed.

A uture where we could run our cars and actories on clean, sustainable uel is not just a vision. There is increasingmomentum in the global scientiic and engineering community to develop the chemistry and technologies thatwill make uels rom sunlight to limit the impact we have on our planet.

The opportunity to contribute to this global eort by current and uture world-leading scientists and innovators isone that no nation can aord to miss.

Aa J Hr

Professor of Physics and of Materials

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry

University of California at Santa Barbara

2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery and development of conductive polymers

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exeCUTIve SUmmARy

Harnessing and securing environmentally sustainable energy supplies is one o the key societal challenges theRoyal Society o Chemistry has outlined in its roadmap, Chemistry for Tomorrows World. The chemical sciences havea critical role to play in developing energy solutions that will support societys move rom an economy based onossil uels to a more sustainable energy mix.

Scientists around the world are working towards the goal o developing technologies to harness energy romthe sun to produce uels or transport, industry and electricity generation. Fuels produced using solar energywould transorm our energy options in the uture by providing an alternative to ossil uels. The United States, theNetherlands and South Korea have seen recent investment in dedicated programmes or solar uels research andinnovation, and there are also renewable energy research centres in China and Japan.

While each country is implementing a dierent strategy, important elements o the American, Dutch and Koreanprogrammes are that they:

oster interdisciplinary undamental and applied research by bringing researchers rom dierent subields

together to collaborate;

aim to make advances using undamental research in order to develop commercial prototypes;

explicitly include the goals o engaging with established industry and innovation, and maximising businessopportunities or each country.

Whilst there is considerable research strength in both solar uels and solar photovoltaics in the UK, a coherentstrategy or solar energy research and innovation is crucial i the UK is to maintain its position in light ointernational competition. This means that we need to invest in undamental and applied interdisciplinary research;invest in mechanisms to support the next generation o researchers; protect our intellectual property; and, create aclimate that supports innovation and engagement between academia and industry.

This report explains the concept o solar uels and their potential to transorm our uture energy options. It setsout the opportunities or the UK to capitalise on its existing research capabilities and position itsel to beneit, bothenvironmentally and economically, rom solar uels innovation.

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InTRodUCTIon

Scitifc rakthruhs a tchis

i pa a k r i scuri a sustaia supp

r r th UK, a a, a arssi

th risks ciat cha a ca aciifcati.

Sustainable, low carbon energy supplies are one o themost pressing challenges acing society. The need totake immediate action has been underscored by theInternational Energy Agencys World Energy Outlook20112 which concluded that There are ew signs thatthe urgently needed change in the direction o globalenergy trends is underway, and that We cannot aordto delay urther action to tackle climate change.

Scientists and engineers are needed not only to indmore eicient ways o producing, reining and usingossil uels, but also to develop renewable energysolutions. The RSC highlighted the major role othe chemical sciences in addressing global energychallenges in its roadmap Chemistry for TomorrowsWorld. 3

New and improved sustainable energy technologies willbe one way in which nations will be able to deliver onimportant commitments to emissions targets, such as:

the UN Framework Convention on Climate Changeand recent agreements made at the UN ClimateChange Conerence, Durban 2011; and

crucial near-term voluntary national pledges toreduce emissions.

The goal o this report is to raise awareness o theconcept o solar uels and show their potential tobecome an additional and signiicant new optionin our longer-term energy uture. The UK urgentlyneeds a strategy to support the interdisciplinaryresearch, entrepreneurship and industrial partnershipsrequired to maintain a world-leading position. Onlythen will the UK be in a position to beneit bothenvironmentally and economically rom solar uels inthe long-term.

Other countries have made signiicant investmentand strategic concentration o resources in solar uelsresearch and innovation. There is a risk that the UK willmiss the opportunity to capitalise on its capability inthis area.

Our sun is the champion o energy sources:

delivering more energy to the earth in an

hour than we currently use in a year rom

ossil, nuclear and all renewable sources

combined. Its energy supply is inexhaustible

in human terms, and its use is harmless to

our environment and climate.1

Prssr Jas barr CCh FRSC FRS

Ernst Chain Proessor o BiochemistryImperial College London

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Newtechnologies

Existingtechnologies

FertiliserPlasticsPharmaceuticals

Syntheticfuels

fortransport

Sunlight is used to split waterinto hydrogen and oxygen

Hydrogen and simplecarbon-based fuels are usedas raw materials (feedstocks)by many industries

Hydrogen is usedas a transport fuel

Figure 1

Hydrogen (H)

Solar fuels

Carbon-based fuels such asmethane (CH), carbon monoxide (CO)and methanol (CHOH)

Sunlight is used to produce carbon-based fuels from carbon dioxideand water. A source of carbondioxide could be acoal-burning powerstation fitted withcarbon capturetechnology

What could the production and use of solar fuels look like?

PART 1: THe PoTenTIAl oF mAKIng FUelS USIng SUnlIgHT

1.1 what ar sar us?Th su irs r r t th arth i

hur tha currt us r ssi us, ucar

pr a a ra r surcs cii a ar. Its pttia as a ra r surc,

thrr, is ast. I ca p ssts t us

sar r t pruc us a ar sca, this

i trasr ur utur r ptis.

There are various ways in which human beings areharnessing solar energy, such as or electricity and heating,and through biouels and ood. These are discussed inmore detail in Appendix A. The ocus o this report is solaruels, or uels produced directly using sunlight.

Currently, most uels or transport, electricitygeneration and many raw materials or industry(eedstocks) are produced rom coal, oil or naturalgas. But an alternative route to producing liquidand gaseous uels could be using technologies thatharness sunlight. See Figure 1.

Solar energy can be captured and stored directly in thechemical bonds o a material, or uel, and then usedwhen needed. These chemical uels, in which energy

rom the sun has deliberately been stored, are calledsolar uels.

What is new here is not the uels themselves, but theway that we can use energy rom the sun to producethem. The word uel is used in a broad sense: it reersnot only to uel or transport and electricity generation,but also eedstocks used in industry.

This concept o making uels using sunlight is the basis ophotosynthesis, where sunlight is used to convert water

and carbon dioxide into oxygen and sugars or othermaterials which can be thought o as uels. See Figure 2.

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For over hal a century, scientists have pursued thepossibility o producing solar uels in the laboratory.There are three approaches:

artiicial photosynthesis in which systems made byhuman beings mimic the natural process;

natural photosynthesis; and

thermochemical approaches.

