social science and commerce student success guide

Social Science and

Commerce Student

Success Guide

June 2015▪4th Edition

SSCS Success Guide▪2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Guide could not have been made possible without the support of many people. We would like to

thank each and every one of them:

• The Academic Dean, John McMahon, who financed this project through the Academic Success Grants

Projects;

• The Dean of the Faculty of Social Science, Commerce, Arts and Letters, Nancy Wargny for her support;

• Shirley Pettifer, Jock Mackay and Eric Lamoureux for their comments on various drafts of this Guide;

• Lyne Marie Larocque for her contributions to various sections of this Guide;

• To all of our colleagues from the Faculty of Social Science who made suggestions or contributed ideas

for the Guide;

• To Rose DeSouza from the Vanier College Library for her contributions to Chapter ten;

• To the Vanier College Learning Centre for their gracious permission to use a number of their handouts

throughout this Guide;

• To the Print-Shop staff for their help and expertise;

• To Bill Perkins and the Vanier Bookstore staff;

• To Amanda Evangelista, a Vanier College student of the Micropublishing and Hypermedia program,

for her incredible work creating the graphics and layout of the original Guide. And thanks to Lyne Marie

Larocque for the layout of this edition;

• To Patti Kingsmill of the Vanier College English Department for her tireless work as proof-reader for

this Guide.

Our warmest thanks to all of you,

Sincerely,

Mark Prentice

Miles DeNora

3 ▪ Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................ 2

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... 3

Preface: Becoming a College Student ......................................................................................................... 7

Chapter One - Time and Stress Management ............................................................................................ 9

1. Time Management ................................................................................................................................................................. 9

A. TIME MANAGEMENT QUIZ ............................................................................................................................................. 9

B. MANAGING YOUR SCHEDULE ...................................................................................................................................... 9

C. TIME MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES ............................................................................................................................ 10

2. Stress Management ............................................................................................................................................................ 11

A. HOW TO RELIEVE STRESS ............................................................................................................................................ 11

B. SIGNS OF STRESS/DISTRESS ........................................................................................................................................ 12

C. HEALTHY WAYS TO COPE WITH STRESS ............................................................................................................... 13

Chapter Two - Learning Styles and Types of Intelligence ..................................................................... 15

1. Learning Styles ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15

A. ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS ....................................................................................................................... 15

B. SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS ....................................................................................................................... 16

C. VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS ............................................................................................................................... 17

D. SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS .................................................................................................................. 17

2. Types of Intelligence .......................................................................................................................................................... 19

A. VERBAL-LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE ........................................................................................................................ 19

B. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE ............................................................................................................ 20

C. BODILY-KINAESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE .................................................................................................................. 20

D. VISUAL-SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE ............................................................................................................................... 21

E. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE ............................................................................................................................... 21

F. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE ............................................................................................................................... 22

G. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE .............................................................................................................................................. 22

H. NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE ................................................................................................................................... 23

Chapter Three - Active Reading and Studying in College ..................................................................... 24

1. Active Reading ...................................................................................................................................................................... 24

A. THE SQ4R SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................................................... 24

B. TEN TIPS FOR READING A TEXTBOOK .................................................................................................................... 25

C. STEPS FOR PREVIEWING AN ARTICLE OR CHAPTER ........................................................................................ 27

2. Studying in College ............................................................................................................................................................. 28


A. STUDY HABITS QUIZ ...................................................................................................................................................... 28

B. CONCEPT MAPPING ...................................................................................................................................................... 30

C. STUDY HABITS: TIPS....................................................................................................................................................... 32

Chapter Four - Listening and Note Taking in Class................................................................................. 33

1. Listen Actively and Selectively ........................................................................................................................................ 33

A. VERBAL SIGNPOSTS ....................................................................................................................................................... 33

2. Note Taking in Class ........................................................................................................................................................... 34

A. TIPS ON NOTE TAKING ................................................................................................................................................ 34

B. THE CORNELL NOTE TAKING SYSTEM .................................................................................................................... 34

C. VARIATIONS ON THE CORNELL NOTE TAKING SYSTEM ................................................................................ 37

D. OUTLINE FORMAT FOR NOTE TAKING .................................................................................................................. 38

E. USING SHORTHAND IN NOTE TAKING .................................................................................................................. 39

Chapter Five - Brainstorming: Organizing your Ideas and Thoughts .................................................. 41

1. Brainstorming ........................................................................................................................................................................ 41

2. Listing/Bulleting ................................................................................................................................................................... 43

3. Three Perspectives............................................................................................................................................................... 43

4. Cubing ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 43

5. Similes ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 44

6. Clustering/Mapping/Webbing: ...................................................................................................................................... 44

7. Journalistic Questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 45

8. Thinking Outside the Box ................................................................................................................................................. 45

9. Using Charts or Shapes ..................................................................................................................................................... 46

10. Consider Purpose and Audience ................................................................................................................................. 46

11. Dictionaries, Thesauruses, Encyclopaedias ............................................................................................................. 46

12. Closing ................................................................................................................................................................................... 46

Chapter Six - Researching and Writing an Essay ..................................................................................... 48

1. Identify the Type of Essay You Will Write .................................................................................................................. 48

2. Identify the Type of Data You Will Use ....................................................................................................................... 48

3. Three Main Stages of Essay Writing ............................................................................................................................. 49

A. DEFINE YOUR ESSAY TOPIC ........................................................................................................................................ 49

1. Develop your topic. .................................................................................................................................................. 49

2. Preliminary readings ................................................................................................................................................ 50

3. Write your thesis statement or research question. ...................................................................................... 50

4. Write a preliminary title and outline. ................................................................................................................ 51

B. GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING OUTLINES ........................................................................................................... 52

C. RESEARCH AND DOCUMENTATION ....................................................................................................................... 53

5. Define a search strategy. ........................................................................................................................................ 53

6. Research your topic.................................................................................................................................................. 53


7. Evaluate the relevance of your documents. ................................................................................................... 54

8. Read your documents and take notes. ............................................................................................................. 54

9. Organize your notes. ............................................................................................................................................... 54

10. Produce a detailed outline. ................................................................................................................................. 55

D. THE WRITING PROCESS ............................................................................................................................................... 55

11. Write your first draft. ............................................................................................................................................. 55

12. Take a break, seriously! ........................................................................................................................................ 56

13. Edit, baby, edit! ........................................................................................................................................................ 56

14. Write, format and submit the final paper. .................................................................................................... 56

E. ORAL PRESENTATION .................................................................................................................................................... 58

15. Preparing for the oral presentation ................................................................................................................. 58

16. General outline for the oral presentation ..................................................................................................... 58

17. Characteristics of a good speaker .................................................................................................................... 59

Chapter Seven - Using the APA Style ....................................................................................................... 61

1. The APA Citation Style: General Rules ......................................................................................................................... 61

2. The APA Style Reference List: General Rules ............................................................................................................ 63

Chapter Eight - Studying for Tests and Exams ....................................................................................... 64

1. Preparing For Exams ........................................................................................................................................................... 64

2. Ten Test-Taking Tips .......................................................................................................................................................... 65

3. Exam Anxiety ......................................................................................................................................................................... 66

4. Multiple Choice Exams ...................................................................................................................................................... 68

5. Taking the Essay Exam ....................................................................................................................................................... 69

6. Checklist: The Taking of Exams ...................................................................................................................................... 71

7. Meaning of Terms Used in Essay Questions ............................................................................................................. 72

Chapter Nine - Enhancing One’s Communication Skills ........................................................................ 74

1. Building Your Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................................. 74

2. Vocabulary in Context: Deducing the Meaning of Words .................................................................................. 76

3. Spelling Strategies: Improving Your Written Communication Skills ............................................................... 77

4. List of Frequently Confused Words. ............................................................................................................................. 79

5. Subject-Verb Agreement .................................................................................................................................................. 80

6. Six Special Cases .................................................................................................................................................................. 80

7. Punctuation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 81

Chapter Ten - What is Plagiarism and How to Avoid it ........................................................................ 84

1. What is Plagiarism? ............................................................................................................................................................. 84

A. PREVENTING PLAGIARISM: STUDENT RESOURCES ........................................................................................... 84

B. TERMS YOU NEED TO KNOW (OR WHAT IS COMMON KNOWLEDGE?) .................................................. 87

References .................................................................................................................................................... 89


PREFACE: BECOMING A COLLEGE STUDENT

Welcome to Vanier College, a new and exciting phase in your life. CEGEP is different from high

school and the sooner you recognize that reality, the more successful and fulfilling your

experience will be. The pace, intensity and academic expectations are different. You need to hit

the ground running, making sure that you are ready from the very beginning of each semester.

This Student Guide is designed to help you adjust to CEGEP by serving as a primer on key topics:

time management, learning styles, reading and studying, note-taking, using the APA reference

style, essay writing and studying, as well as many others.

One of the biggest changes in your life will be learning to adapt to college life. This means that you are

expected to use the considerable freedom that college allows in a productive way. If you skip classes,

you will suffer the consequences. Many studies have shown, and

teachers will confirm this, that there is a direct relationship

between class attendance and achieved grades. Also keep in

mind that for each hour of class, you are expected to put in one

hour of study time. So if your history class is 3 hours in total,

you should put in 3 hours of studying a week for that specific

course. Work is sometimes explicitly given – as in reading notes

from readings, or doing a specific assignment. But whether

explicitly given or not – a college student ALWAYS has

homework. You should review and organize your class notes

and readings every day.

If you have a course load of six classes – 18 hours a week – you

should plan on devoting another 18 hours a week to study time.

That is a total of 36 hours of class/study time a week! This is the

reason we recommend that you do not work more than 10 to

12 hours a week. We don‘t want to scare you, but we do want

you to know what you should expect and what will be required

of you.

The Social Science program provides courses in all fields for you

to discover. It is meant to be general, and it is meant to help

you develop interests in a potential university program. This is

why Social Science is a ―pre-university‖ program. It is meant to

prepare you to become an autonomous, critical-thinking and

competent university student. There are many reasons why

students choose to study in Social Science. Some of you already

have a specific career or university option in mind and have

chosen Social Science in order to achieve that goal. However,

and this is completely normal, many of you do not know what

to do in terms of career choice. You have registered in Social

Science in order to explore the wealth of possibilities offered by this program. Remember that it is

totally normal to be unsure about what you want to do with the rest of your life; after all, you are

probably still young and some of the employment opportunities in the future may not have been

invented yet.

All reasons for being here are valid. And so, because we (teachers, the college) know you may be

searching for your interests, and because Social Science is such a broad field, you will receive an

introductory course in all (or most) of the social science disciplines. Why? So that you may actually

begin identifying which of these you enjoy the most, and which one of these you enjoy the least

(identifying ―dislikes‖ is as important as identifying ―likes‖). When you are in class, watch out for

More specifically, this guide is

designed to help you adapt to,

and succeed in the Social Science

Program. Your teachers are here

to help you and guide you, but

you must be willing to invest

time, energy and effort. Keep

your guide with you and bring it

to all your classes. It will become

one of your most important

resources. Nearly everything you

need to know can be found in

these pages.

This guide was put together by

the teachers in the Social

Sciences Program at Vanier

College. These are people who

have many years of experience as

teachers and social scientists as

well as at least a master’s degree

in the field in which they teach.

Put another way: they know their

stuff and they are looking

forward to transmitting that

knowledge to you so that you

can succeed in College and be

well prepared for University.


moments where your minds or hearts ―tingle‖ when listening to a discussion topic. This is when you

may begin thinking of university or career options because you have begun identifying what you enjoy,

and who you are.

In order to facilitate your introduction to Social Science and to your varied courses, your teachers will

reference this common guide, as all incoming students must buy it. However, you must keep in mind

that your teachers are the final authority; this guide is an aid but not the final word: that rests with your

teachers.

GOOD LUCK, MAKE USE OF THIS GUIDE

AND ENHANCE YOUR CEGEP EXPERIENCE!

Adapted from MatthieuSossoyan

9 ▪ Chapter One -Time and Stress Management

CHAPTER ONE -TIME AND STRESS MANAGEMENT

1. Time Management

College semesters go by fast. There are seventy-five teaching days which translates into just fifteen

weeks of classes. In other words, for each of your Social Science courses there will only be thirty classes.

For that reason, you must be ready to apply yourself as soon as the semester begins. Planning and

managing your time is a key component in achieving success at the college level. Unlike high school,

your days, depending on your schedule, will have a lot of unstructured ―free‖ time. Along with this

freedom and flexibility comes responsibility – it is up to you to use this time wisely and productively.

There are potentially a lot of distractions at College, among which are friends and activities. For these

reasons, organizing and planning are essential.

As well, many students must or want to work, and jobs can eat up a significant amount of time. Studies

have shown that working more than fifteen hours per week has an overall negative impact on grades

and dropout rates (Riggert, Boyle, Petrosko, Ash & Rude-Parkins, 2006). Time management practices are

much more effective when they are implemented before the stresses of college life occur; they are less

useful when used as a means of trying to catch up mid-semester. Effective time management can help

you to reduce the stress that accompanies life as a college student.

A. TIME MANAGEMENT QUIZ

• Do you estimate how many hours you will need to study each week? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you meet assignment deadlines? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you begin working on semester-long projects early in the semester? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you write a daily ―to do‖ list? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you prevent social activities from interfering with your study time? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you have a job that requires fewer than fifteen hours per week? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you set specific goals for each study period? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you begin your study time with your most difficult assignment? [ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you complete most of your studying during your most productive hours each day?

[ ] yes [ ] no

• Do you think of being a full-time student as you would an employee with a full-time job?

[ ] yes [ ] no

If you answered yes to all ten questions then you are using effective time management techniques. If

the number of questions you answered yes to is low then it may be useful to apply new time

management strategies from the list that follows.

B. MANAGING YOUR SCHEDULE

1. Create a semester calendar. This will allow you to map out your work for

the entire semester so that you know when to expect pressure and stress. The

dates for your quizzes, tests, projects and papers, as well as work hours,

meetings, social commitments and out of town weekends, should be


included. It is essential that this calendar be updated on a regular basis as due dates change,

assignments are added and activities planned. Keeping an accurate semester schedule facilitates the

next step of this process, assessing and planning your weekly workload.

2. Assess and plan your work load each week. Before the week begins, make a list of what you have

to accomplish during the coming week, including class assignments and class attendance. Make sure to

include extra-curricular activities, work hours, errands, exercise, meals and time with friends on your list

of things to do for the week. Honestly estimate how long each task will take. Also, identify the day on

which you will accomplish each task, keeping in mind the amount of time the task will take and other

things you must also do that day.

3. Adjust your plan each day. Write out a daily schedule at the beginning of each day. Include

uncompleted tasks from the previous day as well as new tasks. Make sure as you write out your daily

schedule that you assess your priorities.

4. Evaluate your schedule. Evaluate your schedule in the morning and in the evening to see if the tasks

you are setting out for yourself are realistic and assess whether you accomplished your goals for the

day.

After examining your weekly schedule you should assess how many hours per week you need for

studying to see if you are devoting enough time to achieving your academic goals. It should be noted

that the Quebec Ministry of Education recommends a minimum of one hour of study (Note that study

includes reviewing class notes, reading, completing assignments etc...) for each hour spent in class. If

you are taking seven Social Science courses that means that you need at least 21 hours of study time. If

you do not have that much study time in your weekly schedule you will need to reduce the amount of

time spent doing other things. What can you do to find that time?

C. TIME MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Here are some strategies that you may find helpful if your schedule is not working as efficiently or

effectively as you would like. When trying any new strategy, it is important to practice it regularly and to

practice it long enough that you have a way of evaluating whether or not it is helping. Tests are good

ways to evaluate new study strategies. If you begin a new strategy after one test on which you didn‘t

perform as well as you would like, try a new strategy until you receive the results of the next test to get

an idea whether the new strategy is working for you.

Identify your best time of day. When do you work best? Morning? Afternoon? Early evening? Figuring

this out will enable you to finish your assignments more quickly and effectively. Research studies show

that what we can accomplish in 60 minutes when we‘re less fatigued will take as much as 90 minutes to

accomplish when we are more fatigued.

Study difficult subjects first. Study subjects that are more of a challenge to you first when you are less

fatigued. Save subjects you like to study for later, when you are feeling more tired but need to continue

to study to keep up with your work. It will be easier to find the motivation to study something you find

enjoyable when you are tired than for a subject you do not enjoy studying.

Avoid distractions. Many things can provide a distraction to studying if we are looking for ways to

procrastinate. Identify the 5 ways in which you waste most of your time. For the next few weeks, try to

find ways to reduce the frequency with which these distracters are interfering with your study time. This

might mean finding another place to study.

Use the same place to study every time. Studying in the same place each day is like going to class in the

same room. You begin to associate a particular activity with a particular location, so, when you are in

that location, you are able to focus on the task at hand more quickly. Studying on your bed or in your

bedroom is not advised because you probably associate your bed and bedroom with sleeping, not

studying. It‘s too easy to take those 10 minute naps that turn into 2 hour naps.


Use the library. Libraries are good places to study because this is the only activity we do in this

environment. If there are reasons you choose not to use the library, try to find another location outside

of your room that provides a good study environment and is relatively free of distractions.

Use waiting time. If you use public transportation to commute to and from campus, there is probably

some waiting time involved. This is a great time to study discrete pieces of information such as learning

vocabulary or reviewing class notes. Write this information on note cards and carry them with you so

you can study your cards during your waiting time

Treat school as a full-time job. Try to accomplish as many of your school tasks as possible within a

concentrated period of time, such as 8 a.m. - 5 p.m., Monday through Friday. If you use these hours

either for attending class or studying, you‘ll have much more free time in the evenings and on the

weekends to spend with friends. Your classes are likely to get the amount of

attention they require as well. It doesn‘t mean that you‘ll never need to study

in the evenings or on the weekends because there will still be crunch times

such as midterm and end of term. However, treating school as a full-time job

and adopting the hours of a full-time job will probably result in better, more

efficient management of your time and ultimetly better results.

Time management strategies for improving academic performance. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2009, from Virginia Tech University,

Student Affairs, Cook Counselling Centre web site: http.www.ucc.vt.edu/lynch/TimeManagement.htm

2. Stress Management

A. HOW TO RELIEVE STRESS

Feeling stressed? You’re not alone

―Stress‖ is our body‘s normal, automatic response to change in our lives. The change may be negative,

positive, or imagined. When we feel unable to cope with a new demand, we begin to feel stress. Stress

is highly individual ~ what may be very relaxing to one person may be stressful to another. Not all stress

is bad. We need a certain amount of stress in our lives because it stimulates and energizes us. At low

levels, it motivates us to face challenges, and it adds excitement to our lives. Without stress, we may feel

bored or depressed.

There are two main types of stress: eustress, the ―good‖ type of stress, and distress, which is considered

―bad‖ stress. Distress occurs when our stress level becomes too high and unmanageable.

As with body temperature, we can‘t function well if stress is too low or too high. Each person needs to

find an optimal level of stress that is motivating but not overwhelming. Then stress will work for you

instead of against you.

How change can create stress

The ―stress reaction‖ originally helped prehistoric humans survive dangerous situations by preparing

them for ―fight or flight.‖ It consists of 3 phases:

1. Alarm - the body is aroused by a stressor and releases hormones to cope with the threat.

2. Resistance - the body repairs any damage done during the alarm stage and returns to normal.

3. Exhaustion - this may occur if the stressor continues or several stressors are present; the body is

chronically aroused, cannot repair itself and adapt, and the person becomes impaired. The stress

reaction should typically be short-term and infrequent.While physical threats are now less common, the

fight or flight response can still be activated by any change or threat, real or imagined. If we think a

situation is harmful to us, the body will overreact as if it were a life or death matter.


SOME CAUSES OF STRESS INCLUDE:

1. external stressors such as things outside the person, often things we can‘t change (e.g., noise, new

residence, bad weather, schedule changes);

2. relational stressors such as things we can sometimes change (e.g., conflicts with roommates, friends,

family, dating partners, or co-workers; losing a relationship; problems with professors);

3. internal stressors such as things we say or do to ourselves, often things we can change (e.g.,

perfectionism, negative thoughts or feelings about ourselves, selecting a major or career).

B. SIGNS OF STRESS/DISTRESS

Physical Symptoms

Headaches

Digestive problems

Muscle tension or soreness

Skin outbreaks

Rapid breathing, shortness of breath

Change in appetite and/or eating

Sleep disturbance

Fatigue, exhaustion

Restlessness

Underactivity, overactivity

Increased illness

Decreased sex drive

Mental Symptoms

Poor concentration

Lack of interest

Negative attitude

Procrastination

Being disorganized

Forgetfulness

Indecision

Poor judgment

Confusion

Calculation errors, increased mistakes

Reduced creativity

Spiritual Symptoms

Apathy, indifference

Emptiness

Loss of life‘s meaning

Unforgiving

Loss of direction or purpose

Emotional Symptoms

Depression

Anxiety, worry

Feeling overwhelmed

Irritability

Mood swings

Cry easily

Feeling pressured

Emotional outbursts

Being overly sensitive/emotional

Anger, resentment, hostility

Impatience

Loss of sense of humour

Low self-esteem

Social/Behavioural Symptoms

Withdrawal from others

Avoiding social situations

Decreased productivity

Lack of intimacy

Loneliness

Accident proneness

Alcohol, tobacco, and/or drug use

Buying things you don‘t need

THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGING STRESS

Recognizing stress is the first step toward reducing it. Stress can build up gradually, and you may not be

aware of it until it has reached a critical level. If you are experiencing stress symptoms, you have gone

beyond your optimal stress level. This is a signal that you need to reduce the stress in your life and/or

improve your ability to manage it.


Remember, the goal is not to eliminate all stress. Your aim is to manage it, keep it at a healthy level, and

prevent distress.

KEY STEPS IN STRESS MANAGEMENT INCLUDING

1. identifying your current stressors (external, relational, internal);

2. identifying your current coping reactions (helpful, not helpful);

3. changing stressful situations and/or your reactions;

4. increasing your positive, healthy coping reactions.

C. HEALTHY WAYS TO COPE WITH STRESS

For Your Body

Eat healthily and regularly.

Get your ―normal‖ amount of sleep (relax 1-2 hours before sleep).

Practice deep, diaphragmatic breathing and regular exercise and other physical activity (keeps

energy high, loosens muscles, improves sleep).

Listen to your body‘s stress signals.

For Your Mind

Have realistic expectations of yourself.

Recognize that you are always in control of how you cope with problems and stress.

―Reframe‖ your problems as challenges that are opportunities for personal growth.

Familiarize yourself with sources of support such as the Learning Centre, the Social Science

Resource room, resource rooms for individual disciplines such as Psychology, Economics,

English and Math.

Pace yourself and reduce time pressures.

Practice positive self-talk (―I may not get an A in history, but I‘m doing above average work and

as well as I can right now.‖).

Realize that making mistakes is part of the risk-taking needed for growth.

Anticipate and plan for change.

Improve time management (control your time and energy, create a realistic and balanced

schedule, focus on priorities, break large demands into small parts and do one task at a time).

Take periodic vacations or mini-breaks from your work.

For Your Emotions

Affirm yourself, your abilities, and your accomplishments daily.

Know your limits and let go of things beyond your control.

Let yourself cry (crying can relieve stress and anxiety).

Reward and pamper yourself when you have achieved a goal.

Practice relaxation techniques.

Expect some frustrations, failures, and sorrows.

Listen to your thoughts and feelings and what they are telling you.

Enjoy yourself and the humour in life.


For Your Relationships, Social Life, and Leisure

Build a support system of people that help you feel good.

Be assertive, support your own needs and interests.

Spend time with friends regularly - talking, ―hanging out,‖ sharing feelings and concerns.

Take time for fun, doing activities that are enjoyable and good for you.

Create a comfortable environment that includes pleasant space and people.

Allow other people to help you with tasks.

For Your Spirit

Pray, meditate.

Take private quiet time - for a walk, a hot bath, listening to calming music.

Stress and time management: How to go from stressed to unstressed! (n.d.). Retrieved March 10,

2009, fromCollege of Saint Benedict, Saint John‘s University, CSB Health Advocate web site:

http://www.csbsju.edu/healthadvocate/stressandtimemgmt.htm

Your notes here:

15 ▪ Chapter Two -Learning Styles and Types of Intelligence

CHAPTER TWO -LEARNING STYLES AND TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Learning Styles

Have you ever wondered why you have difficulty learning from a particular teacher, but another seems

to explain things just the right way? Did you ever question why the course that your friend said was so

easy turned out to be a struggle for you? Do you notice that you and your roommate have different

opinions on whether or not to have the radio on while you‘re studying? The reason behind some of

these variations may be differences in learning styles and your specific type of multiple intelligences!

WHAT IS A “LEARNING STYLE”?

Simply put, your learning style (or learning preference) is the way you tend to learn best. It involves your

preferred method of taking in, organizing, and making sense of information. Learning styles do not tell

us about a person‘s abilities or intelligence, but they can help us understand why some tasks seem

easier for us than others. There are several benefits of thinking about and trying to understand your

learning preferences:

People learn most effectively when the strategies used are closely matched with their preferred

learning style.

Sometimes we can improve our learning by knowing what our strengths are and then doing

more of what we are good at.

Often we can improve our learning by knowing what our weaknesses are and trying to enhance

our skills in these areas.

Different situations and learning environments require different learning strategies, so it‘s best

to have a large repertoire from which to draw.

Find out what your learning styles are: Go to the following web site:

http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html (University of Western Ontario)

A. ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS

Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it—

discussing it, applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly

first.

―Let‘s try it out and see how it works‖ is an active learner‘s phrase; ―Let‘s think it through first‖ is the

reflective learner‘s response. Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who

prefer working alone. Sitting through lectures without getting to do anything physical but take notes is

hard for both learning types, but particularly hard for active learners.

Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes. Your preference for one category or the other

may be strong, moderate, or mild. A balance of the two is desirable. If you always act before reflecting

you can jump into things prematurely and get into trouble, while if you spend too much time reflecting

you may never get anything done.


HOW CAN ACTIVE LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

If you are an active learner in a class that allows little or no class time for discussion or problem-solving

activities, you should try to compensate for this lack of activity when you study. Study in a group in

which the members take turns explaining different topics to each other. Work with others to guess what

you will be asked on the next test and figure out how you will answer. You will always retain information

better if you find ways to do something with it.

HOW CAN REFLECTIVE LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows little or no class time for thinking about new

information, you should try to compensate for this lack of time when you study. Don‘t simply read or

memorize the material; stop periodically to review what you have read and to think of possible

questions or applications. You might find it helpful to write short summaries of readings or class notes

in your own words. Doing so may take extra time but will enable you to retain the material more

effectively.

B. SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS

Sensing learners tend to like learning facts; intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and

relationships.

Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and

surprises; intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent

being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in class.

Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory)

work; intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors

with abstractions and mathematical formulations.

Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be

more innovative than sensors.

Sensors don‘t like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world; intuitors don‘t like ―plug-

and-chug‖ courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.

Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. Your preference for one or the other may be

strong, moderate, or mild. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to

function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless

mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on

memorization and familiar methods and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative

thinking.

HOW CAN SENSING LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If

you are in a class where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have difficulty. Ask

your instructor for specific examples of concepts and procedures, and find out how the concepts apply

in practice. If the teacher does not provide enough specifics, try to find some in your course text or

other references or by brainstorming with friends or classmates.


HOW CAN INTUITIVE LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to

be in a class that deals primarily with memorization and rote substitution in formulas, you may have

trouble with boredom. Ask your instructor for interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try to find

the connections yourself. You may also be prone to careless mistakes on test because you are impatient

with details and don‘t like repetition (as in checking your completed solutions). Take time to read the

entire question before you start answering and be sure to check your results

C. VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS

Visual learners remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and

demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone

learns more when information is presented both visually and verbally.

In most college classes very little visual information is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and

read material written on chalkboards and in textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most people are

visual learners, which means that most students do not get nearly as much as they would if more visual

presentation were used in class. Good learners are capable of processing information presented either

visually or verbally.

HOW CAN VISUAL LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or any

other visual representation of course material that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor, consult

reference books, and see if any videotapes or CD-ROM displays of the course material are available.

Prepare a concept map by listing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with

arrows between concepts to show connections. Color-code your notes with a highlighter so that

everything relating to one topic is the same color.

HOW CAN VERBAL LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

Write summaries or outlines of course material in your own words. Working in groups can be

particularly effective: you gain an understanding of material by hearing classmates‘ explanations and

you learn even more when you do the explaining.

D. SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS

Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from

the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly

without seeing connections, and then suddenly ―getting it.‖

Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be

able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped

the big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.

Many people who read this description may conclude incorrectly that they are global, since everyone

has experienced bewilderment followed by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes you global or

not is what happens before the light bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully understand the

material but they can nevertheless do something with it (like solve the homework problems or pass the

test) since the pieces they have absorbed are logically connected. Strongly global learners who lack

good sequential thinking abilities, on the other hand, may have serious difficulties until they have the


big picture. Even after they have it, they may be fuzzy about the details of the subject, while sequential

learners may know a lot about specific aspects of a subject but may have trouble relating them to

different aspects of the same subject or to different subjects.

HOW CAN SEQUENTIAL LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

Most college courses are taught in a sequential manner. However, if you are a sequential learner and

you have an instructor who jumps around from topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty

following and remembering. Ask the instructor to fill in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by

consulting references. When you are studying, take the time to outline the lecture material for yourself

in logical order. In the long run doing so will save you time. You might also try to strengthen your

global thinking skills by relating each new topic you study to things you already know. The more you

can do so, the deeper your understanding of the topic is likely to be.

HOW CAN GLOBAL LEARNERS HELP THEMSELVES?

If you are a global learner, it can be helpful for you to realize that you need the big picture of a subject

before you can master details. If your instructor plunges directly into new topics without bothering to

explain how they relate to what you already know, it can cause problems for you. Fortunately, there are

steps you can take that may help you get the big picture more rapidly. Before you begin to study the

first section of a chapter in a text, skim through the entire chapter to get an overview. Doing so may be

time-consuming initially but it may save you from going over and over individual parts later. Instead of

spending a short time on every subject every night, you might find it more productive to immerse

yourself in one subject for a large time block. Try to relate the subject to things you already know, either

by asking the instructor to help you see connections or by consulting references. Above all, don‘t lose

faith in yourself; you will eventually understand the new material, and once you do your understanding

of how it connects to other topics and disciplines may enable you to apply it in ways that most

sequential thinkers would never dream of.

Felder, R. M., &Soloman, B. A. (n.d.). Learning styles and strategies. Retrieved April 2, 2009, from North Carolina State, University,

Richard Felder‘s Home Page: http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/RMF.html


2. Types of Intelligence

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: HOW ARE YOU SMART

The theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard professor. The

MI theory is based on the belief that we all possess at least eight unique intelligences through which we

are able to learn/teach new information. Although we each have all eight, no two individuals have them

in the same exact amounts. According to Gardner:

- All human beings possess all intelligences in varying amounts.

- Each person has a different intellectual composition.

- We can improve education by addressing the multiple intelligences of our students.

- These intelligences are located in different areas of the brain and can either work independently or

together.

- These intelligences may define the human species.

A. VERBAL-LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE

Use written and spoken language to express complex meaning

The capacity to use language, your native language, and perhaps other languages, to express

what‘s on your mind and to understand other people

Poets really specialize in linguistic intelligence, but any kind of writer, orator, speaker, lawyer, or

a person for whom language is an important stock in trade, highlights linguistic intelligence

Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words

Occurs through written and spoken words, such as in essays, speeches, books, informal

conversation, debates, and jokes

This intelligence involves the knowing that comes through the language, through reading, writing, and

speaking. It involves understanding the order and meaning of words in both speech and writing and

how to properly use the language. It involves understanding the socio-cultural nuances of a language,

including idioms, plays on words, and linguistically based humour.