These processes to produce solar uels are discussed inmore detail in Part 2 and in Appendix B.

Over the last ten years the drive to develop systems toproduce solar uels on large scales has been an area oincreasingly intense global research activity. It is alsonow attracting commercial interest.

Scientists have made signiicant progress in producingtwo very important types o uels.

Hydrogen which can be used as a transport uel and isan important eedstock or industry. Hydrogen can beproduced by splitting water using sunlight. See Figure 3.

Carbon-based fuels such as methane or carbonmonoxide.i These are key eedstocks or making awide range o industrial products including ertilisers,pharmaceuticals, plastics and synthetic liquid uels.

Carbon-based uels can be produced using sunlight,carbon dioxide and, or example, water.

iused with hydrogen as synthesis gas.

1.2 H u sar us cha uturr ptis?Th cha i r aratr prttp

ssts t crcia tchis is siifcat.

Hr, i this rut t pruci us is

achi a ar sca, it u trasr ur

sustaia r ptis prii

atratis t i, as a ca as surcs u r

trasprt, iustr a ctricit rati.

1.2.1 A a t str a trasprt sar rOne o the challenges o solar and other intermittentrenewable energy sources (like wind and wave power),is how to store the energy. For solar energy to becomea practical and widespread component o our energymix, new technologies to store it are vital so that solarpower is available when there is little or no sunlight.

Solar uels address this challenge as energy rom thesun is stored in the chemical bonds o the uels. Theconcept o producing and storing solar uels is shownin Figure 4.

Plants

Photosynthesis: Natures way of making solar fuel

Figure 2

This solar energy drives a complex process in whichwater and carbon dioxide are converted to oxygen

and carbohydrates or other fuels

2Sunlight is absorbedby plants, algae and

certain bacteria

1

++Water Carbon

dioxide

Oxygen Fuel

Sunlight

Algae

Cyanobacteria(microscopic view)

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Water

Sunlight

Oxygen

Hydrogen

Water

Sunlight is used to split waterinto hydrogen and oxygen

Producing hydrogen by splitting water using sunlight

Figure 3

Sunlight

Solar fuelproductionsystem

Hydrogen can be used as a transport fuel and is already widely used asa raw material for making products like fertiliser and plastics

A second challenge or intermittent renewable energysources is transporting energy rom the place where itis captured to where it is needed. Solar uels are easilytransported using existing distribution networks byroad, rail or sea. See Figure 1.

Solar uels can also be combined with uel celltechnologies, which convert uels to electricity, topower a building or small community. This is shownin Figure 4, where the solar uel could be hydrogen ormethane. An example o a demonstrator project in theUK where a building has been powered by a uel cell isa leisure complex in Woking4 (although the uel in thiscase is not produced rom sunlight).

1.2.2 A a pruci ra iquius r trasprtGlobally, just over 60% o world oil consumption isor transport5 and, in aluent countries like the UK,transport typically accounts or about one third othe average energy consumption per person.6

Current UK policy analyses, such as the recentRenewable Energy Reviewby the Committee on ClimateChange,7 ocus on biouels, electric and hybrid electricvehicles as sustainable transport options. This reporthighlights that, in the longer term, solar uels could bean important new option in addressing the issue o

sustainable transport. These uels could be used orlight vehicles and, perhaps more signiicantly, or airand ocean transport, which are more challenging toelectriy.

According to a large ongoing study8 by the Committeeon Americas Energy Future, there are limited options orreplacing or reducing the use o petroleum, at least inthe United States, beore 2020. In terms o cost, one othe reports conclusions is that producing liquid uelsrom coal is the least expensive option but that there areimportant health and environmental issues associatedwith it. In contrast, liquid uels produced directly usingsunlight and abundant materials like water and carbondioxide would avoid the need or coal.

There are two ways that solar uels could be used toprovide sustainable uels or transport. The irst is usinghydrogen to power hydrogen vehicles. The second isusing a combination o hydrogen and carbonmonoxide (oten reerred to as synthesis gas, orsyngas) to make liquid uels or transport (otenreerred to as synthetic uels). This conversion ohydrogen and carbon monoxide into synthetic uels iscalled the Fischer-Tropsch process. Currently, syntheticliquid uels are produced rom coal and natural gas bya growing Fischer-Tropsch industry.9

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1.2.3 A surc ra us rstaish iustrisMany o the products that we use, such as ertilisers,pharmaceuticals and plastics, are made, primarily, romeedstocks such as hydrogen and simple carbon-based

molecules, which are derived rom ossil uels (see boxoverlea). Producing these eedstocks also requires a loto energy.

The capability to produce eedstocks using sunlight andabundant materials such as water and carbon dioxidewould thereore be a major breakthrough in reducingour dependence on ossil uels both as eedstocks andenergy sources.

An example is hydrogen which is widely used in

industry as a eedstock, and is mainly produced in aprocess called natural gas steam reorming. Concernsabout the ossil uel-derived energy required and theassociated greenhouse gas emissions make alternativeroutes to producing hydrogen, such as producing itusing sunlight, desirable.

1.3 Sar us, hr trasprt acar capturl-tr, sar us cu pri a atrati

t ssi us. Th u as pa a iprtat

r i ai r haci thr sustaia

r tchis such as hr trasprta car captur, stra a us.

Hr trasprtHydrogen vehicles operate either by combininghydrogen and oxygen in a uel cell to producewater and electricity to power a motor (or examplethe Honda FX Clarity), or by burning hydrogen (orexample the BMW Hydrogen 7).

Fuel-cell-grade hydrogen is currently produced inprocesses that require at least as much energy asnatural gas steam reorming (see section 1.2.3).

One o the challenges or hydrogen transport,thereore, is to ind alternative ways to producehydrogen.


HYDR

OGEN

STATIO

N

HYDR

OGENS

TATION

Solar hydrogen storage

By day

Solar energy around the clock

Figure 4

Sunlight is used to produce solar fuels such as hydrogen. Some of this hydrogen is usedimmediately for transport and electricity generation and the rest is stored

By night

Without sunlight there is no energy source to produce hydrogen.Hydrogen stored during sunlight hours is used for transport andelectricity generation at night or during cloudy periods

Capture sunlightand produce fuel

Solar hydrogen

Key

Electricity

Electricitygeneration(fuel cell)

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There are other challenges, such as storing hydrogenand improving uel cell technologies, but i hydrogenwere produced using sunlight, this would be a major

step orward in enabling its use as a transport uel on alarge scale.