If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking, and writing

and you tend to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature, playing word games,

making up poetry and stories, getting into involved discussions with other people, debating, working

crossword puzzles, formal speaking, creative writing, and the remembering of and art of telling jokes.

You are likely precise in expressing yourself and irritated when others are not. You love learning new

words, you do well with written assignments, and your comprehension of anything you read is high.

Careers:Poets, public speakers, journalists, writers (authors, advertising, script and speech writers),

speech pathologists, lawyers, secretaries, editors, proof-readers, comedians, debaters, archivists,

translators, TV and radio newscasters, commentators, announcers.

People with this type of intelligence:Shakespeare, Agatha Christie, Margery Williams, Maya Angelou,

Hemingway, Longfellow, Louisa May Alcott, Robert Frost, Mark Twain, Mary Higgins Clark, Steinbeck, J.

K. Rowlings, Elizabeth Barrett Browning.


B. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE

Discern logical or numerical patterns; deductive reasoning

Ability to think conceptually and abstractly and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns

People with highly developed logical/mathematical intelligences understand the underlying

principles of some kind of a causal system, the way a scientist or a logician does

Can manipulate numbers, quantities, and operations, the way a mathematician does

Uses numbers, logic, scientific reasoning, and calculating to help solve problems and meet

challenges

This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various patterns that occur

in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns, and color patterns. It begins with

concrete patterns in the real world but gets increasingly abstract as we try to understand relationships

among patterns.

If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person, you think more conceptually and

abstractly and are often able to see patterns and relationships that others miss. You probably like to

conduct experiments, solve puzzles and other problems, ask cosmic questions, and analyze

circumstances and people‘s behaviour. You most likely enjoy working with numbers and mathematical

formulas and operations, and you love the challenge of a complex problem to solve. You are probably

systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logical rationale or argument for what you are

doing or thinking at any given time.

Careers:Computer technicians and programmers, underwriters, accountants, statisticians, poll takers,

stock brokers, auditors, actuaries, purchasing agents, bankers, accountants, professional debaters, math

teachers, attorneys, scientific researchers, arbitrators, underwriters, medical professionals, data analysts,

logicians.

People with this type of intelligence:Archimedes, Sir Isaac Newton, Galileo, Copernicus, Einstein,

Pythagoras, Euclid, Pascal.

C. BODILY-KINAESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE

Ability to control body movements and handle objects skilfully

The capacity to use your whole body or parts of your body: (your hands, your fingers, your

arms), to solve a problem, make something, or put on some kind of production

The most evident examples are people in athletics or the performing arts, particularly when

dancing or acting

Uses physical movement and performance (a.k.a. learning by doing) to understand

We often talk about learning by doing. This way of knowing happens through physical movement and

through the ―knowings‖ of our physical body. The body knows a great deal that is not necessarily

known by the conscious, logical mind, such as how to ride a bike, Parallel Park a car, dance the waltz,

catch a thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and type on a computer keyboard.

If you are strong in this intelligence area, you tend to have a keen sense of body awareness. You like

physical movement--dancing, making and inventing with your hands, and role-playing. You probably

communicate well through body language and other physical gestures. You can often perform a task

much better after seeing someone else does it first and then mimicking those actions. You probably like

physical games of all kinds. And you like to demonstrate how to do something for someone else. You

may find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time and are easily bored or distracted if you are not

actively involved in what is going on around you.

Careers:Gymnasts, physical therapists, models, mechanics, choreographers, actors, recreation directors,

crafts persons, athletes, invertors, builders, dancers, circus artists, bodybuilders, doctors, nurses, exercise

instructors, sport coaches, law enforcement personnel.


People with this type of intelligENCE: Baryshnikov, Cathy Rigby, Tiger Woods, Michael Jordan, David

Copperfield, Marcel Marceau, Charlie Chaplin, Harry Houdini, Mia Hamm.

D. VISUAL-SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE

Perceive the visual world accurately; Create mental images; Capacity to think in images and pictures, to

visualize accurately and abstractly

The ability to represent the spatial world internally in your mind – the way a sailor or airplane

pilot navigates the large spatial world, or the way a chess player or sculptor represents a more

circumscribed spatial world

Can be used in the arts or in the sciences. If you are spatially intelligent and oriented toward the

arts, you are more likely to become a painter or sculptor or architect than, say a musician or a

writer. Similarly, certain sciences like anatomy or topology emphasize spatial intelligence

Uses the sense of sight and being able to imagine and visualize an object, including making

mental images inside our head

We often say, ―A picture is worth a thousand words,‖ or ―Seeing is believing.‖ Visual-spatial intelligence

represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images, patterns, designs, and textures we see

with our external eyes, but it also includes the images we are able to conjure inside our heads.

If you are strong in this intelligence you tend to think in images and pictures. You are likely very aware

of objects, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in the environment around you. You probably like to

draw, paint, make interesting designs and patters, and work with clay, coloured markers, construction

paper and fabric. Many who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence love to work jigsaw puzzles, read

maps, and find their way around new places. You probably have definite opinions about colors that go

together well, textures that are appropriate and leasing, and how a room should be decorated. You also

are probably excellent at performing tasks that require seeing with the mind‘s eyes, such as visualizing,

pretending, imaging, and forming mental images.

Careers: Interior decorators, graphic design artists, cartographers, photographers, architects, airline

pilots, surgeons, painters, sculptors, chefs (with their food presentations), quilters, needle point

embroiders, landscapers, theatre set designers, professional drivers, cinematographers, book illustrators,

tour guides, jewellery and clothing designers.

People with this type of intelligence:Michelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci, Picasso, Van Gogh, Monet,

Rembrandt, Diane Arbus, Grandma Moses, I.M. Pei, Frank Lloyd Wright, Meryl Streep, Annie Liebovitz,

Steven Spielberg, Georgia O‘Keefe.

E. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

Understand others; discern verbal and non-verbal cues; Capacity to detect and respond appropriately to

the moods, motivations and desires of others

Understanding other people

An ability we all need, but is at a premium if you are a teacher, clinician, salesperson, or a

politician. Anybody who deals with other people has to be skilled in the interpersonal sphere

Uses person-to-person relating, communication, teamwork, and collaboration with others

This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens when we work with and

relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way of knowing also requires developing a whole

range of social skills that are needed for effective person-to-person communication and relating.

If this person-to-person way knowing is more developed in you, you learn through personal

interactions. You probably have lots of friends show a great deal of empathy for other people, and

exhibit a deep understand of others points of view. You probably love team activities of all kinds and

are a good team member--you pull your own weight and often much more. You are sensitive to other

people‘s feelings and ideas and are good at piggybacking your ideas on others‘ thoughts. You are also


likely skilled drawing others out in a discussion and you probably are skilled in conflict resolution,

mediation, and finding compromise when people are in radical opposition to each other.

Careers:Teachers, administrators, arbitrators, anthropologists, organization leaders (presidents and

CEOs), sociologists, talk show hosts, politicians, public relations or customer service personnel,

salespersons, travel agents, consultants, social affairs directors.

People with this type of intelligence:Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, Ghandi, Dr. Joyce Brothers,

Oprah Winfrey, Jesse Jackson, Martin Luther King, Rev. Billy Graham.

F. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

Understand oneself; Engage in self-reflection & metacognition; Capacity to be self-aware and in tune with

inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes

Having an understanding of yourself, of knowing who you are, what you can do, what you want

to do, how you react to things, which things to avoid, and which things to gravitate toward

We are drawn to people who have a good understanding of themselves because those people

tend not to screw up. They tend to know what they can do, what they can‘t do, and they tend to

know where to go if they need help

The knowing which comes from introspection, self-reflection, and raising questions about life‘s

meaning and purpose

At the heart of this intelligence are our human self-reflective abilities by which we can step outside of

ourselves and think about our own lives. This is the introspective intelligence. It involves our uniquely

human propensity to want to know the meaning, purpose, and significance life. It involves our

awareness of the inner world of the self, emotions, values, beliefs, and our various quests for genuine

spirituality.

If this intelligence is one of your strong points, you may like to work alone and sometimes you may shy

away for others. You are probably self-reflective n self-aware, and thus you tend to be in tune with your

inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes. You are frequently a bearer of creative wisdom

and insight, you are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated rather than needing external

rewards to keep you going. You are often strong willed, self-confident, and have definite, well=though-

out opinions on almost any issue. Other people will often come to you for advice and counsel.

Careers:Therapists, psychologists, human potential researchers, philosophers, religious leaders (pastors

and priests), social workers, mediation guides, counsellors, self-help advisors, cognitive pattern

researchers, mental health professionals.

People with this type of intelligence:Neil Armstrong, Helen Keller, Columbus, Charles Lindbergh,

Cleopatra, Sir Edmond Hillary.

G. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE

Produce and appreciate forms of musical expressiveness

Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber

The capacity to think in music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them, and perhaps

manipulate them

People don‘t just remember music easily - they can‘t get it out of their minds, it‘s so

omnipresent

Learns through sounds, rhythms, tones, beats, music produced by other people or present in

the environment


This is the knowing that happens through sound and vibration. This intelligence is not limited to music

and rhythm. Some refer to this intelligence as auditory-vibrational, for it deals with the whole realm of

sound, tones, beats, and vibrational patterns as well as music.

If you are strong in this intelligence area, you likely have a love of music and rhythmic patterns. You are

probably very sensitive to sounds in the environment; the chirp of a cricket, rain on the roof, varying

traffic patterns. You may study and work better with music in the background. You can often reproduce

a melody or rhythmic pattern after hearing it only once. Various sounds, tones, and rhythms may have a

visible effect on you-- others can often see a change in facial expression, body movement, or emotional

response. You probably like to create music and enjoy listening to a wide variety of music. You may be

skilled at mimicking sounds, language accents, and others‘ speech patterns, and you can probably

readily recognize different musical instruments in a composition.

Careers:Music therapist, advertising professionals, motion picture soundtrack creators, music teachers,

piano tuners, music studio directors and recorders, song writers, music performers, conductors, sound

engineers, music copyists.

People with this type of intelligence:Mozart, Bach, Beethoven, Debussy, Gershwin, Haydn, John Lennon,

Stevie Wonder, Burt Bacharach, Carole King, John Williams, Carlos Santana.

H. NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE

Ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature

Weather conditions of the natural world

Recognize patterns and distinctions in the natural world

This intelligence involves understanding the natural world of plants and animals, noticing their

characteristics, and categorizing them; it generally involves keen observation and the ability to classify

other things as well. It may be exercised by exploring nature, making collections of objects, studying

them, and grouping them.

Careers:Forest rangers, nature guides, animal trainers, zoo keepers, landscape designers, gardeners,

scientists investigating the biological and physical worlds, bird watchers, veterinarians, farmers, people

involved in scouting and camping, botanists, horticulturists, florists, meteorologists, conservations.

People with this type of intelligence:Galileo, Rachael Carson, John Audubon, Lewis & Clark, Jane

Goodall, Jacques Cousteau, Diana Fossey, John Muir.

If you would like to know what types of intelligences correspond to you, go to the following web site

and fill out the questionnaire:

http://literacyworks.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html

Richard Hamptons‘ web site: http://lth3.k12.il.us/rhampton/mi/MIIDENTIFIED.htm


CHAPTER THREE -ACTIVE READING AND STUDYING IN COLLEGE

Effective reading and studying are key components to achieving academic success at the College level:

these are the skills needed to effectively extract, study and retain information from the various

textbooks and readings you will be required to read. Virtually every class you will take at College will be,

in part, based on reading. The purpose of this chapter is to give students tools for reading and studying.

Not every tool will be applicable to every student; it is necessary for each student to discover the

method which works best for her. Try them out and see!

1. Active Reading

A. THE SQ4R SYSTEM

Introduction

This method is classic because students have found it useful since the early 1960‘s. It‘s probably worth

your time to try all the steps at first and then choose and apply only those that work effectively for each

of your courses. Although using the SQ4R method may seem time consuming at first, once you know

the steps the process takes only a few minutes.

S = SURVEY

Before you crack open your book to page one and dive in, take a few minutes to read the preface and

introduction to the text, and browse through the table of contents and the index. This will tell you the

main topics that the book will cover, the author‘s particular approach to the subject (i.e., why he/she

wrote another text on the subject when there are probably twenty on the market), and what the basic

organizational structure will be.

A similar process is repeated before each chapter. Read all the titles and subtitles, study any pictures,

charts or graphs, and, if there are any, read the summary at the end of the chapter and any study

questions. Surveying a chapter in this way gives you the ―big picture,‖ a framework of the main ideas

which will help to hold the details together later.

Q = QUESTION

Before beginning to read, take the subtitle of the section (or the first sentence of a paragraph) and turn

it into a question. For example, if you‘re reading part of a chapter called The Crusades, ask yourself,

―What do I already know about the Crusades?‖ or ―what do I want to know about the Crusades?‖

R#1 = READ

You then read, not passively sliding your eyes over the words, but actively engaging the text, trying to

find the answer to your questions. Be cautious, however, that you don‘t end up skimming for the answer

to your questions and missing other important information.

25 ▪ Chapter Three -Active Reading and Studying in College

R#2 = RESPOND

Once you‘ve read the section, close the textbook and answer your question, either orally or on paper, in

your own words. If you can‘t answer the question, you should reread that section until you can. If, after

several tries, you still can‘t answer your question, go on to the next few sections and see if things

become clearer. You may find that you need to change your question. For example, you may have first

posed the question, ―What is the Treaty of Versailles?‖ for the subtitle ―The Treaty of Versailles,‖ but,

after reading the section, you may find that a better question is, ―Why was the Treaty of Versailles

created?‖ If changing your question doesn‘t help clarify the reading, it is time to get some help. Your

teacher is a good place to start, or try the Social Science Resource Centre or the Vanier College Learning

Centre.

R#3 = RECORD

Once you‘ve understood the material and can summarize it in your own words, the next step is to

record the information in some way. Some common methods are to highlight and/or mark the text, or

take notes, or some combination of both. Whichever method or combination of methods you choose

(some pros and cons are summarized next), it is critical that you remember to read and understand the

material first, and then go back and record.

R#4 = REVIEW

In courses with a lot of factual material to remember, a regular review period (usually once a week) can

be a very effective strategy for retaining information. Integrating a weekly review period into your study

routine will help you remember more of the information longer, thereby changing the nature of the

studying done at exam time. Rather than relearning material that has been forgotten because you

haven‘t looked at it since reading it or writing it down, preparing for an exam can include a review of

familiar material and rehearsal strategies like trying old exams.

The secret to making regular review periods effective is to start from the beginning of the course in

each review session. The volume of material to review increases as the semester progresses, but the

amount of time needed to review older material decreases. After you‘ve reviewed the first week‘s

material a few times, it will take only minutes to skim over it and recall the key points. Also, reviewing

new materials such as reading or lecture notes moves information from short to long-term memory, a

key to effectively retaining information. Information left without review for five weeks, for instance, loses

its meaning. They must be looked at immediately, and regularly. A good trick is to try writing down

what you know about the topic without looking at your notes. This will help you gauge how much more

studying you need to do.

B. TEN TIPS FOR READING A TEXTBOOK

1. GET IT RIGHT AWAY.

Don‘t put off buying the textbook until the day before your first test! Cramming at the last moment is

difficult, particularly in courses with a lot of reading! (Money problems? See about student loans or ask

your teacher to place a copy of the text on reserve in the Vanier library).


2. PLAN A READING SCHEDULE AND STICK TO IT.

Spreading out your reading time over the course of the term will make your actual reading more

productive. Plan to read one chapter a night, for example, and you‘ll find you have less work to do for

tests and exams.

3. SURVEY THE BOOK.

Glance over the textbook chapter headings, subtitles, and charts or graphs which sum up and clarify

main points before you start a complete reading.

4. MARK IT UP.

Simply reading the text will not help you really absorb the information it provides. Underline or

highlight important facts, figures and phrases, and write your own comments and questions in the

margins.

5. TAKE NOTES

Yes, you took notes from class lectures. Now, take notes from the textbook itself. It means a bit more

homework, but you‘ll find it pays off come exam time!

6. READ AND REREAD.

Does this sound repetitive to you? Well, it is, and that‘s the whole point! Repetition is one of the most

useful--and least used--ways to get the most out of your text. Read the text thoroughly and actively

(highlight and take notes) and then skim read the text several times to get an overall sense of the main

ideas without having to read every single line again. Your brain is like a muscle that must be flexed over

and over in order for it to work well.

7. ASK IT QUESTIONS.

Think of questions you have for the text and read it to answer those questions. This kind of interactive

approach will make your reading more effective.

8. ASK YOUR TEACHER QUESTIONS.

If your questions about certain concepts and theories aren‘t answered to your satisfaction by the

textbook, ask your teacher in class or during his/her office hours.

9. REVIEW ORALLY.

After you have read a section or chapter of your textbook, close the book and try to describe out loud

the main ideas you have learned. Talking about ideas helps you to understand and remember them. Or

write them out while they are fresh in your mind.

10. PAY SPECIAL ATTENTION TO INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS.

These sections of textbooks are really important because they highlight important ideas and facts. Some

textbooks present these sections in point form for extra clarity.

Fastfacts – SQ4R: A classic method of studying texts. (n.d.). Retrieved March 8, 2009, from University of Guelph, Learning Services

Web site: http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/assistance/learning_services/fastfacts/SQ4R.cfm


HIGHLIGHTING

THE PROS

- Takes less time than note taking.

- Charts and graphs from text readily available.

THE CONS

- Very easy to do badly; can fool you into thinking you‘re learning material when what

you‘re really doing is colouring.

- Tendency to mark too much to avoid missing something important; experts say

highlight 10-15%; students usually highlight 70-80%.

- Because fragments of sentences are highlighted, tendency is to read whole sentence for

complete meaning and so most of the book ends up being re-read.

- Necessary to study for tests from heavy, clumsy textbook.

- Difficult to integrate with lecture notes.

- Textbook ends up looking very used and reduces resale value.

NOTE TAKING

THE PROS

- Because it is time consuming, encourages you to be concise and more selective of

important information.

- Information is in point form but still grammatically complete.

- Provides a portable, easy-to-manage study tool.

- Condensed study notes can be made in margins as you go, saving time when

preparing for exams.

- Easy to integrate text and lecture notes if done on loose-leaf paper.

THE CONS

- Time-consuming.

- Tendency to copy text rather than take notes in your own words.

C. STEPS FOR PREVIEWING AN ARTICLE OR CHAPTER

You can preview, or survey, an article in a magazine or a chapter by following these quick steps:


STEP 1

Title: Read the chapter title and think about what it says or means. In the Social Sciences, the title often

summarizes what the article is about.

STEP 2

Subtitles/Headings/Subheadings: Read the subtitles, headings and subheadings. They reveal the

author‘s organization of material as well as key phrases which reveal the basic content. If you know

anything about these subjects or have studied them before, the key phrases will trigger what you have

stored in your memory and bring it from your subconscious to your conscious mind. A subtitle is a short

summary appearing under or next to the title. Subheadings are breakdowns of main headings and they

usually reveal the important points related to the major heading. A large font or bold print often stands

out as a visual aid for the reader.

STEP 3

Introduction and Conclusion: By reading the first few paragraphs, you will be introduced to the

subject and purpose of the article or chapter. In the last few paragraphs, the writer will present

conclusions or a summary. When you know the important points in the article, you will pay more

attention to them as you read. The introduction and conclusion can give you a quick overview of what

the entire article or chapter is about.

STEP 4

Look carefully at any Pictures, Charts, Graphs or Illustrations that accompany the text. Looking at

such aids before you read puts your mind into the correct frame of reference. Also note any key words

which may be used to describe the pictures - they will usually refer to the main points.

STEP 5

See if there is a Summary or Set of Questions at the end of the chapter or article. Read the questions

and try to predict the answers. By now you should have a good overview of what you are about to read.

2. Studying in College

A. STUDY HABITS QUIZ

Complete the Vanier College Learning Centre‘s Study Habits Checklist to rate the effectiveness of your

study habits.

Give yourself a score for each of the following:

Rarely/Never = 0 points; Sometimes = 3 points; Often/Always = 5 points

In Class: 0 3 5

I never miss more than one or two classes per semester in □ □ □

any given subject.

Before lectures, I prepare by reading any assigned material □ □ □

being covered that day.

During lectures, I listen carefully for key words and main ideas. □ □ □

I take notes while the teacher is talking. □ □ □

If a concept is unclear, I ask for help, in class or afterwards. □ □ □


Reading:

I overview the entire text (through the table of contents, □ □ □

headings etc...) before I begin reading.

While reading, I look for the main ideas and note them. □ □ □

I look for relationships within the material. □ □ □

I underline key terms and concepts that verify that I □ □ □

understand them.

I keep a list of definitions. □ □ □

I read actively, by asking myself questions and evaluating □ □ □

the author‘s point of view.

Study Area and Time Management:

My desk or table is big enough for me to work comfortably. □ □ □

My space is tidy and equipped with the materials I need. □ □ □

I study in a quiet area, free from distractions. □ □ □

I keep up with my assignments and do not fall behind. □ □ □

I keep a study schedule and allot time for all my tasks. □ □ □

Studying:

I review my notes regularly. □ □ □

I summarize material in my own words to understand it better. □ □ □

I break my long study assignments into small parts and work on □ □ □

one part at a time.

I review the material with a friend. □ □ □

Preparing for Exams:

I make a master outline of all the important material I need to □ □ □

learn for an exam.

I make a study schedule, which includes several study sessions, □ □ □

for each exam.

I review the most important facts and principles for each exam. □ □ □

I draw diagrams, maps, etc... and visualize the material. □ □ □

I make up my own exam questions, based on important material, □ □ □

and answer them.

I get plenty of sleep and eat a good breakfast before an exam. □ □ □


Concept

Mapping

for Success

Master

your

course

material Improve

your

memory

Organize

your

essay

Taking Exams:

Before beginning, I read over the instructions and questions □ □ □

carefully.

I break up my time so I spend a fixed amount on each question. □ □ □

For essay exams, I make an outline of my answer before I □ □ □

begin writing.

I always leave time at the end of the exam to proofread and to □ □ □

make sure I haven‘t missed any questions.

Total Score: _______ / 150

0 - 80: Your study skills could use some work! You need to use most of the following tips on how to

study more productively and efficiently.

81 – 110: You have some good study habits, but you could be more organized and focused. If

you think your marks could be better, use some of the following tips to achieve those marks.

111 – 150: You have good study skills overall! If you find yourself in trouble when preparing for

tests and exams, or with material for a particular course, use some of the following tips for help.

B. CONCEPT MAPPING

Concept mapping is an active study tool for visualizing material and making connections. Concept

mapping only comes after you have read through your notes and the text.

THE BENEFITS

By creating concept maps every week for all new material:

You will have a better understanding of the main topics in your course.

You will be better able to make links between different elements in the course.

You will remember more than if you simply recopy your notes.

You will save time reviewing material at the end of the semester.


STEPS

1. Make a list of keywords/ideas.

2. Organize the concepts into categories or subdivisions so that you have several lists or groups of

ideas.

3. Determine the major topic and place it at the centre of a blank sheet of paper (legal size paper

works well).

4. Draw branches out from the centre and connect the central word/idea to other words/ideas. You

can number the branches or even label them (if you label them, use words that describe the

relationship between the two words/ideas you are linking.)

5. Keep adding branches, but try to create structure within your map. Avoid having too many

branches attached to a single concept - a concept that you relate to ten other concepts (Figure A) is

more difficult for your mind to grasp than a concept that you relate to only three other concepts

which then each relate to two or three other concepts (Figure B). Which of these maps is more

structured? Which one would help you organize ideas more clearly in your mind? Why?

6. Once you think you are finished, look again. Can you find even more connections between concepts

that you overlooked the first time? Don‘t be scared to draw in large arrows, looping all around the

page!

Figure A

Figure B

Central

Idea

Words

/ IdeasWords

/ Ideas

Words

/ Ideas

Words

/ IdeasWords

/ Ideas

Words

/ Ideas

Words

/ Ideas

Words

/ Ideas

Central Idea

Words/Ideas

Words/Ideas Words/Ideas

Words/Ideas Words/Ideas

Words/Ideas

Words/Ideas


7. The more branches the better! It is the thinking process that is important, not the final look of the

map.

8. Once you are done, compare your map with someone else‘s. Given the same set of concepts, two

people are unlikely to create the same map. Discuss your process and your logic in making

connections and building relationships. Together, you will surely uncover even more relationships.

9. Use your map as a review tool – you can easily summarize a whole chapter on one page! However,

avoid simply memorizing it. If you understand all the details contained in your map, you will

remember it without memorizing it.

10. If you have made several maps for different topics, try making one large map that encompasses all

the topics (you might need a Bristol Board!). This will help you see relationships between different

topics, and therefore help you learn about topics in context.

C. STUDY HABITS: TIPS

1. Have a clear notion of the aim of your studying – the aim of the book, the topic, or the assignment.

2. In some types of study it helps to review the previous lesson before going on to advanced work.

The subject matter is familiar and is then easier to hook onto.

3. Study alone unless you are absolutely sure the time spent with others is more efficiently spent than

alone.

4. When you have to go over work many times, distribute the repetitions over a long period of time.

5. It helps to prepare mentally and physically in order to pay attention. Sit up at your desk and take

the attitude, ―I can do this and I will!‖

6. Set yourself a time limit and work towards it (e.g., ―I‘ll have my history completed by 10:00 p.m.‖).

7. If a goal is too remote or an assignment too long, set up intermediate goals and attack eachin turn

(e.g., aim at one chapter completed by 9:30 p.m.). Studying for an exam in the History of Western

Civilization can involve reviewing many chapters; do not try to do it all at once.

8. Do not try to study and listen to music at the same time. It can‘t be done. You have only so much

mental energy. It cannot be used for two purposes.

9. Train yourself to ignore distractions from within. Don‘t daydream. If you are worrying over a

personal problem, take time to solve it. Don‘t let it intrude on your studying.

10. Be interested in your work – having a motive helps. Employ the principle of incentives. Promise

yourself a reward if you finish your work on time.

11. Be realistic about what you can achieve in the time you have allotted. Don‘t optimistically

underestimate the time required – this can be very frustrating.

12. Find out when you work best – when you are most fresh or faced with the fewest interruptions and

distractions. Schedule difficult tasks or work on difficult subjects you are not doing well in at those

times.

13. Do the easy tasks first. This gives you a sense of accomplishment and encourages you to keep

going.

Tipsheets; Reading & analyzing. (n.d.). Retrieved March 6, 2009, from Vanier College, Learning Centre Web site: http://

www.vaniercollege.qc.ca/tlc/tipsheets.html

33 ▪ Chapter Four -Listening and Note Taking in Class

CHAPTER FOUR -LISTENING AND NOTE TAKING IN CLASS In order to understand the main points and supporting arguments of a lecture or conference, you need

to do more than listen passively. You must involve yourself in the process of communication. Since we

retain information only for a short period of time, it is important that you develop various techniques

for note taking and reviewing your notes. In this chapter we will give you tools to help you get the most

out of the notes you take during a lecture or a conference: We will introduce you to ways of becoming

an active listener.

1. Listen Actively and Selectively

ACTIVE LISTENING

Means that you focus on ideas, not just words. Throughout the lecture, continually ask yourself, ―What

are the important points that the instructor is trying to get across?‖ Then write down enough

information to help you understand those points. It also means that you pay attention to verbal

signposts, that is words or expressions that give you an idea of the type of information that is to come.

They also normally indicate important information. We have listed a number of these below along with

their meanings.

SELECTIVE LISTENING

Involves an awareness of what is and is not important enough to write down. Thus, selective listening

requires active decision making on your part. Instead of writing down everything the instructor says,

choose main ideas and corresponding supporting points, including explanations and examples. As you

listen, ask yourself the following questions, which will help you to pick out noteworthy ideas:

What is the topic?

What do I need to know about the topic?

Why is this topic important?

What is an example of the topic?

How did this event or procedure come about?

Lipsky, S. (2004). College study: The essential ingredients. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.

A. VERBAL SIGNPOSTS

1. Signals pointing to key concepts

There are two reasons for this

A critical point in the process involves

Most importantly

The result is

2. Signals pointing to differences

On the contrary

On the other hand

In contrast

However

3. Signals of support

For example

Specifically

For Instance

Similarly

4. Signals that summarize

Finally

Recapping this idea

In conclusion

As a result

Carter, C., Bishop, J., Kravits, S. L., &Maurin, P. J. (2007). Keys to success: Building successful intelligence and achieving your goals.

Toronto: Prentice Hall.


2. Note Taking in Class

A. TIPS ON NOTE TAKING

Don‘t write down everything you read or hear. Be alert and attentive to the main points.

Concentrate on the ―meat‖ of the subject and forget the trimmings.

Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences. As a speaker gets sidetracked, it is

often possible to go back and add further information.

Take accurate notes. You should use your own words, but try not to change the meaning. If you

quote directly from the author, quote correctly.

Think a minute about the material before you start making notes. Don‘t take notes just to be

taking notes! Take notes that will be of real value to you when you review them at a later date.

Have a uniform system for punctuation and abbreviation that will make sense to you. Use a

skeleton outline that shows importance by indenting. Leave lots of white space for later

additions.

Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to the point. Condense your

materials so you can grasp the main points rapidly.

Don‘t worry about missing a point. Leave space and pick up the material you missed at a later

date, either through reading, questioning, common sense, or looking at a classmate‘s notes.

Don‘t keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order and in one place. A

three-ringed or spiral notebook is preferred.

Shortly after taking your lecture notes or making textbook notes, go back and edit (not copy)

your notes by adding extra points, spelling out unclear items, etc... Remember, we forget

rapidly. Budget time for this vital step just as you do for the class itself.

Review your notes periodically; three types of review are daily, weekly, and a major review just

before a test. This is the only way to achieve lasting memory.

Note taking. (n.d.). Retrieved April 16, 2009, from Muskingum College, Centre for Advancement and Learning, Learning Strategies

Database:http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/notetaking.html

B. THE CORNELL NOTE TAKING SYSTEM

Forty years ago, Walter Pauk (1989) developed what is known as the Cornell Note Taking System to

help Cornell University students better organize their notes. Today, Pauk‘s note taking technique is

probably the most widely used system throughout the United States.

Pauk outlines six steps in the Cornell note taking system:

Record

Reduce (or question)

Recite

Reflect

Review

Recapitulate

RECORD

Simply record as many facts and ideas as you can in the six-inch column (see an example in the

following pages). Do not be concerned with getting every word down that the lecturer says or with

writing grammatically correct notes. Learn to write telegraphic sentences or a streamlined version of the

main points of the lecture by leaving out unnecessary words and using only key words. To ensure that

your notes make sense weeks later, after the lecture is over, fill in blanks or make incomplete sentences

complete.


REDUCE (OR QUESTION)

After you read through your notes, your next step is to reduce important facts and ideas to key words

or phrases, or to formulate questions based on the facts and ideas. Key words, phrases, and questions

are written in the narrow column left of the six-inch column. The words and phrases act as memory cues

so that when you review them, you will recall the ideas or facts. The questions help to clarify the

meanings of the facts and ideas.