Car captur, stra a usAccording to the 2011 World Energy Outlook2 coalaccounts or nearly hal o the increase in globalenergy use over the past decade, with the bulk o thegrowth coming rom the power sector in emergingeconomies. Given the signiicant emissions associatedwith burning coal, technologies or capturing andstoring carbon dioxide are being researched globally.11

In the UK, the government has recently reairmed its1 billion commitment to carbon capture and storageprojects.12

But rather than long-term storage o carbon dioxidecaptured rom ossil-uel burning power stations (amajor technological challenge in itsel ) an attractive

prospect is to use some o it to produce uels andeedstocks.11 This is one area o interest to theCO2Chem network13 in the UK. According to a recentreview by a group o UK chemical scientists, thebiggest obstacle or establishing industrial processesbased on CO2 is the large energy input which isrequired to reduce it in order to use it. 14

Sunlight could provide the energy needed toproduce uels rom carbon dioxide. Figure 1 showshow carbon capture technology could provide a

source o carbon dioxide which, combined withwater and solar energy, would be used to produceuseul carbon-based uels such as carbon monoxide(combined with hydrogen as syngas), methane oreven methanol. These are used as eedstocks byestablished industries as described in 1.2.3.

Hydrogen and carbon-based feedstocks are widely used in industry.

FrtiisrsInstrumental in increasing agricultural productivityworldwide, ertilisers will continue to play an important

role in eeding the worlds growing population.A key stage in ertiliser production is the Haber-Boschprocess in which ammonia is produced rom nitrogenand hydrogen. Fertiliser production, including thestep o producing hydrogen by natural gas steamreorming, consumes around 1% o global energysupplies and around 4% o natural gas supplies.10

PharacuticasSimple hydrogen and carbon-based eedstocksderived rom ossil uels are the starting point in many

o the process chains in the pharmaceutical industry.

PasticsHydrogen and carbon are the two primary constituentso many plastics. An example is polyethylene which

consists o long chains o ethene (C2 H4). These areproduced, predominantly, by the petrochemicalindustry, although bioplastics, derived rom renewablesources, are becoming more widespread.

Sthtic usAn area o increasing investment is the productiono liquid uels using the Fischer-Tropsch processwhich converts a mixture o carbon monoxide andhydrogen (CO and H2), oten called synthesis gas orsyngas, to a liquid uel.9 Currently, this syngas is mainly

produced rom coal and natural gas.

For all four types of products, if hydrogen or carbon-based feedstocks such as carbon monoxide

and methane could be produced from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide, this would provide an

alternative to natural gas, oil and coal as raw materials. Solar energy would also replace fossil

fuel-derived energy in the production process.

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PART 2: SolAR FUelS: SCIenCe And InnovATIon

UK scitists ar aki r-cass rsarch

ctriutis tars pi ssts t

pruc sar us a crcia sca. but i

cparis ith th actiit itratia,

thr is a ccr that th UK i t a t

cpt i th -tr ithut a chrt

strat r rsarch a iati i sar r.

This section surveys the approaches to, and challengesin, producing solar uels on commercial scales. It alsogives an overview o research and innovation in the UKand internationally.

Recently, there have been major scientiic breakthroughsin developing systems that produce uels rom sunlight.

These include:

signiicant breakthroughs in our understandingo the molecular mechanisms in naturalphotosynthesis and in catalysis;

developing new materials that harvest sunlight andchannel it to produce electricity and uels; and

developments in nanotechnology.

There have also been advances in other new energytechnologies such as uel cells and carbon capture.

These breakthroughs, along with concerns aboutenergy security and climate change, have ledto increased eorts to produce solar uels. Manynations are increasing their investment in dedicatedinterdisciplinary solar uels research programmes,particularly the US, the Netherlands and South Korea.

These national programmes aim to support solaruels research: rom undamental research, throughdevelopment, to commercial solar uel productionsystems. There are real opportunities or the UK to takeits place at the oreront o this international eort.

2.1 Scitiic apprachs t prucisar usScitists ar pri thr ai apprachs t

usi suiht t ak us. S ths ar

itrrat, hr aacs i ara t

supprt prrss i thrs.

Nature has developed a highly sophisticated systemto convert solar energy into uel. In photosynthesis,plants, algae and some types o bacteria absorbsunlight and channel it to convert water and carbondioxide into oxygen and carbohydrates. Thesecarbohydrates (sugars and starches) can be thoughto as uels that provide the energy that enables plantsand animals to live, grow and reproduce (see Figure 2).

Scientists are currently pursuing three main approachesto produce solar uels.

Artiicia phtsthsisThis is a term that has emerged to describe processeswhich use a broad range o systems to mimic naturalphotosynthesis: sunlight is harvested and the energy isused to chemically convert water and carbon dioxideinto uels.1 Artiicial photosynthesis is the process andsolar uels are the products. See Figure 5.

Artificial photosynthesis pathway from sunlight to fuels

Figure 5

Solar fuels

Hydrogen (H)

Carbon-based fuels

such as methane (CH),carbon monoxide (CO)and methanol (CHOH)

Inputs

Sunlight and abundantmaterials such as waterand carbon dioxide

Process

Artificialphotosynthesis

Product Uses

Transport fuel Raw materials

for industry

Electricity generation

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PhtsthsisThere is signiicant research activity exploring howto produce hydrogen and more complicated uelsdirectly rom the photosynthetic reactions o livingorganisms such as algae and bacteria.15

Researchers at the University o Cambridgedemonstrated this concept to the public at the 2010Royal Society Summer Science Exhibition.16

There is a natural interplay between research inartiicial photosynthesis and natural photosynthesis.For instance, by advancing our understanding o thenatural process, scientists can generate ideas or howto mimic aspects o it.

Some large-scale research programmes are pursuingboth approaches to solar uels production, such as theTowards Biosolar Cells17 consortium in the Netherlands,discussed in section 2.4.

Thrchica pructiThese approaches are based on using sunlight to heatsubstances to very high temperatures so that theyreact with steam or carbon dioxide to produce carbonmonoxide or hydrogen.

A European example is a series o EU-unded Hydrosol

projects, the latest o which is Hydrosol 3D18 whichaims to lead to a demonstration plant. In the US, bothSandia National Laboratory and the US Airorce haveactive programmes in this area.19

2.2 Chas i ar-sca pructi sar usScitists a irs ar rki tthr

siifcat scitifc a tchica chas

t succssu sca up aratr prttps t a

crcia sca.20

I solar uels are to become part o our sustainableenergy mix, the systems to produce them must be:

Efficient, so that they harness as much o thesunlight hitting them as possible to produce uels.The larger the raction o sunlight that can beconverted to chemical energy, the less materialsand land would be needed. A target eiciency oabout 10%, which is about ten times the eiciencyo natural photosynthesis21, would be an initial goal.ii

Durable, so that they can convert a lot o energy intheir lietime relative to the energy required to installthem. This is a signiicant challenge because somematerials degrade quickly when exposed to sunlight.

Cost effective, so that solar uels are commerciallyviable.

I we are to successully develop eicient, long-lasting andcommercially viable solar uels production systems, weneed to support diverse areas o undamental and appliedresearch in chemistry, other sciences and engineering.

Artiicial photosynthesis requires the expertise o all othese communities working together to address someo the key challenges such as:

integrating the dierent processes and materialsinvolved, rom capturing and channelling sunlightthrough to producing a chemical uel;

identiying inexpensive catalysts to drive dierentaspects o the process;

developing ways to avoid the system degradingquickly because o exposure to sunlight.

Since the 1950s scientists have been developing systemsto produce solar uels using artiicial photosynthesis,

natural photosynthesis and thermochemical routes. Anoverview o scientiic advances in artiicial photosynthesisis given in Appendix B.

2.3 Rsarch a iati i th UKTh UK has csira rsarch capaiit i

sar r, th i sar us a phttaics.

UK rsarchrs ha as strat

trpruria iitiatis a iustria

partrships i t-rati phttaics.

Thr ar siifcat pprtuitis r th UK t

ui its psiti thruh a chrt straticapprach t sar us rsarch a iati.

This section gives some examples o current researchprojects related to solar uels unded by UK researchcouncils and European sources, and discussespotential or related innovation. There is some overlapbetween solar uels and photovoltaics research andinnovation because, in both cases, scientists need tounderstand and develop systems that harvest andchannel the suns energy.

iiThere are really two challenges here to convert as much of the solar radiation spectrum as possible, from infrared to ultraviolet, and to convert a

large fraction of the light at each frequency (or colour) into chemical energy.

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2.3.1 UK rsarchThere are many examples o current research projectsrelated to solar uels.

Th eiri a Phsica Scics Rsarch

Cuci (ePSRC) supports several projects through theTowards a Sustainable Energy Economy programme.22

New and Renewable Solar Routes to Hydrogen isled by Imperial College London and is targetingboth artiicial and natural photosynthetic routes tosolar-derived hydrogen (4 million);

Artiicial Photosynthesis: Solar Fuels is led by theUniversity o Glasgow (1.6 million);

The SolarCAP consortium o researchers are based at theUniversities o East Anglia, Manchester, Nottingham andYork; they are working to develop solar nanocells or theproduction o carbon-based solar uels (1.7 million).

ePSRC SUPeRgen programmes also ocus onphotovoltaics, and the EPSRC recently announced acall or applications or a new Solar Energy Hub, withunding o up to 4 million. One eature o the new hubwill be that: The institutions involved in the successulapplication will be expected to take a leadership role inthe solar energy research community.23

Th bitch a biica Scics Rsarch

Cuci (bbSRC) recently announced a highlightnotice or research proposals on the generation ohydrocarbons rom living organisms.24 This is part o itsBioenergy and Biotechnology Priority Area.

The BBSRC is also a partner in the European ScienceFoundations EuroSolarFuels programme25 which hasunded projects led by the University o Glasgow andImperial College London.

Th Rsarch Cucis UK (RCUK) supports a cross-council programme, Nanoscience: through Engineeringto Application. This has three complementary researchprojects (at UCL, Imperial College London, and theUniversities o Bath, Bristol and the West o England)with a total investment o 4 million to turn carbonrom a pollutant into useul products.26

Th Christia dppr laratr r Sustaia

Sas Rsarch will be launched at the University oCambridge in 2012, unded by the Christian DopplerSociety (Republic o Austria) and OMV, the Austrian oilcompany.

Continued support or this kind o undamentalresearch across a range o subields in the chemicaland other sciences will play a key role in achieving thekinds o breakthroughs that are needed to producepractical technologies to produce solar uels.

Examples o key research areas include:

the photocatalytic and electrochemical properties oorganic and inorganic materials;

catalysis;

molecular mechanisms or light harvesting andtransport;

nanomaterials;

the structure and properties o suraces.

2.3.2 UK iati a iustrThe RSC is not aware o any UK university start-upcompanies that have been established to developtechnologies aimed at solar uels production.

There are, however, several university spin-outcompanies (Eight19, g24i, Molecular Photovoltaics,Ossilla, Oxord Photovolatics, Solar Press) alreadyworking to commercialise next-generationphotovoltaic technologies.

Companies rom established industrial sectors - suchas the automotive, catalysis, construction and energysectors - are engaged with developments in solar uelsresearch in a variety o ways.

For example, Johnson Matthey is actively monitoringtechnologies that would require catalysis in the overallconversion o sunlight into useul chemicals, but believesthat there has to be a clear business advantage or makingproducts this way over conventional chemical routes.

Companies such as Merck, Pilkington and CristalGlobalare also engaged with research in next-generationapplications using both photovoltaic andphotocatalytic technologies.

OMV, the Austrian oil company, has recently partneredwith the Christian Doppler Society to und a seven-year project at the University o Cambridge. Thiswill ocus on using sunlight to produce syngas romcarbon dioxide and water, as described in section 2.3.1.

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Tata Steel has invested in the Sustainable BuildingEnvelope Centre in collaboration with the WelshAssembly Government and the Low Carbon ResearchInstitute, and has expanded its photovoltaicsdevelopment project with Dyesol, also in Wales.27

Swansea University and Tata Steel are also leadingon an Innovation and Knowledge Centre theSustainable Product Engineering Centre or FunctionalIndustrial Coatings. This has unding rom theTechnology Strategy Board and the EPSRC.

The UK also has signiicant research activity in uel cells.For example, the AIM-quoted company Ceres Power,based in the UK, produces uel cells that can generateboth electricity and heat rom uel and air. Its products

are based on unique UK-owned technologies.28

2.4 Rsarch a iati aItratia, thr is a tr tars isti

i ar chrt itriscipiar prras r

r rsarch a iati.