RECITE

Recitation is a very powerful process in the retention of information. Reciting is different from rereading

in that you state out loud and in your own words the facts and ideas you are trying to learn. It is an

effective way to learn because hearing your thoughts helps you to sharpen your thinking process; and

stating ideas and facts in your own words challenges you to think about the meaning of the

information. When reciting, cover up your notes in the six-inch column, while leaving the cue words and

questions uncovered and readily accessible. Next, read each key word or question, then recite and state

aloud, in your own words, the information. If your answer is correct, continue on through the lecture by

reciting aloud.

REFLECT

Reflection is pondering or thinking about the information you have learned. Reflecting is a step beyond

learning note content. It reinforces deeper learning by the relating of facts and ideas to other learning

and knowledge. Questions like the following enhance reflecting: How do these facts and ideas fit into

what I already know? How can I apply them? How is knowing this important? What is the significance of

these facts and ideas?

REVIEW

A way to prevent forgetting is to review and recite your notes frequently. A good guideline to follow is

to review your notes nightly or several times during the week by reciting, not rereading. Brief review

sessions planned throughout the semester, perhaps weekly, will aid more complete comprehension and

retention of information than will cramming the day before a test. It will cut down on stress too!

Remember that first reviewing the material within 24 hours is key to efficient remembering.

RECAPITULATE

The recapitulation or summary of your notes goes at the bottom of the note page in the two-inch block

column. Taking a few minutes after you have reduced, recited, and reflected to summarize the facts and

ideas in your notes will help you integrate your information. The summary should not be a word-for-

word rewriting of your notes. It should be in your own words and reflect the main points you want to

remember from your notes. Reading through your summary (or summaries) in preparation for an exam

is a good way to review. There are three ways to go about summarizing:

1. Summarize each page of notes at the bottom of each page.

2. Summarize the whole lecture on the last page.

3. Do both 1 and 2, in combination.


Introduction to Psychology (350-102-VA) Prof. Lisa Fiorentino Monday Sept. 12

CUE COLUMN

2 ½ inches wide

How do Psychologists

account for

remembering?

What‘s a ―memory

trace‖?

There are 3 memory

systems – sensory, short-

term and long term

How does sensory

memory retain

information?

How is memory

transferred to STM?

What is the retention

time of STM?

How to hold information

in STM – rehearse

What are the retention

times of STM?

What are the 6 ways to

transfer information

from STM to LTM?

NOTE TAKING COLUMN

6 inches wide

MEMORY(topic of the lecture)

Memory tricky – Can recall instantly many trivial things of childhood, yet forget things

recently worked hard to learn & retain.

Memory Trace:

Fact that we retain information means that some change was made in the brain.

Changes called ―memory trace‖.

―Trace‖ probably molecular arrangement similar to molecular changes in magnetic

recording tape.

3 memory systems: sensory, short term, long term:

1. Sensory (lasts 1 second)

Ex.: Words or numbers sent to brain by sight (visual image) start to disintegrate within a few

10ths of a second & gone in 1 full second unless quickly transferred to STM by verbal

repetition.

2. Short –term memory (STM) (Lasts 30 seconds)

Experiments show: a syllable of 3 letters remembered 50% of time after 3 seconds.

Totally forgotten end of 30 seconds

STM – limited capacity – holds average of 7 items.

More than 7 items – get rid of some to make room.

To hold items in STM, must rehearse – must hear sound of word internally or

externally.

3. Long-term memory (LTM) (lasts a lifetime or short time)

Transfer fact or idea by:

Associating with information already in LTM

Organizing information into meaningful units

Understanding by comparing & making relationships

Frameworking – fit pieces in like a jigsaw puzzle

Reorganizing – combine new & old into a new unit

Rehearsing – aloud to keep memory trace strong

SUMMARY

3 kinds of memory systems are sensory, which retains information for about 1 second : Short-term which retains

for a maximum of 30 seconds : and long-term which varies from a lifetime of retention to a relatively short time.

The 6 ways (activities) to transfer information to the LTM are: associating, organizing,

understanding,frameworking, reorganizing, and rehearsing.


C. VARIATIONS ON THE CORNELL NOTE TAKING SYSTEM

Here is a variation on the Cornell Note Taking System, that can be applied to almost all lecture

situations. Its keynote is simple efficiency: every step is designed to save time and effort; there is no

retyping or rewriting; and each step prepares the way for taking the next natural and logical step in the

learning process. In other words, it is a do-it-right-in-the-first-place system.

THE FIRST STEP: PREPARING THE SYSTEM

Use a large, loose-leaf notebook. The large size provides ample room for taking meaningful notes,

recording examples, and drawing diagrams. The loose-leaf feature enables you to insert photocopied

―handouts‖ and assignment sheets in topical or chronological order.

Take notes on one side of the page only. Later, while studying, this will allow you to spread out the

pages to see the pattern of a lecture.

The key to the system is to draw a vertical line about 2-1/2 inches from the left edge of each

sheet. This is the recall column.

Classroom notes will be recorded in the space to the right of the line.

Later, key words and phrases will be written to the left of the line.

Before each new lecture, take a few minutes to look over your notes from the previous lecture, so that

you can connect them with the lecture you are about to hear.

THE SECOND STEP: DURING THE LECTURE

Record your notes in simple paragraph form. Your objective should be to make your notes

complete and clear enough so that they will make sense to you weeks later.

It is not necessary to make elaborate outlines.

Strive to capture general ideas rather than illustrative details. This will let you follow the train of

the argument or development of an idea. You can usually get names and dates from the

textbook.

Skip lines to show the end of one idea and the start of another. Indicate sub-ideas and

supporting details with numbers or letters under the major idea.

Use abbreviations to give yourself extra time to listen and write. BUT avoid abbreviations you might

have trouble deciphering weeks or months later.

Write legibly. You can if you discipline yourself. Later, when you review, legible handwriting will

let you concentrate on ideas and facts rather than on figuring out your scribbling. Doing your

notes right the first time saves time in rewriting or typing them.

THE THIRD STEP: AFTER THE LECTURE

Since forgetting is constantly taking its toll, it would be wise to consolidate your notes during your first

free time after class, or during the evening at the latest.

First, read through your notes to make any scribbles more legible, fill in spaces purposely left

blank, and emerge with an overview of the lecture.

Then underlineor box in the words containing the main ideas.

Now you are ready to use the recall column on the left side of the page.


In this column, jot in key words and key phrases that will stand as cues for the ideas and facts

on the right.

In making these jottings, you will have reread all the lecturer‘s ideas, rethought them in your

own words, and reflected on them as you tried to think of a brief summarizing phrase or a key

word.

In doing so, you will have organized and structured the lecture both in your notebook and

more importantly, in your mind.

Now, cover up the right side of the sheet, exposing only the jottings in the recall column.

Using the jottings as cues or ―flags‖ to help you recall, recite aloud the facts and ideas of the

lecture as fully as you can, in your own words and with as much appreciation of the meaning as

you can.

Then uncover the notes and verify what you have said. This procedure of reciting is the most

powerful learning technique known to psychologists.

Larocque, L. M. (n.d.). Explorations II – Skills for the 21st century. St. Laurent, QC: Vanier College Bookstore.

D. OUTLINE FORMAT FOR NOTE TAKING

The outlining strategy involves organizing information so that inclusive material is followed by more

exclusive but related pieces of information. In other words, the information is arranged from general to

specific. The format may be used while recording notes, or it may be employed when recopying and

reorganizing notes.

Outlining is a fairly versatile format for organizing notes because it can be modified to accommodate

personal needs and preferences. For example, outlines can be formal or informal (e.g. with or without

Roman numerals) and symbols for distinguishing inclusive and exclusive material can be varied. Notes

in outline form help the student to detect and understand relationships and associations among

different pieces of information. Notes in outline form can also be modified easily into study guides for

exam preparation.

Directions for taking or transcribing notes into outline form are as follows:

Develop a Template

o Part of the outlining task can be completed before class.

o Do the required reading to be covered in class, and develop a ―skeleton‖ outline or

template based on the reading.

o Use the major headings in the chapter to form the major sections of the outline.

o The details are filled in during lecture.

Arrangement of Information

o Each major section of the outline should cover one major topic.

o Arrange the information within the section from most inclusive to most exclusive,

indenting the information each time the level of inclusiveness changes.

o All of the levels may or may not be used.

Symbols

o The most common symbols used in outlining are Roman numerals, upper and lower

case letters, and numbers.

o Other symbols like circles and squares may be added or substituted for these according

to personal preference.


Record Notes

o Short phrases, symbols, shorthand, and abbreviations may be used to record notes in

the outline.

o Drawings or figures may be incorporated to the right of the notes or between lines

Example of a Formal Outline

Professor Sossoyan - Intro to Prehistory

10/25/95 - Page 2

ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE

I. AGRICULTURE COMPARED TO HUNTING-GATHERING

A. Advantages of Agriculture

1. More efficient use of land

a. agric: 1 sq km supports 50 people

b. h-g: 25-30 sq km supports 5-6 people

2. More Stable food source thru year (w/ storage)

3. More free time in non-critical seasons

B. Disadvantages of Agriculture

1. Malnourishment

a. farmers often deficient in protein

2. Labour intensive in critical seasons

3. High risk if crops/herds fail

II. IDENTIFYING DOMESTICATES IN ARCH‘L RECORD

A. Plants

1. Seeds are bigger in size

2. Seed coats are thicker

B. Animals

1. Size changes

2. Finer or thicker fur

3. Different horn shape

Note taking. (n.d.). Retrieved April 16, 2009, from Muskingum College, Centre for Advancement and Learning,Learning Strategies

Database: http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/notetaking.html

E. USING SHORTHAND IN NOTE TAKING

Note taking is hard work. It is impossible to write everything you hear in a lecture – unless you‘re a

stenographer! The idea is to take down as much important information as you can while doing it

rapidly. Symbols and abbreviations are useful for that purpose. Use abbreviations that fit your needs

and ones that you will remember easily. Introduce a few abbreviations and symbols in your note taking

at a time. Below are some frequently used symbols and abbreviations you might find useful when you

take lecture notes. You can also use your texting skills and integrate them in your note taking. Practice

integrating symbols and abbreviations in your note taking; it will make your life a lot easier!


A few general rules:

Leave out articles like a, an, the.

Write numbers as 1, 2, 3 and not one, two, three.

Omit vowels from the middle of words.

Use apostrophes, for example gov‘t for government, cont‘d for continued.

Eliminate final letters. Use just enough of the beginning of a word to form an easily

recognizable abbreviation, such as assoc for associated, intro for introduction, max for

maximum.

Borrow from technical symbols, such as & for and, # for number, % for percentage.

If a term, phrase or name is initially written out in full during the lecture, substitute initials when

the term, phrase, or name is used again, for example the Modern Massachusetts Party becomes

MMP.

Symbol Meaning Example

Leads to, produces, causes Practiceperfection

& And Coffee & cream

P Page Read p.89

w/ With (something) War fought w/ NATO aid

w/o Without They fought w/o fear

b/c Because We pay taxes b/c it‘s the law

b/4 Before Chicken b/4 egg

e.g. For example Professionals e.g. doctors and lawyers

Ex. Example Look at ex. 4

Cf Compare Cf to previous theories

= Equal, is the same Sloth = laziness

Esp. Especially Tobacco esp. Cigarettes cause cancer

♀ Female, women The gathering is done by the ♀

♂ Male, man ♂are more prone to violence

US United States or American US invaded Iraq

i.e. For instance Men like sports i.e. hockey

+ More, increase Agriculture brought + food

- or Less, decrease There has been a child death

41 ▪ Chapter Five -Brainstorming: Organizing your Ideas and Thoughts

CHAPTER FIVE -BRAINSTORMING: ORGANIZING YOUR IDEAS AND

THOUGHTS

So far you have read chapters on time management, stress management, learning styles, reading and

studying, listening & note-taking. Now we turn our attention to writing College level essays. This is one

of the most important skills you will need to acquire in college. In Social Science you will be required to

write essays in one form or another in your program courses as well as in English and Humanities,

culminating in a ten page research essay in Integrative Project. That is a lot of essays!

The purpose of this chapter is to prepare you for writing the essay. Instead of simply diving straight into

the writing stage you need to organize your ideas, choose a topic that suits you, as well as develop a

coherent approach and argument regarding your topic. It is also critical that before you begin writing

you assess whether or not your topic idea is suitable; this is where brainstorming and free writing can

play a critical role.

1. Brainstorming

Introduction

If you consciously take advantage of your natural thinking processes by gathering your brain‘s energies

into a ―storm,‖ you can transform these energies into written words or diagrams that will lead to lively,

vibrant writing. Below you will find a brief discussion of what brainstorming is, why you might

brainstorm, and suggestions for how to brainstorm.

Whether you are starting with too much information or not enough, brainstorming can help you to put

a new writing task in motion or revive a project that hasn‘t reached completion. Let‘s take a look at each

case

You might need a storm to approach when you feel ―blank‖ about the topic, devoid of inspiration, full of

anxiety about the topic, or just too tired to craft an orderly outline. In this case, brainstorming stirs up

the dust, whips some air into your stilled pools of thought, and gets the breeze of inspiration moving

again.

There are times when you have too much chaos in your brain and need to bring in some conscious

order. In this case, brainstorming forces the mental chaos and random thoughts to rain out onto the

page, giving you some concrete words or schemas that you can then arrange according to their logical

relations.

Brainstorming techniques

What follows are great ideas on how to brainstorm—ideas from professional writers, novice writers,

people who would rather avoid writing, and people who spend a lot of time brainstorming about…well,

how to brainstorm.

Try out several of these options and challenge yourself to vary the techniques you rely on; some

techniques might suit a particular writer, academic discipline, or assignment better than others. If the

technique you try first doesn‘t seem to help you, move right along and try some others.


Freewriting

When you freewrite, you let your thoughts flow as they will, putting pen to

paper and writing down whatever comes into your mind. You don‘t judge the

quality of what you write and you don‘t worry about style or any surface-level

issues, like spelling, grammar, or punctuation. If you can‘t think of what to say,

you write that down—really. The advantage of this technique is that you free up

your internal critic and allow yourself to write things you might not write if you were

being too self-conscious.

When you freewrite you can set a time limit (―I‘ll write for 15 minutes!‖) and even use a kitchen timer or

alarm clock, or you can set a space limit (―I‘ll write until I fill two full notebook pages, no matter what

tries to interrupt me!‖) and just write until you reach that goal. You might do this on the computer or on

paper, and you can even try it with your eyes shut or the monitor off, which encourages speed and

freedom of thought.

The crucial point is that you keep on writing even if you believe you are saying nothing. Word must

follow word, no matter the relevance. Your freewriting might even look like this:

“This paper is supposed to be on the politics of tobacco production but even though I went

to all the lectures and read the book I can’t think of what to say, and I’ve felt this way for

four minutes now and I have 11 minutes left and I wonder if I’ll keep thinking nothing

during every minute but I’m not sure if it matters that I am babbling, and I don’t know

what else to say about this topic and it is rainy today and I never noticed the number of

cracks in that wall before, and those cracks remind me of the walls in my grandfather’s

study and he smoked and he farmed and I wonder why he didn’t farm tobacco...”.

When you‘re done with your set number of minutes or have reached your page goal, read back over the

text. Yes, there will be a lot of filler and unusable thoughts but there also will be little gems, discoveries,

and insights. When you find these gems, highlight them or cut and paste them into your draft or onto

an ―ideas‖ sheet so you can use them in your paper. Even if you don‘t find any diamonds in there, you

will have either quieted some of the noisy chaos or greased the writing gears so that you can now face

the assigned paper topic.