There are programmes dedicated to solar uelsresearch and innovation in the United States, theNetherlands and South Korea, as well as renewableenergy research centres in China and Japan. There

is also evidence o some industries investing in solaruels research and innovation.

The UK should consider similar strategies to ensurethat UK science and innovation are major players inthis emerging ield.

The end goal o JCAP, the Joint Center or Articial

Photosynthesis, a DOE Energy Innovation Hub, is to

develop and ultimately enable the deployment at

scale o an articial photosynthesis technology thatwill directly produce uels rom sunlight, and which

simultaneously is cheap, robust, and ecient. This

would truly revolutionize our clean energy choices

in unprecedented ways. Because the prize is so

great, the efort must be pursued as an imperative

to achieve a truly sustainable, clean, afordable, and

scalable global clean energy system.

natha S. lis,

Director, Joint Center or Artifcial PhotosynthesisGeorge L. ArgyrosProessor o ChemistryCaliornia Institute o Technology

Uit StatsThere has been a renewed ocus in unding andpolitical support or solar uels in the US with theannouncement o a new Department o Energy(DOE) Energy Innovation Hub which President Obama

reerred to in his January 2011 State o the Unionaddress.29 This hub is in addition to other projectsunded by the DOE and the US National ScienceFoundation.

The hub, called the Joint Center or ArtiicialPhotosynthesis(JCAP),30 will receive $122 million ounding over a period o ive years. It is being led bythe Caliornia Institute o Technology in partnershipwith Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and SLACNational Accelerator Laboratory. A select group o

universities are also involved. The premise o the centreis that by bringing scientists and engineers togetherunder one roo, they can accomplish more, and aster,than working separately.

There are also examples o early stage solar uelsinnovation in the US such as the MIT spin-out, SunCatalytix,31 (which completed its $9.5 million Series BFunding Round, led by Tata Limited in 2010), and thePrinceton University spin-out, Liquid Light.32

eurpThe largest single national investment in a solar uelsresearch project has been by the Dutch governmentin a 25 million project, Towards BioSolar Cells.17This interdisciplinary consortium o six universities isworking on solar uels production by both natural andartiicial photosynthesis. It is explicitly set up to buildlinks with existing industry to develop an incubationstructure or new business.

Other projects include the European Science

Foundations EuroSolarFuels programme (reerred toin 2.3.1) and SOLARH2, led by Uppsala University inSweden, which received approximately 4 millionunder the European Commissions Seventh FrameworkProgramme (FP7) or research.

Two other projects unded as part o FP7 areNanostructured Photoelectrodes or EnergyConversion (NANOPEC), at 3.94 million, andNanodesigned Electrochemical Convertor o SolarEnergy in Hydrogen Hosting Natural Enzymes or their

Mimics (SOLHYDROMICS), at 3.65 million.

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Suth KraThe Korean Centre or Artiicial Photosynthesis(KCAP) was launched at Sogang University in 200933and, the ollowing year, signed a memorandum ounderstanding on international research with the

Solar Energy Research Centre (SERC) o the LawrenceBerkeley National Laboratory in the US. In 2011, thecentre made a cooperation agreement with steelcompany POSCO to undertake joint research onthe commercialisation o artiicial photosynthesis.POSCO is constructing a dedicated building, due to becompleted in 2012, or this research programme.

ChiaIn China, the Institute or Clean Energy was recentlyinaugurated and orms part o the Chinese Academy

Institute o Chemical Physics in Dalian.

JapaIn 2007, the Japanese government launched its WorldPremier International Research Center Initiative.34 Eachmultidisciplinary basic research area receives around1.4 billion per year over a 10 to 15 year period to

create centres or research.

The most recent centre to be announced is theInternational Institute or Carbon-Neutral EnergyResearch in Kyushu. Two other projects within theinitiative the International Center or MaterialsNanoarchitectronics and the Advanced Institute orMaterials Research35 also include research related toartiicial photosynthesis.

Japanese automotive companies are involved in solar

uels research and development. There is an activeresearch programme in artiicial photosynthesisat Toyota Central R&D Labs36 and, last year, Hondaannounced plans to build a second station toproduce hydrogen rom sunlight and water in SaitamaPreecture by the end o March 2012.37

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PART 3: oPPoRTUnITIeS FoR THe UK

Ra r iustris ca p r

rapi c crcia ia th rth

ha s i th siic phttaics iustr is a

pri cas. Th UK has th pprtuit t psiti

its a th rt-rurs i sar r

iustris p. Th UK s t p a

strat t ui skis r th utur, ist i

rsarch, prtct itctua prprt, a str

trprurship a partrships ith iustr.

Scientists and engineers around the world havedeveloped systems to produce uels, such as hydrogenand simple carbon-based uels, using water, carbondioxide and the suns energy.

Signiicant challenges remain in moving rom theseresearch prototypes to commercial systems. I thesechallenges can be overcome, however, it will transormour energy options in the uture by providing a way tostore and transport solar energy or use anywhere andanytime, and by providing a source o sustainable uelsor transport. It will also provide an alternative to ossiluels as eedstocks or industry.

There are opportunities or the UK to build on itsstrengths in solar uels research and position itselto beneit economically and environmentally rompotential new technologies.

The RSC has identiied two interrelated areas wherethe UK should consider how to maximise the potentialbeneits o a solar uels industry : research andinnovation, and capacity building.

3.1 Rsarch a iatiTh UK has a r-ai scitists h ar

rki sar us. S that th UK ca rtai itspsiti, stratis r utur istt

i rsarch a iati i this f, particuar

i iht itratia cptiti.

The United States, the Netherlands and South Korea,have invested in large-scale, interdisciplinary researchprogrammes speciically in solar uels. China and Japanhave dedicated centres or renewable energy research,where solar uels are an area o substantial eort.

While each country is implementing a dierentstrategy, important common elements o theAmerican, Dutch and Korean programmes are thatthey:

oster interdisciplinary research by bringingresearchers rom dierent subields together tocollaborate on projects;

aim to make advances using undamental researchin order to develop commercial prototypes;

explicitly include the goal o innovation andmaximising commercial opportunities or eachcountry.