Break down the topic into levels

Once you have a course assignment in front of you, you might brainstorm:

the general topic, like ―The relationship between tropical fruits and colonial powers‖;

a specific subtopic or required question, like ―How did the availability of multiple tropical fruits

influence competition amongst colonial powers trading from the larger Caribbean islands

during the 19th century?‖;

a single term or phrase that you sense you‘re overusing in the paper. For example: If you see

that you‘ve written ―increased the competition‖ about a dozen times in your ―tropical fruits‖

paper, you could brainstorm variations on the phrase itself or on each of the main terms:

―increased‖ and ―competition.‖


2. Listing/Bulleting

In this technique you jot down lists of words or phrases under a particular topic. Try this one by basing

your list either,

on the general topic;

on one or more words from your particular thesis claim, or

on a word or idea that is the complete opposite of your original word or idea.

For example, if your general assignment is to write about the changes in inventions over time, and your

specific thesis claims that ―the 20th century presented a large number of inventions to advance US

society by improving upon the status of 19th-century society,‖ you could brainstorm two different lists

to ensure you are covering the topic thoroughly and that your thesis will be easy to prove.

The first list might be based on your thesis; you would jot down as many 20th-

century inventions as you could, as long as you know of their positive effects on

society. The second list might be based on the opposite claim and you would

instead jot down inventions that you associate with a decline in that society‘s

quality. You could do the same two lists for 19th-century inventions and then

compare the evidence from all four lists.

Using multiple lists will help you to gather more perspective on the topic and

ensure that, sure enough, your thesis is solid as a rock, or, …uh oh, your thesis is full of holes and you‘d

better alter your claim to one you can prove.

3. Three Perspectives

Looking at something from different perspectives helps you see it more completely—or at least in a

completely different way, sort of like how lying on the floor makes your desk look very different to you.

To use this strategy, answer the questions for each of the three perspectives, then look for interesting

relationships or mismatches you can explore.

Describe it: Describe your subject in detail. What is your topic? What are its components? What are its

interesting and distinguishing features? What are its puzzles? Distinguish your subject from those that

are similar to it. How is your subject unlike others?

Trace it: What is the history of your subject? How has it changed over time? Why? What are the

significant events that have influenced your subject?

Map it: What is your subject related to? What is it influenced by? How? What does it influence? How?

Who has a stake in your topic? Why? What fields do you draw on for the study of your subject? Why?

How has your subject been approached by others? How is their work related to yours?

4. Cubing

Cubing enables you to consider your topic from six different directions; just as a cube is six-sided, your

cubing brainstorming will result in six ―sides‖ or approaches to the topic. Take a sheet of paper, consider

your topic, and respond to these six commands.

1. Describe it.

2. Compare it.

3. Associate it.

4. Analyze it.

5. Apply it.

6. Argue for and against it.


Look over what you‘ve written. Do any of the responses suggest anything new about your topic? What

interactions do you notice among the ―sides‖? That is, do you see patterns repeating, or a theme

emerging that you could use to approach the topic or draft a thesis? Does one side seem particularly

fruitful in getting your brain moving? Could that one side help you draft your thesis statement? Use this

technique in a way that serves your topic. It should, at least, give you a broader awareness of the topic‘s

complexities, if not a sharper focus on what you will do with it.

5. Similes

In this technique, complete the following sentence:

____________________ is/was/are/were like _____________________.

In the first blank put one of the terms or concepts your paper centres on.

Then try to brainstorm as many answers as possible for the second blank,

writing them down as you come up with them.

After you have produced a list of options, look over your ideas. What

kinds of ideas come forward? What patterns or associations do you find?

6. Clustering/Mapping/Webbing:

The general idea:

This technique has three (or more) different names, according to how you describe the activity itself, or

what the end product looks like. In short, you will write a lot of different terms and phrases onto a sheet

of paper in a random fashion and later go back to link the words together into a sort of ―map‖ or ―web‖

that forms groups from the separate parts. Allow yourself to start with chaos. After the chaos subsides,

you will be able to create some order out of it.

To really let yourself go in this brainstorming technique, use a large piece of paper or tape two pieces

together. You could also use a blackboard if you are working with a group of people. This big vertical

space allows all members room to ―storm‖ at the same time, but you might have to copy down the

results onto another sheet of paper later. If you don‘t have big paper at the moment, don‘t worry. You

can do this on an 8 ½ by 11 as well.

How to do it:

1. Take your sheet(s) of paper and write your main topic in the centre, using a word or two or

three.

2. Moving out from the centre and filling in the open space any way you are driven to fill it, start

to write down, fast, as many related concepts or terms as you can associate with the central

topic. Jot them quickly; move into another space; jot some more down; move to another blank,

and just keep moving around and jotting. If you run out of similar concepts, jot down

opposites; jot down things that are only slightly related, or jot down your grandpa‘s name, but

try to keep moving and associating. Don‘t worry about the (lack of) sense of what you write, for

you can choose to keep or toss out these ideas when the activity is over.

3. Once the storm has subsided and you are faced with a hail of terms and phrases, you can start

to cluster. Circle terms that seem related and then draw a line connecting the circles. Find some

more and circle them, and draw more lines to connect them with what you think is closely

related. When you run out of terms that associate, start with another term. Look for concepts


and terms that might relate to that term. Circle them and then link them with a connecting line.

Continue this process until you have found all the associated terms. Some of the terms might

end up uncircled, but these ―loners‖ can also be useful to you. (Note: You can use different

coloured pens/pencils/chalk for this part, if you like. If that‘s not possible, try to vary the kind of

line you use to encircle the topics; use a wavy line, a straight line, a dashed line, a dotted line, a

zigzaggy line, etc... in order to see what goes with what.)

4. There! When you stand back and survey your work, you should see a set of clusters, or a big

web, or a sort of map: hence the names for this activity. At this point you can start to form

conclusions about how to approach your topic. There are about as many possible results to this

activity as there are stars in the night sky, so what you do from here will depend on your

particular results. Let‘s take an example or two in order to illustrate how you might form some

logical relationships between the clusters and loners you‘ve decided to keep. At the end of the

day, what you do with the particular ―map‖ or ―cluster set‖ or ―web‖ that you produce depends

on what you need. What does this map or web tell you to do? Explore an option or two and get

your draft going!

7. Journalistic Questions

In this technique you would use the ―big six‖ questions that journalists rely on to thoroughly research a

story. The six are: Who?, What?, When?, Where?, Why?, and How?. Write each question word on a sheet

of paper, leaving space between them. Then, write out some sentences or phrases in answer form, as

they fit your particular topic. You might also answer into a tape recorder, Blackberry or cell phone if

you‘d rather talk out your ideas.

Now look over your batch of responses. Do you see that you have more to say about one or two of the

questions? Or, are your answers for each question pretty well balanced in depth and content? Was there

one question that you had absolutely no answer for? How might this awareness help you to decide how

to frame your thesis claim or to organize your paper? Or, how might it reveal what you must work on

further, doing library research or interviews or further note-taking?

For example, if your answers reveal that you know a lot more about ―where‖ and ―why‖ something

happened than you know about ―what‖ and ―when,‖ how could you use this lack of balance to direct

your research or to shape your paper? How might you organize your paper so that it emphasizes the

known versus the unknown aspects of evidence in the field of study? What else might you do with your

results?

8. Thinking Outsidethe Box

Even when you are writing within a particular academic discipline, you can take

advantage of your semesters of experience in other courses from other

departments. Let‘s say you are writing a paper for a psychology course. You

could ask yourself, ―Hmmm, if I were writing about this very same topic in an

anthropology course or using this term in a history course, how might I see or

understand it differently? Are there varying definitions for this concept within,

say, philosophy or economics, that might encourage me to think about this

term from a new, richer point of view?‖

For example, when discussing ―culture‖ in your english, religious studies, or sociology course, you could

incorporate the definition of ―culture‖ that is frequently used in the biological sciences. Remember

those little Petri dishes from your lab experiments in high school? Those dishes are used to ―culture‖

substances for bacterial growth and analysis, right? How might it help you write your paper if you

thought of ―culture‖ as a medium upon which certain things will grow, will develop in new ways or will

even flourish beyond expectations, but upon which the growth of other things might be retarded,

significantly altered, or stopped altogether?


9. Using Charts or Shapes

If you are more visually inclined, you might create charts, graphs, or tables in lieu of word lists or

phrases as you try to shape or explore an idea. You could use the same phrases or words that are

central to your topic and try different ways to arrange them spatially, say in a graph, on a grid, or in a

table or chart. The important thing here is to get out of the realm of words alone and see how different

spatial representations might help you see the relationships among your ideas. If you can‘t imagine the

shape of a chart at first, just put down the words on the page and then draw lines between or around

them. Or think of a shape. Do your ideas most easily form a triangle? square? umbrella? Can you put

some ideas in parallel formation? In a line?

10. Consider Purpose and Audience

What is your purpose? What are you trying to do? What verb captures your intent? Are you trying to

inform? Convince? Describe? Each purpose will lead you to a different set of information and help you

shape material to include and exclude in a draft. Write about why you are writing this draft in this form.

Who is your audience? Who are you communicating with beyond the teacher? Will you be presenting

your information to your classmates? What does that audience need to know? What do they already

know? What information does that audience need first, second, third? Write about who you are writing

to and what they need.

11. Dictionaries, Thesauruses, Encyclopaedias

When all else fails, there is a tried and true method, loved for centuries by

writers of all stripes. Visit the library reference areas or stop by the Learning

Centre to browse various dictionaries, thesauruses (or other guide books

and reference texts), encyclopaedias or surf their online counterparts.

Sometimes these basic steps are the best ones. It is almost guaranteed that

you‘ll learn several things you did not know.

If you‘re looking at a hard copy reference, turn to your most important

terms and see what sort of variety you find in the definitions. The obscure or

archaic definition might help you to appreciate the term‘s breadth or realize how much its meaning has

changed as the language changed. Could that realization be built into your paper somehow?

If you go to online sources, use their own search functions to find your key terms and see what

suggestions they offer. For example, if you plug ―good‖ into a thesaurus search, you will be given 14

different entries. Whew! If you were analyzing the film Good Will Hunting, imagine how you could

enrich your paper by addressing the six or seven ways that ―good‖ could be interpreted according to

how the scenes, lighting, editing, music, etc..., emphasized various aspects of ―good.‖

An encyclopaedia is sometimes a valuable resource if you need to clarify facts, get quick background, or

get a broader context for an event or item. If you are stuck because you have a vague sense of a

seemingly important issue, do a quick check with this reference and you may be able to move forward

with your ideas.

12. Closing

Armed with a full quiver of brainstorming techniques and facing sheets of jotted ideas, bulleted

subtopics, or spidery webs relating to your paper, what do you do now?

Take the next step and start to write your first draft, or fill in those gaps you‘ve been brainstorming

about to complete your ―almost ready‖ paper. If you‘re a fan of outlining, prepare one that incorporates

as much of your brainstorming data as seems logical to you. If you‘re not a fan, don‘t make one.


Instead, start to write out some larger chunks (large groups of sentences or full paragraphs) to expand

upon your smaller clusters and phrases. Keep building from there into larger sections of your paper.

You don‘t have to start at the beginning of the draft. Start writing the section that comes together most

easily. You can always go back to write the introduction later.

Remember, once you‘ve begun the paper, you can stop and try another brainstorming technique

whenever you feel stuck. Keep the energy moving and try several techniques to find what suits you or

the particular project you are working on.

Handouts and links. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2009, from University of North Carolina, The Writing Centre Web site:

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/brainstorming.html

Your notes here:


CHAPTER SIX -RESEARCHING AND WRITING AN ESSAY

Writing is one of the most important skills required to succeed in College, especially in Social Science.

Whether the writing is in the form of essays, research papers, book reviews, or other types of written

assignments, they will make up a very important part of the grades you will receive. While in College

you have the perfect opportunity to learn how to acquire and develop your writing and research skills.

Remember, in University, you can expect to have to write about one 15 page research paper or essay for

most of the 30 courses you will need to obtain your BA in one of the Social Sciences.

1. Identify the Type of Essay You Will Write

An essay is a generic term referring to a written paper (called an essay, term paper, research paper or

just a paper) that is anywhere from 3 pages to 15 pages. Its aim is to provide a more or less detailed

answer to a research question or thesis statement.

Here are examples of the most common types of essays you will have to produce in College:

1. Descriptive Essay: You will describe a person, a thing, a place or an event in such a way that the

reader can visualize the topic. For example, describe the changes in airport security after

September 11th, 2001.

2. Narrative Essay: You have to tell a story or part of a story. The classic ―What I did last summer‖

is the story of what you did, told from your perspective.

3. Persuasive or Argumentative Essay: You have to convince the reader of the validity of a stated

position or argument. For example: Peer pressure is the main cause of binge drinking among

teenagers.

4. Critical Essay: You have to provide more than a review of the content of a text or book. You

must provide facts and arguments in support of your position. For example: Do you agree with

the author‘s statement that ―Evolution is just another theory‖?

5. Short Essays or Reports: These are short papers – typically in the 750 to 1000 word range. They

can be book reports, critical analysis of a text, a short essay exam, etc... Since these are short

papers, your writing has to be focused and well structured. You have to make sure that you are

to the point and keep in mind the purpose of the paper.

2. Identify the Type of Data You Will Use

Another distinction in writing an essay is whether you will have to collect original data, like in the

Research Methods course or work with information found in books and journals, like in the Integrative

Project course. The first type of essay is referred to as an essay based on ―primary data‖ while the

second is based on ―secondary data‖. Most of your essays in Social Science and Humanities will be

essays based on ―secondary data‖. This guide is a general resource on writing essays in Social Sciences

and Humanities. Thus, there are steps that are needed for ―primary data‖ research that we do not cover

here, but which will be addressed in your Research Methods course.

Primary Data: This is information that you have gathered using a questionnaire, doing interviews,

carrying out an experiment, doing content analysis, using the historical method or making observations.

These are examples of some of the most widely used techniques to collect original information in the

Social Sciences.

Secondary Data: Also referred to as library research, this information is gathered from books, academic

journals, specialized web pages or governmental documents or statistics. In other words, your research

is based on information produced by other people, usually academics or professional researchers.

49 ▪ Chapter Six -Researching and Writing an Essay

IMPORTANT: Always make sure you follow the instructions and guidelines of your professors

when you are asked to write an essay. You will find at the end of this chapter, a series of concepts

used in essay questions. Read and understand them.

3. Three Main Stages of Essay Writing

A. Define Your Essay Topic

1. Develop your topic.

2. Preliminary readings.

3. Write your thesis statement or research question.

4. Write a preliminary title and outline.

B. Research and Documentation

5. Define a search strategy.

6. Research your topic.

7. Evaluate the relevance of your documents.

8. Read your documents and take notes.

9. Organize your notes.

10. Produce a detailed outline.

C. The Writing Process

11. Write your first draft.

12. Take a break, seriously!

13. Edit, baby, edit!

14. Write, format and submit the final paper.

A. DEFINE YOUR ESSAY TOPIC

1. DEVELOP YOUR TOPIC.

If a topic is not assigned by your teacher, identify a subject that interests you. If a topic is

assigned by your teacher, think of a way to link it to your interests.

o Refer to your text book, a lecture, a hobby you have that relates to the subject,

something that you are curious about. This point can never be stated often enough.

The best papers are about subjects that grab their author‘s interest.

Set your topic.

o Write your thesis, hypothesis, research question, or objective in a sentence or two at

most.

Note key ideas or words you think will be important.

o Use only short phrases or single words at this point.

o Construct a map using these words and phrases (see chapter 5 of this guide on how to

construct and use concept mapping).

Identify what you want to do with the concepts!

o Refer to our list of terms for essays at the end of this chapter.

o Pick a likely verb (or two) and write out the definition and keep it handy.

o What type of essay are you writing?

o What has the teacher assigned?

o Underline key words in the assignment instructions.

List the sources you will need to find information for your essay:

o Use your textbook or course pack.

o Is there a reference librarian who can help you find sources, both for an overview and

for detailed research?

o Is a search engine enough?


o Are there specialized dictionary and encyclopaedias?

o Are there specialized databases?

Analyze your topic so far:

o Is it too vague or broad, or too narrow?

o Is it interesting enough?

o Is there a controversy to explore or do you think you can help others understand a

problem? Will you provide information from two points of view, or only one while

anticipating questions and arguments?

Summarize your topic and present it to your teacher for feedback.

o Bring these first few steps with you in case the teacher will want to help you refine or

restate your topic.

Keep an open or critical mind as you research:

o You may only see your side and not be objective.Your position could be prejudicial to,

or otherwise affect, your investigation.

Develop your time line.

o Plan what part you will have done for which date. Allow for editing, revision and

unexpected developments.

Inspiration phase.

o This is continuous to prevent losing ideas and inspirations. Use a notepad as your

research journal to write ideas, things to do, references. Keep a folder or notebook to

preserve phrases, vocabulary, events, etc. for later use.

2. PRELIMINARY READINGS

In order to write a useful, well thought out research question or thesis statement, one that is not too

broad or too narrow, you need to have enough knowledge about your topic. Preliminary readings,

usually textbooks, other books in the same field, encyclopaedias and specialized dictionaries will

provide you with enough information to produce a sound thesis statement or research question. If you

cannot come up with one, it is most likely because you do not know enough about the subject. You

need to read some more.

3. WRITE YOUR THESIS STATEMENT OR RESEARCH QUESTION.

Take deep breaths! Relax and answer the following questions before you attempt to write a thesis

statement or research question.

You are writing this essay for a reason (Okay, because your teacher told you to write it, but that

is beside the point!) You want to explain something, describe something, show the relationship

between two or more things, or argue in favour or against something. So write down what is

your main objective in writing this essay.

What is your essay about? For which class are you writing this essay? What is the general topic

of your essay? Write down the answer to these three questions.

Is a thesis statement or a research question more appropriate for the type of essay you want to

write? A thesis statement is exactly what it says, it is a statement. For example: ―The present

economic crisis is caused by unregulated mortgage loans‖. It is a statement that you will have

to prove, because you state that A caused B. You will have to show the relationship between the

two, but also show how A caused B. In a research question, you are asking a question for which

you will need to find the answer, keeping an open mind that the data you will find might lead

you to answer yes or no. For example, a research question could be: ―Are the U.S. Federal

Banking regulations strict enough to prevent another economic crisis‖? It is formulated as a


question, and the research you carry out will allow you to answer yes or no, or even that we do

not know.

Go over the notes from your preliminary readings and look for ideas or inspiration and look at

what you answered for the above questions. By looking back and forth you will slowly start

putting together a statement or a question.

Keep working on your statement or question until you are convinced it is not too vague, not

too broad and not too specific. Also ask yourself if you have access to enough information to

write on that topic. Is it doable in the amount of time you have and is it a topic that has been

researched to death? What is it that you are adding to the research with your essay?

4. WRITE A PRELIMINARY TITLE AND OUTLINE.

Writing a preliminary title to your essay forces you to think hard about your topic. It also forces you to

make choices, to change things, to find what it is exactly that you want to talk about. Do not take this

step lightly; it will save you time and grief down the road. As for your outline, the aim is similar. Think of

the outline as a road map. Let‘s say you want to go from Montreal to Winnipeg (God knows why you

would want to go to Winnipeg, but this is also beside the point).You could just get on the road and

drive. Chances are very strong that you will miss exits, take the wrong road, lose a lot of time and find

the whole thing a frustrating experience. Writing without an outline will lead to the same frustrations

and loss of time. Think of your outline as a map that you draw before starting to drive that will lay out

all of the roads and exits, road stops, etc... It tells you how to get from point A to point B to point C. The

outline tells you how you plan to answer your research question or thesis statement. What are the

different points you will talk about, in what order? Which ones are more important than others? What

examples you will use? It will make your writing job much easier and will produce a much better essay.

As well, keep in mind that your outline is a tool to help you, and that it can, and often will, change once

you start writing your essay: It is perfectly normal.

Creating an outline is important because it:

- aids in the process of writing;

- helps you organize your ideas;

- presents your material in a logical form;

- shows the relationships among ideas in your writing;

- constructs an ordered overview of your writing;

- defines boundaries and groups.

CREATING AN OUTLINE

Brainstorm - List all the ideas that you want to include in your paper. (See chapter 5 of this guide)

Organize - Group related ideas together.

Order - Arrange material in subsections from general to specific or from abstract to concrete.

Label - Create main and sub headings.

Remember - Creating an outline before writing your paper will make organizing your thoughts a lot

easier. Whether you follow the suggested guidelines is up to you, but making any kind of outline (even

just jotting down some main ideas) will be beneficial to your writing process.


Outlining is one way to organize ideas for a paper. Outlines distinguish between main points and details

for the paper and they determine how the information will be arranged in the paper.

Basically, information related to each main topic is arranged from most general to most specific.

Different ideas are placed on different lines of the outline. Supporting ideas are usually indented to the

right of the main point they describe. Symbols like Roman numerals, letters, and numbers may be used

to distinguish items in the outline. Sample outlines and guidelines for developing outlines are given

below.

Example of a Content-specific Outline on the Origins of Cities

INTRODUCTION

CHARACTERISTICS OF CITIES

1.1 High Population Density

1.2 Occupational Specialization

1.3 Social Differentiation

2. EARLY CITIES

2.1 Cities in Southern Iraq

2.2 Cities in Mesoamerica

2.3 Cities in China

3. THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF CITIES

3.1 Irrigation

3.2 Population Growth

3.3 Long-distance Trade

4. ADVANTAGES OF LIVING IN CITIES

4.1 Safety Walls of Jericho

4.2 Moats of Medieval Cities

4.3 Access to Goods and Services

4.4 Availability of Nonrelated Mates

5. CONCLUSION

B. GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING OUTLINES

Identify main points

o Carefully examine the reference notes and identify the main ideas or main topics.

o The main ideas will form the skeleton of the outline.

o Each main idea will be the subject of one paragraph (or more) in the rough draft.

Identify supporting details

o Determine which facts, statistics, opinions, quotes, and explanations support each main

idea.

o Arrange them under the corresponding main ideas in the outline.

o Gather supporting details for a topic from more than one reference. Doing so usually

impresses instructors because it shows depth of research.

o Keep in mind that each supporting detail will be a sentence (or several sentences) in the

rough draft.

Keep it brief. Write outline information in short phrases and incomplete sentences.

o Focus on key words and key ideas.


o Spend more time on getting the information organized logically than on writing

complete sentences.

Logically order the ideas

o Organize the information logically, using one of the following approaches:

chronological, sequential, topical, problem-solution, or cause-effect.

Creating an outline is a back and forth process

Modify your outline as your research progresses, you will gather more information and issues will

become clearer. Some points you will drop, others will be added and some will be joined together or

divided. Keep in mind that creating an outline is a continual process and not a one time deal.

Writing and proofing. (n.d.) Retrieved April 16, 2009, from Muskingum College, Center for Advancement and Learning, Learning

Strategies Database: http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/writing.html#Outline

C. RESEARCH AND DOCUMENTATION

5.DEFINE A SEARCH STRATEGY.

Develop research strategies and a list of resources.

o How will you find information that will provide you with the data you need to

document your essay and where will you start? Use the resources available to you on

the Vanier Library web site.

Narrow your topic and its description; pull out key words and categories.

o Develop a list of key words--15 or so--that form the foundation of both your research

and writing. Build the list from general sources and overviews. Use a thesaurus to find

synonyms for your key words.

Bring your topic and keyword list to the research librarian or teacher.

o They can help you focus and give you ideas on how to develop useful keywords.

6. RESEARCH YOUR TOPIC.

Know where to find information for your essay.

o The college library is your first step. Use the library catalogue

(OPAC) to find books on your topic.

o Online databases of academic journals (Proquest, J-Store) are

some of the electronic databases available on the Vanier College

web site. Government, university and research centre web sites

are also good places to find information.

When you are looking for books on the library shelves, look at the books beside the one you

are specifically looking for.

o Since the books are all organized by topic, the ones near the book you are looking for

will also deal with the same topic. When you find a book that is relevant for your topic,

look at the bibliography, you will find more books on that same topic. The same thing

applies for articles you find in the electronic databases. Look at their bibliography; it is a

gold mine of references.

Review the number of options returned, that is the number of ―hits‖ you get in an electronic

search.

o If there are too many, add more relevant keywords.


o If there are too few, narrow/delete some keywords, or substitute other more specific

key words

Review the first pages returned.

o If these are not helpful, review your key words for a better description

Use advanced search options in search engines.

Research using several search engines.

7. EVALUATE THE RELEVANCE OF YOUR DOCUMENTS.

Do the books and articles, web sites, etc... that you have found contain enough relevant

information to allow you to write your essay?

o You need to look at your outline and the content of your documents to see if there are

sections for which you have no information, or not enough information. Go back to the

library and find information on the section that needs more.

What type of documents do you have?

o Teachers have specific guidelines on the type of information you are allowed to use to

write your essay. Where does the information come from: Academic or popular books,

academic journals or a magazine? Who is responsible for the content of the web site?

There is a section on the library web site called ―Evaluating Web Sources‖. Read it!

8. READ YOUR DOCUMENTS AND TAKE NOTES.

Once you are satisfied that you have good quality material in sufficient quantity, it is time to

read them carefully and take notes.

o Chapter 3 of this guide gives you ideas on how to take notes in a way that will make

the writing of your essay much easier and allow you to produce a better essay. Make

sure you read it and follow the instructions.

9. ORGANIZE YOUR NOTES.

Organize your notes according to topics and sub-topics of your essay.

o Organizing your notes according to the structure of your preliminary outline is a good

place to start. That way, all the information dealing with a similar subject will be

together.

When it comes to organizing information for a term paper or even a short two or three page paper, the

―Note Card System‖ can be very useful. By using this system, you create note cards from blank 3x5 or

5x7 index cards that you fill with information pertinent to the subject that you are researching. This

organization of the information can readily be adapted to use with word processing.

In the upper left corner of the card, give a keyword or two that tells you what the information

on the card is about, and where in the outline it may fall.

In the upper right corner, place the author‘s name and/or title and page number.

In the body of the card, enter one single fact or thought you‘d like to include in your paper

Make sure the information is expressed in your own words, unless it is a quotation.

Use good sentence structure: this will save you time when you start to write the paper

Organize the cards to match with the outline of your paper.

Write the term paper following this sequence.

Use topical, concluding, and transitional sentences to link the information on the cards.


Keep a separate set of cards with the complete information of books, magazines, films, etc... These will

be used for entering in-text citations, and when compiling the bibliography.

Example of a note card

Cause of WWII Smith 1999:15

Section 1.1 (of your outline)

―The main causes of WWII are to be found in the political

and economic conditions internal to Germany‖.

10. PRODUCE A DETAILED OUTLINE.

Now you have all the information you need to write a detailed outline.

o The more detailed your outline, the easier the writing stage will be. Use your

preliminary outline to start with and expand it. When organizing your outline keep in

mind what you want to say, in what order you want to say it, and go from the general

to the specific.

Use the ideas on Brainstorming (Chapter 5) and organizing your ideas (Chapter 3) of this guide to

help you out.

D. THE WRITING PROCESS

11. WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFT.

Starting with the note cards that you have organized, begin writing, starting with the first

section of your outline.

o Remember this is a draft. The important step is to get your ideas on paper. There will

be time later to revise. If you have writer‘s block and do not know what to write or

where to start, just write. Do not stare at the screen for 15 minutes without writing.

Ideas come by writing. You can always take things out later on or move them around.


12. TAKE A BREAK, SERIOUSLY!

Once you have written a complete first draft, let it rest for a couple of days.

o Right after you have finished your first draft, you are too into it to be able to have

enough distance to see what is wrong and what needs to be re-organized. Those two

days will make all the difference. Trust us, we have done this many times before, so we

kind of know what we are talking about!

13.EDIT, BABY, EDIT!

You will need to read your paper at least four times, each time working on one aspect of the

paper.

o The first time you re-read your paper focus on organizing the material so that it flows,

taking out repetitions, adding material in weak sections. You are working on the ideas.

The second time you read it, edit the grammar. Sentences should well written and not

too long. You want the reader to enjoy reading your paper. The third time you read it is

to take care of all the spelling and punctuation. Spell check is good, but it is only a

limited tool. The fourth time you go over your paper check that all the references are

complete, in the text and in the bibliography. Make sure you did not forget dates or

page numbers or leave out a reference in the bibliography. It is also a really good idea

to get one or more people to read your essay and give you feedback.

14. WRITE, FORMAT AND SUBMIT THE FINAL PAPER.

Format your paper, read it one last time and submit it.

o Unless your teacher gives you specific instructions, here is how you should format your

essay, using the APA format:

a. A title page. Your essay must always have a title page which must contain the following

information, in this order:

The title of your essay;

your name and student number;

the number, name and section of your course;

your teacher‘s name;

the date;

A running head. Some teachers, but not all, will require this running head, which

appears at the top of each page and contains a shorter version of your essay‘s title (no

more than 50 characters). You can create one by using the header/footer function in

your word processor.

b. An abstract on a separate page, if your teacher requires one

c. A table of contents on a separate page, if your teacher requires one

d. The body of your essay, which starts on a separate page. Your text should be formatted

according to these guidelines:

Printed on white 81/2 X 11‖. paper. Make sure the print is dark enough throughout the

entire paper

One (1) in. margins on all sides

Double spaced

A 12 point standard font – no script or fancy fonts which make the paper hard to read.

Justify your text, which means that the edges of your text are all equal, like in a book. It

makes the text look more professional and easier to read.

Page numbers at the bottom of each page.


A reference page (bibliography) which starts on a new page and has ―Reference‖

written at the top of the page. Chapter 7 of this guide gives you instructions on how to

format your bibliography.

Appendices, if you have any. These should be numbered and each on a separate page.

Enjoy yourself and congratulations on a job well done. See, it is not rocket science after all!

Landsberger, J. (n.d.). Study Guides and Strategies. Retrieved March 26, 2009, from http://www.studygs.net/

Transitional Words & Phrases to Use in an Essay

Transitions indicate relations or connections, whether within a sentence a paragraph, or a paper. This list

illustrates relationships between ideas, followed by words and phrases that can connect them.

Addition – also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,

similarly

Consequence – accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, hence,

otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore

Contrast and Comparison – in contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise, on the one

hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in

contrast

Direction – here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to the left, to the right, in

the distance

Diversion – by the way, incidentally

Emphasis – above all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, singularly

Exception – aside from, barring, besides, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside

of, save

Exemplifying – chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely, particularly, including,

specifically, such as

Generalizing – as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually

Illustration – for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration, illustrated with, as an example,

in this case

Restatement – in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it

differently

Sequence – at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time

being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, in the meantime, later, while,

earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind

Similarity – comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similarly, moreover,

together with

Summarizing – after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event, in

brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, on balance,

to sum up, to summarize, finally


E. ORAL PRESENTATION

15. PREPARING FOR THE ORAL PRESENTATION

Think about your audience:

o Who are they and what are they expecting from you?

o Do they know anything about your topic? How much do you think they know?

o What do they expect to know after?

o What is your goal, to persuade? Inform? Critique?

o How long should your presentation be?

Research:

o The occasion for your presentation? Is it formal or informal?

o The location (Consider the size of the room. Will you be on

stage? Will you have to use a microphone?)

o You should use visual materials to enhance your

presentation, for example, PowerPoint, books,

photographs, maps, transparencies or audio-visuals.

Check with the teacher in advance for any necessary

equipment.

16. GENERAL OUTLINE FOR THE ORAL PRESENTATION

Introduction:

Attention-getter (i.e., story related to the topic; a surprising statistic, a false but common belief, etc.)

Topic (Thesis Statement - your angle on the topic)

Overview of your presentation: Prepare your audience for what is to come by telling them what

your main sub-topics are.

Personal comment on the topic

Tell the audience if they may ask questions during your presentation OR if you would prefer that

they keep their questions until the end.