There is some overlap between research inlight harvesting materials or solar uels and orphotovoltaics, discussed in Section 2.3. Given the UKsexisting strengths in this area, a UK strategy could buildon this and potentially be part o a broader initiativeocused on solar energy.

3.1.1 Rsarch a iati supprtrsIn the UK there is already support or research in solarenergy and or university spin-outs in photovoltaics,as well as initiatives such as the Sustainable Building

Envelope Centre (unded by Tata Steel) and theSPECIFIC Innovation and Knowledge Centre. This isprovided by the UK Research Councils, especially theEPSRC and the BBSRC, along with the TechnologyStrategy Board, and the Carbon Trust. Theseorganisations are likely to be very important indeveloping any strategy speciically targeting solaruels.

There are also opportunities or research programmesto build links with, and draw investment rom, existing

industrial sectors with interests in uels and sustainableenergy technologies. The energy sector, automotiveand catalysis sectors, and the sustainable buildingsector are all potential partners.

The UK should also explore opportunities to linkwith initiatives at a European level, or example, aspart o the 80 billion Horizon 2020 programme orinvestment in research and innovation,38 proposedrecently by the European Commission.

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3.1.2 Itctua prprtWhilst not the only way the UK could beneit romtechnologies that are eventually commercialised,the issue o protecting early intellectual property isimportant. There is evidence, however, that this is not

currently a UK strength.

The UK Intellectual Property Oice recently carried outan analysis o published worldwide patent documentsrelated to graphene, which causes some concern.Graphene is an area o research that has seen a recentsurge o activity towards innovation. The data showsthat less than 2% o these patent documents belongto UK-based applicants and less than 2.5% belongto UK resident inventors. This suggests that, despiteconsiderable strengths in undamental graphene

research, the UK is alling behind other high-technations such as the USA, Japan, Korea and Germanywhen it comes to research in graphene and itspotential commercial applications.39

With this in mind, any UK strategy or solar energyresearch programmes should consider how to protectintellectual property and associated commercialopportunities.

3.2 Capacit uii

Th UK s t p stratis r isti

i th t rati sar r rsarchrs,

trprurs a iustriaists.

3.2.1 Hihr ucati a rsarchAs well as supporting the UKs current world-classresearchers and innovators, the UK needs to considerthose who will be the UKs solar energy experts inthe uture. These include PhD students, postdoctoralresearchers and university aculty members whoare progressing towards leadership positions. It alsoincludes undergraduate students in chemistry andother sciences who may pursue solar energy-relatedcareers in industry, academia and policy.

In spring 2012, the RSC will publish a report settingout visions and recommendations or the uturechemistry landscape. It will include potential strategiesto support uture generations o researchers,entrepreneurs and industrialists.

3.2.2 A rark r chistr ucatiAt an even earlier stage, those involved in teachingand communicating science and chemistry inparticular must inspire and equip the nextgeneration o scientists with the knowledge and skillsneeded as a oundation or urther study.

The UK needs a science curriculum that is relevantto the challenges we ace as a society, and thatemphasises the crucial role o chemistry in tacklingthese challenges through undamental and appliedresearch.

In 2011, the RSC launched a report setting out acontext-based ramework or the curriculum orage ranges 11-14 and 14-16. Developing a GlobalFramework for Chemistry Education40 links learningoutcomes to the undamental science behind solvingsocietal challenges, such as sustainable energy, asidentiied in the RSCs roadmap.3

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APPendICeS

APPendIx A: oTHeR meTHodS oF HARneSSIng SolAR eneRgy

Thr ar sra as i hich suiht is ara

i tur it usu pr.

Sar ctricit

PhttaicsThe main technology in the UK is photovoltaics, wherehomeowners have solar panels installed on theirproperty. There are also examples, such as the40 MW Waldpolenz Solar Park near Leipzig in Germany,where there are large arrays o photovoltaic panels, orsolar arms, which generate electricity on much largerscales.

The vast majority o current photovoltaic technologyin use is based on crystalline silicon. This industry hasundergone signiicant growth, globally, in recent years.There are other photovoltaic technologies whichare used or specialised applications, as well as manynew technologies, such as organic and dye-sensitisedsolar cells, emerging rom very active research anddevelopment in the UK and elsewhere.

Cctrati sar prAnother approach to large-scale solar electricitygeneration involves concentrating solar energyusing mirrors and lenses to produce heat. Thesetechnologies heat oils and molten salts to hightemperatures, and the stored heat can then be laterused or electricity generation, day and night. A recentexample is the new 20 MW Gemasolar plant in Spain,based on molten salt heat storage technology.41

The European Academies Science Advisory Council

highlighted in a recent report the potential oconcentrating solar energy or electricity, both inSouthern Europe and as a component o a larger gridin the region o Europe, the Middle East and NorthArica (EU-MENA).42

othr sar ctricitThere are other ways in which electricity canbe generated using sunlight which are not at acommercialised stage. These include using livingorganisms such as algae or using solar uels in an

electrochemical uel cell.

Sar hati

The simplest solar heating technology is a panel thatheats water which can be used to provide heating andhot water or a home or larger premises.43 There arealso systems where solar energy is stored as heat in amaterial and combined with heat pump technology.This system is used by UK company, ICAX.44

These systems can provide 24-hour heating to a homeor community, and can also store energy rom the sunduring the summer to provide heating or buildingsduring the winter.

bius a crps

Biouels are produced by harvesting and thenprocessing plants and algae. And crops are grown andharvested or ood. In both cases, sunlight is the sourceo energy, converted naturally by photosynthesis.

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APPendIx b: SCIenTIFIC AdvAnCeS In ARTIFICIAl PHoToSynTHeSIS

Artifcia phtsthsis is a tr that has

r t scri prcsss that, ik atura

phtsthsis, harst suiht a us this

r t chica crt atr a car

ii it us.1

Research in artiicial photosynthesis is highlyinterdisciplinary its challenges span the physicalsciences, biological sciences and engineering.Subields o the chemical sciences such asphotochemistry, electrochemistry, materials chemistry,catalysis, organic chemistry and chemical biology willcontinue to play a crucial role in pursuing the artiicialphotosynthesis approach to producing solar uels.

In the last decade there has been a huge increasein momentum in this ield, mainly in the scientiicresearch community. The two main avenues beingexplored are water-splitting and carbon dioxidereduction. Progress in these areas is summarised here.

watr-spitti

Scientists irst successully produced hydrogen andoxygen by splitting water (see Figure 3) using artiicialphotosynthesis in the 1950s when there were manybreakthroughs using both biological and physicalsystems. However, these early systems were cost-prohibitive and not eicient or durable enough orlarge-scale use.45

Over the past ten years, there has been a revival oresearch into water-splitting46 which has attractedsome initial commercial investment. In 1998, scientistsat the National Renewable Energy Laboratory inColorado produced a solar hydrogen generator that isour times as eicient as photosynthesis. This systemwas, however, too costly to develop commercially as itused platinum electrodes and gallium-indium-basedphotovoltaic cells.45

There are now many laboratory prototypes o systemsthat use sunlight to split water to produce hydrogen.Some examples that have been demonstrated to thepublic are the exhibition by scientists rom the UKSolarCAP consortium at the Royal Society Summer2011 exhibition,47 and a video demonstration by theEnergy Institute at the University o Texas at Austin.48

In March 2011, scientists in the US announced theyhad developed an inexpensive and eicient prototypeartiicial lea,49 although the issue o the long-termstability o this system has yet to be ully explored.

The ield o water-splitting is at the stage wherethere is a need or standardisation so that test resultsare quoted at a neutral water pH, or example, andeiciencies are calculated based on illumination usinga standard solar lamp.50

In January 2010, Japanese car manuacturer Hondaannounced that they had begun operating a solarhydrogen station prototype at their R&D centre inLos Angeles,51 although it is too costly to scale-upcommercially.

Entrepreneurial initiatives include the SunHydro chaino solar hydrogen uelling stations between Maineand Florida.52 These hydrogen stations, like the 1998National Renewable Energy Laboratory prototype, arebased on a system where solar photovoltaic electricityis used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen byelectrolysis.

It is not yet clear which process will emerge as themost commercially viable in terms o eiciency,durability and cost: photo-electrochemical artiiciallea-type cells, or photovoltaic cells combined withelectrolysers.

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Ruci car ii

Sunlight can be used to produce uels rom carbondioxide combined with other materials such aswater. The uel products include carbon monoxide,ormic acid, methanol and methane. The process iscalled carbon dioxide reduction, and it can either beachieved directly in a photoreactor or indirectly usingsolar-derived hydrogen as a reductant.

The multielectron chemistry involved in theseprocesses makes this a particularly challengingtechnology.

One strategy is to use approaches inspired byphotosynthesis to reduce carbon dioxide. Scientists arealso exploring other enzymes rom microorganisms,such as carbon monoxide dehydrogenase.

Early photocatalysts required ultra-violet radiationrather than visible light to reduce carbon dioxide tocarbon monoxide. But chemists are now developingthese to work with light in the visible range. Forexample, a collaboration between the Universities oOxord and Michigan recently reported on a systemthat produces carbon monoxide rom carbon dioxideusing visible light and an electron source.53

Scientists are also developing catalysts that canbe used to generate methanol or methane.Researchers are also combining photochemical andelectrochemical methods so that the reaction ocarbon dioxide at an electrode is light-assisted.

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APPendIx C: THe RSC And SolAR FUelS

Th RSC raiss a supprts a i ra

actiitis t aac ra r

tchis, thruh chistr a thr

scics. Ths icu scitifc puishi,

itratia crcs a tis, a

pic actiitis.

RSC books and many RSC journals are publishingresearch related to solar uels, relecting the high levelo international research activity in this ield across thechemical sciences and other related disciplines. TheRSCs interdisciplinary journal Energy and EnvironmentalScience is playing a key role in disseminating the latestadvances in solar uels research globally.

The RSC carries out its activities to support sciencewith the guidance o experts in the chemical sciencecommunity. The RSCs scientiic Divisions, governed byRSC members, include:

the Faraday Division (physical chemistry);

the Dalton Division (inorganic chemistry);

the Materials Chemistry Division; and

the Environment, Sustainability and Energy Division.

These and other RSC Divisions and networks representsome o the communities who are contributing tosolar uels research. With their support, the RSC hasorganised important international conerences andsatellite meetings, including:

1st International Symposium on Renewable Energy,at the Institute or Clean Energy in Dalian, China,2011

Faraday Discussion on Artiicial Photosynthesis,Edinburgh, 2011

ISACS, Challenges in Renewable Energy Symposium,Boston, 2011, including a pre-symposium discussionor early career researchers on solar uels.

Meetings or 2012 include:

1st UK Solar to Fuels Symposium, London, January2012

Materials Chemistry Division joint Symposiumon Organic and Molecular Materials or LightHarvesting, China, April 2012

Dalton Discussion on Inorganic Photochemistry andPhotophysics, Sheield, September 2012.

The RSC has a strong record o bringing togetherinterdisciplinary communities o researchers at allstages o their careers, along with stakeholders romindustry, policy makers and unding agencies.

Following the release o this report the RSC willcontinue to develop a series o initiatives to raiseawareness o the potential o solar uels, as well as theassociated opportunities or the UK, in parallel withrelated broader RSC projects in capacity building.

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ReFeRenCeS

1 Photosynthetic energy conversion: natural and artificial, J. Barber, Chemical Society Review, 2009, 38, 185-196

2 World Energy Outlook 2011, International Energy Agency http://www.iea.org/weo/

3 Chemistry for Tomorrows World: A roadmap for the chemical sciences, Royal Society o Chemistry,www.rsc.org/roadmap, July 2009

4 http://www.woking.gov.uk/environment/greeninitiatives/sustainablewoking/uelcell.pd

5 International Energy Agency, Key World Energy Statistics 2011www.iea.org/publications/ree_new_desc.asp?pubs_ID=1199

6 Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air, David JC MacKay, UIT Cambridge Ltd., p104, 2009

7 www.theccc.org.uk/reports/renewable-energy-review, 2011

8 Americas Energy Future: Technology and Transformation, Summary Edition, US National Academies, NationalAcademies Press, 2009

9 Liquid Assets, Chemistry World, May 2011www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restricted/2011/May/LiquidAssets.asp

10 Agro-Chemistry: new directions, new challenges?Minutes o meeting o the UK All-Party Parliamentary Group onScience & Technology in Agriculture, www.appg-agscience.org.uk/linkediles/MEETING%20NOTES%20-%2031%20OCT%202011.pd, October 2011

11 Rehabilitating captured CO2, Chemistry World, www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2011/February/RehabilitatingCapturedCO2.asp, Feburary 2011

12 www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/news/pn_1184/pn_1184.aspx, October 2011

13 CO2Chem network: http://co2chem.co.uk/

14 Section 3.2 oAn overview of CO2 capture technologies, N. MacDowell et al, Energy and Environmental Science,3 1645-1669, 2010

15 A very recent scientiic review o the use o photosynthesis in organisms to produce uels is Photosynthesis toFuels: From hydrogen to isoprene and botryococcene production, A. Melis, Energy and Environmental Science, DOI:10.1039/C1EE02514G

16 Royal Society Summer Science 2010 exhibition, University o Cambridge: Meet the algae: diversity, biologyand energyhttp://seeurtherestival.org/exhibition/view/meet-algae-diversity-biology-and-energy

17 Towards Biosolar Cells, www.wur.nl/NR/rdonlyres/553F9FF7-78F0-43DE-8471-586D565EBB0F/87524/Biosolarlyer.pd

18 Hydrosol 3D www.hydrosol3d.org

19 Reverse Combustion: Can CO2 Be Turned Back into Fuel?D. Biello, Scientiic American, September 23 2010www.scientiicamerican.com/article.cm?id=turning-carbon-dioxide-back-into-uel&page=2

20 Powering the planet: Chemical challenges in solar energy utilization, N. S. Lewis and D. G. Nocera, PNAS 103, no 43, 15729, 2006

21 Comparing Photosynthetic and Photovoltaic Efficiencies and Recognizing the Potential for Improvement,R. E. Blankenship et al, Science, Vol. 332, p805, 2011

22 EPSRC Towards a Sustainable Energy Economy: http://gow.epsrc.ac.uk/ViewPSP.aspx?PSPId=879

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23 EPSRC SUPERGEN Solar Energy Hub Callwww.epsrc.ac.uk/unding/calls/2011/Pages/supergensolarenergyhub.aspx

24 BBSRC Highlight Notice 1: www.bbsrc.ac.uk/unding/opportunities/2012/indbiotech-bioenergy-1.aspx

25 ESF EuroSolarFuels www.es.org/activities/eurocores/running-programmes/eurosolaruels.html

26 www.rcuk.ac.uk/research/xrcprogrammes/prevprogs/nano/Pages/ProgrammeHighlights.aspx

27 www.sbec.eu.com/en/inormation_centre/2011_lcri_invest_green_buildings

28 www.cerespower.com

29 See around time-point 20:20 in www.whitehouse.gov/state-o-the-union-2011

30 Joint Center or Artiicial Photosynthesis www.solaruelshub.org

31 Sun Catalytix www.suncatalytix.com

32 Liquid Light www.liquidlightinc.com

33 www.k-cap.or.kr/eng/ino/index.html?sidx=2

34 www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-toplevel/11_gaiyo.html

35 World Premier Institutes Research Centers: International Center or Materials Nanoarchitectonics, www.nims.go.jp/mana/, International Institute or Carbon-Neutral Energy Research http://i2cner.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/ andthe Advanced Institute or Materials Research, www.wpi-aimr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/index.php

36 www.tytlabs.co.jp/english/news/press/20110920_epress.pd

37 http://world.honda.com/news/2011/c110420Solar-Hydrogen-Station/index.html

38 Horizon 2020 press releases (November 2011) http://ec.europa.eu/research/horizon2020/index_en.cm?pg=press

39 A Brief Analysis of Worldwide Patent Filings Related to Graphene by UK Resident Applicants and Inventors, UKIntellectual Property Oice, www.ipo.gov.uk/inormatic-graphene-uk.pd, November 2011

40 http://www.rsc.org/ScienceAndTechnology/Policy/EducationPolicy/global-ramework-education-project.asp

41 Gemasolar concentrating solar power plant: http://www.torresolenergy.com/TORRESOL/gemasolar-plant/en

42 Concentrating solar power: its potential contribution to a sustainable energy future , European Academies ScienceAdvisory Council, November 2011http://www.easac.eu/ileadmin/Reports/Easac CSP Web-Final.pd

43 Chapter 6 Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air, David JC MacKay, UIT Cambridge Ltd, 2009

www.withouthotair.com

44 www.icax.co.uk

45 H B Gray, Engineering & Science No. 2, pp 26 31, 2008

46 A detailed scientiic review o solar water splitting is given in Solar Water Splitting Cells, M. G. Walter et al, ChemRev 2010, 110, 6446-6473

47 Royal Society Summer Science 2011 exhibition: Solar nanotech: Putting sunshine in the tank usingnanotechnology to make solar fuel(SolarCap consortium, UK), http://royalsociety.org/summer-science/2011/solar-nanotech/

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48 Learn about Sunlight to Fuel and see a unctioning device in a video rom the Energy Institute at the Universityo Texas at Austin at: www.energy.utexas.edu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=159

49 www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/news/2011/March/31031101.asp

50 Pre-symposium discussion, Challenges in Renewable Energy (ISACS4), MIT, Boston, July 2011

51 http://world.honda.com/news/2010/c100127New-Solar-Hydrogen-Station

52 www.sunhydro.com

53 CO2 photoreduction at enzyme-modified metal oxide nanoparticles, T. Woolerton et al, Energy and EnvironmentalScience, DOI: 10.1039/c0ee00780c

Links active at the time o going to print.

For urther inormation about solar uels and the RSC please contact Deirdre Black, Physical Sciences ProgrammeManager, on 01223 420066 or [email protected].

The RSC would like to thank the ollowing people or their advice on drats o this document:

Proessor James Barber FRS (Imperial College London)Proessor James Durrant (Imperial College London)Philip Earis (Managing Editor, Energy & Environmental Science)Dr Je Hardy (Knowledge Exchange Manager, UK Energy Research Council)Proessor Anthony Harriman (Newcastle University)Proessor Ivan Parkin (University College London)

Proessor Robin Perutz FRS (University o York)Dr Erwin Reisner (University o Cambridge)

Illustrations by Richard Palmer Graphics

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Royal Society of Chemistry Burlington House Thomas Graham House Email: [email protected]

This publication uses paper produced with recycled ibre together with virgin FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) ibre rom sustainable orests.

The laminate used on this publication is produced rom reined wood pulp rom timber harvested rom SFI managed orests. This laminate is sustainable, compostable and can be recycled.

Ro al Societ of Chemistr Thomas Graham Ho se B rlington Ho se RSC International Offices

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