Discussion (presentation of the topic):

Arrange in a logical order. Divide your presentation into clear sections.

Pay attention to transitions from one idea to another. It‘s a good idea to pause between main

sections of your presentation.

Each section should contain relevant detail and facts.

Use visual support to illustrate your commentary.

Use vivid language to help the audience identify with and experience your topic.

Humour may be a disaster or a success. It will depend on your delivery. Don't use humour unless

you are confident that you will be able to carry it off.

Conclusion:

Cue your audience: "In conclusion . . . ."

Summarize your main points.

Save a good point or story for a dramatic finish.

Don't overextend your welcome.


17. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SPEAKER

A good speaker is:

1. Prepared

Practice your presentation for voice, language, and timing. This will help you work through any

language problems. (Some phrases look great on paper but are tongue twisters in actual

speech.) You will also be able to identify any bad habits, such clearing your throat or adding

―ahs‖ and ―ums‖. As well, you will be able to work out any gestures so they will look natural.

Do not read your presentation. You could use file cards as prompt cards. Reduce your written

copy to key phrases and points.

If a question & answer period is part of the presentation, try to anticipate possible questions

and have answers ready.

Visualize your performance. This will help build your confidence and cut down on the

nervousness.

2. Confident

Do not begin with an apology for your lack of knowledge or your English. If you lack confidence

in yourself, the audience will perceive this and lose confidence in you too.

Be thoroughly prepared and familiar with your material; preparation creates confidence.

Pause occasionally. Never be afraid to stop speaking for a moment.

Speak at a normally slow rate. Do not rush.

3. Responsive

Start your presentation with a smile. This will put your audience at ease.

Make eye contact with members of the audience. Don‘t talk to the back wall or keep your head

down reading your notes. Find a few friendly, encouraging faces in the different parts of the

audience and talk to them.

Check to see whether the audience is following you.

Make sure you talk with, not at, your audience. Talking at an

audience comes across as talking down to those involved.

4. Organised

The introduction should contain your thesis - what you want to say

about your topic.

The points of the body should be logically arranged with adequate

detail or examples to back up your main points.

The conclusion should summarize the main points.

Transitions should be used to help the listener as you move from point to point.

5. Clear

Make sure that the organization of your talk is clear to the audience.

Make short, simple, and specific statements.

You could use the blackboard, an overhead or PowerPoint to present the outline of your talk or

to clarify difficult points.


6. Enthusiastic

When something is important, say it slowly and loudly.

Communicate your own interest in, and enthusiasm for, your subject; enthusiasm is contagious!

Source: The Vanier College Learning Centre

Your notes here:

61 ▪ Chapter Seven -Using the APA Style

CHAPTER SEVEN -USING THE APA STYLE The APA (American Psychology Association) is simply a reference and citation style. It is one of many,

including the MLA - Modern Language Association (which you will be using in your English classes) and

CMS (which you would use if you were a university level history student). All these styles are similar in

many ways but they differ in their specific rules. The one thing that they all share in common is that they

are essential tools in the writing of academic essays. Essays (and by extension academic articles, books

and so on) need a reference and citation style in order to make understandable to the reader where the

author has acquired the information she has used. You must competently use a reference style when

writing an essay.

The APA is the accepted style in disciplines such as Psychology, Economics and Sociology. For the

purposes of your academic career at Vanier College, it is also the accepted style used in the Social

Science Program. The important thing you need to do as a student is master the rules and specifics of

whichever style you happen to be using. Do not assume that the APA and MLA are the same; they are

not. That means that you have to pay careful attention to specifics such as punctuation, spacing,

abbreviations and the use of page numbers. Mastering these styles can be very tedious and frustrating

but once you have mastered one, you will find it much easier to work with others.

However, the old adage that practice makes perfect is applicable in achieving mastery over the APA

style. The most important tools you will need to use are attention to detail and meticulousness.

This chapter is divided into two sections - Citations and the Reference List. The information that the

APA style requires you to cite, when referencing a source, is found in the very source that you will be

using to write college level essays. As discussed in chapter six, these sources might be books, articles,

etc... (See chapter ten which discusses where in the sources one can find this information). The examples

in this chapter are laid out by number; if you make a mistake your teachers can simply tell you to see

example #21 in chapter seven of the Student Success Guide. You can then make your corrections based

on the example provided. However, if you are attempting to create an entry for your reference list but

cannot find an appropriate example, you should ask your teacher.

Although this chapter is designed as a useful tool for using the APA reference style, your teachers

remain the final authority; if you have questions of any sort, please consult them. They are there

to help you!

1. The APA Citation Style: General Rules

If you are in doubt about whether you should include a citation, include it or ask your

teacher!

You may use quotations in your paper but your paper CANNOT be made up of an

endless series of quotations.

When paraphrasing, make sure you use your own words. Simply rearranging the order

of the words or altering a few words here and there is NOT paraphrasing.

The sixth edition of the APA style guide has the following in regards to paraphrasing:

“when paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another work, you are

encouraged to provide a page or paragraph number” (Publication manual of the

American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 171). The teachers in the Vanier

College Social Science Program have decided that page or paragraph numbers

must ALWAYS be included in citations, whether they are direct quotes or

paraphrased information.


Failure to cite a quote or a specific idea is PLAGIARISM and will result in a zero on

your assignment/paper. See chapter eleven of the Student Success Guide for an in-depth

discussion of plagiarism.

Cited quotations must be incorporated into a larger sentence which includes YOUR

words. Do not write sentences that are entirely made up of quotes.

Multiple citations of the same source within the same paragraph. The Publication

manual includes the following:

Within a paragraph, when the name of the author is part of the narrative, you

need not include the year in subsequent non-parenthetical references to a study as

long as the study cannot be confused with other studies cited in the article. Do

include the year in all parenthetical citations. (2008, p. 174)

See page 3 for an explanation of non-parenthetical and parenthetical references.

The Publication manual does not explicitly explain what to do about a paragraph that

includes information from only one source, however, using the same logic from the

previous bullet point, if it is absolutely clear to the reader that all of the information in

the paragraph is indeed from the same source, it is not necessary to include re-citations

after each sentence. However, if you include your own ideas or ideas from a different

author within that paragraph, you must clarify to the reader where the information is

coming from and in that case further citations are necessary. A good rule of thumb to

follow is that if the information in the paragraph comes from the same source, include a

citation in the first and last sentences of the paragraph.

Font type and size. The sixth edition of the APA style guide states that “the preferred

typeface for APA publications is Times New Roman, with 12-point font size

(Publication manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 228).

Pay particular attention to PUNCTUATION.

Always DOUBLE SPACE in your essays.

The required information is AUTHOR, YEAR OF PUBLICATION AND PAGE

NUMBER(S). Citation you must include these three pieces of information or an

alternative (see exception above), for example see example #6 for a source with an

anonymous author.

TWO WAYS TO WRITE IN-TEXT CITATIONS

A. Non-parenthetical: Including the author’s last name in the text with the year and page

number(s) in parentheses.

Examples:

DeNora (2008, p. 328) is convinced Kennedy was killed by Bozo the Clown.

DeNora (2008) is convinced Kennedy was killed by Bozo the Clown (p. 328).

B. Parenthetical: Placing the author’s last name, the year and the page number(s) in

parentheses.

Example:

63 ▪ Chapter Seven -Using the APA Style

There is a theory that states that Kennedy was killed by Bozo the Clown

(DeNora, 2008, p. 328).

2. The APA Style Reference List: General Rules

Use the title References for the page with your list of sources. This is the term used in the APA

instead of Bibliography.

The entries must be listed in alphabetical order according to the author‘s LAST NAME or the

TITLE if there is no author. For sources with multiple authors, use the first author‘s last name for

alphabetical ordering.

Do not divide the reference list into sections i.e. BOOKS/PERIODICALS.

Do not use numbers and/or bullets of any kind to order your entries in the Reference list.

Double space the entries.

Every reference used in the text of the paper must appear in your alphabetical list of references.

All sources in the Reference list must be cited at least once in your paper.

Use the hanging indent – the first line of each entry must be flush to the left margin and every

succeeding line for each entry must be indented 5 spaces.

If you have two or more entries by the same author, list the entries chronologically i.e. 2003 first

followed by 2005.

The References page must begin on a separate page from the rest of your text and must appear

at the end of your essay.

Required Information:

o Author

o Year of publication (use the year the work was produced, usually the earliest year listed)

o Title

o Publishing data

These are the general APA Style rules. Ask your teacher to recommend a resource for use when

working on specific citations and references.


CHAPTER EIGHT -STUDYING FOR TESTS AND EXAMS

Tests and exams do not have to be stressful experiences! We spend all of our lives – in school and

outside of school – taking tests and exams. Once you understand how to study, how to prepare and

write the various types of exams, how to develop a system for studying, and understand how to control

exam anxiety, you will learn to master the dreaded exams and see a positive difference in your grades!

All you need is a little effort, time and organization.

1. Preparing For Exams

The best preparation for exams is regular, day-by-day study, including revising and reviewing class

notes after every lecture or two, highlighting main ideas, mastering textbook assignments, etc... There

should also be a special review a week or a few days before the exam.

A. PLAN A REALISTIC SCHEDULE AND STICK TO IT.

Distribute study time over at least two sessions for minor tests and at least four sessions for

major exams. Review periods should be relatively brief because recalling and organizing ideas is

so fatiguing that efficiency decreases rapidly after about an hour of review. Make sure that you

take short breaks so that your concentration span is continually refreshed.

Decide how much material must be covered and approximately how long one unit of material

will take to be learned. Divide units into time available and note this in a memo book with a

study schedule.

Don‘t CRAM! This ―method‖ will only make you more nervous. Specific, planned preparation will

prevent last minute cramming and will make you more relaxed and confident as you practice

for and take your exam. As well, if you should study a few days before the exam, your long-term

memory will store the information much better and more accurately than will your short-term

memory.

If a problem in another area of your life is distracting you, keep a paper handy for noting

flashes of ideas or feelings that recur about the problem; during a break, think through the

ideas and possible solutions.

B. STUDY ACTIVELY.

Treat class notes like a textbook chapter. Highlight the main ideas (if you didn‘t do this when

you first reviewed), recite each portion, add new revelations, criticisms, bracket the most

important points of all, mark with an arrow the parts least familiar to study, especially on your

last review.

Build visual aids to clarify and aid memory:

o time line

o outline map, marking dates and events in appropriate places

o summary of dates and events

o model of theories

o chart of different schools of thought

o flow charts, concept maps

Build a list of important terms, mark the hardest terms, and write out the key words

anddefinitions.

Reread portions of the text only if you can‘t remember the main ideas when you reread the

headings.

65 ▪ Chapter Eight -Studying for Tests and Exams

Try using mnemonic devices. These are tricks to remember

information. You can use the first letter in each word to create a

sentence that is easier to remember than a list. For example, if in

history you have to remember the names of the Royal families of

England in chronological order, you could create the following

sentence: ―Neighbours actually persuaded lovely Yvonne to shut her

window.‖ This sentence gives you the first letter of the names and the

order of the Royal families of England, which are: Norman, Angevin,

Plantegenet, Lancaster, York, Tudor, Stuart, Hanover, Windsor.

Make up exam questions and think through or roughly outline possible

answers.

o Find out whether the exam will have objective or essay type questions.

o Give yourself practice in thinking about the subject and accustom yourself to an

exam situation.

o As you go over exam notes, pull out material or note pages with points appropriate for

answers.

Prepare and study from a master outline formed from reading your lectures, text and

supplementary reading, or add notes from your readings to your lecture notes.

Note, on memo pages or in the margin, questions that come to mind about the material.

Pretend to teach - or, if you are doing well in this course, actually arrange to tutor - the subject.

Create a study group and study with others.

Use your imagination to change the point of view from which you think about the subject to

heighten your interest and understanding.

C. STUDY EACH SUBJECT AS A UNIT; COMBINE ALL NOTES FROM ALL SOURCES ON THE SAME

SUBJECT.

D. PAY SPECIAL ATTENTION TO THE HARDEST PORTIONS.

Testing yourself will help you find weak spots. Make a list and work on these the most.

Review the weak spots; master outlines for probable answers before sleeping the night before

the exam.

E. GO TO BED ON TIME SO THAT YOUR MIND WILL BE AS FRESH AS POSSIBLE FOR THINKING.

(Any other occupation involving the mind - reading other material, movies, etc... - tends to

interfere with previous learning.) Get some extra sleep two nights before the exam to safeguard

against problems in sleeping the night before the exam. Try to keep half an hour before your

exam free. Use this time to relax and to do a light review, if necessary.

2. Ten Test-Taking Tips

1. Don’t cram at the last minute.

Remember that the best preparation for exams is day-by-day review of the material. Try to anticipate

when your next tests will be and start studying for them early! You‘ll be guaranteed less stress and

better results.

2. Read through the exam first before you begin

It will give you an overview of what‘s expected and will allow you to think ahead and allot more time to

questions worth more marks.

3. Jot down any formulae, terms or important concepts that you might need as soon as you get

the exam.


It‘s nice to have all your formulae, concepts and terms together so that you can refer to them easily. It is

also less likely for you to get confused later during the exam when you have to recall them from

memory.

4. Do the questions that you know first.

You‘ll get these questions for sure, and, at the same time, boost your confidence.

5. If you get stuck, don’t panic and move on.

Don‘t dwell too long on a question you can‘t get. Try not to panic! After you‘ve finished the rest of the

test, come back to the problematic questions

6. Hint for Multiple Choice Exams:

Read all the choices. Don‘t make any hasty decisions. (See the section on multiple choice exams for

more hints)

7. Hint for Objective Exams:

Read the questions carefully and underline important words. This might help you understand what kind

of answer is expected.

8. Hint for Essay Exams:

Make a rough plan of the essay so that you don‘t jump into it blindly. Also, reword the essay question

somewhere in your first paragraph.

9. Keep track of your time.

Divide your time according to the value of the question.

10. Check over your work.

Do this, only if you have the time. Good luck!

3. Exam Anxiety

Situations which involve performing and being evaluated, such as exams, cause stress for almost

everyone. You shouldn‘t be worried if the thought of approaching exams makes you somewhat nervous,

as stress can be a positive motivating force. In fact, a certain amount of stress is necessary for good

performance - what we call being ―up‖ for an exam. Beyond a point, however, stress interferes with your

performance; you may be unable to recall things which you know very well, or fail to read a question

carefully because you‘re too anxious to pay proper attention. More severe forms of anxiety may prevent

a person from recalling or writing anything.

If this is a problem for you, you can probably do something about it if you prepare in advance.

a. What is going on when you feel over-anxious?

You may be aware of obvious physical signs of stress, but are you aware of what messages you are

telling yourself about the situation? You may be making self-defeating statements to yourself during

and before the exam. For instance imagine that,


just before the exam you try to recall a particular fact and you can‘t remember it. Immediately

you tell yourself that you don‘t know the material needed for the test.

on catching sight of a question on a paper that you don‘t understand, you tell yourself that

you‘ll never be able to complete the exam and that you studied the wrong things.

on seeing the person next to you writing furiously away, you tell yourself that you‘ll fail because

everyone is writing much more than you.

Once you‘re started on this track, all kinds of other ideas may come to mind to increase your

nervousness, ―I‘m just not smart enough to be in college. . . I was never good at exams. . . I won‘t be

able to face my parents if I fail this exam . . . I won‘t make my year. . . ― and so on.

b. What to do?

You need to increase your self-awareness, to be a witness of your thoughts. Are they justified by what

you have just experienced? Are they reasonable conclusions to draw? You will probably find that in

most cases they are not. So you will want to develop more helpful and reasonable ways to ―talk to

yourself‖

prior to and during the exams to be able to make more realistic evaluations of yourself and of the exam.

Let‘s look at this process more closely.

1.Take some deep breaths.

Watch your breath come in; watch your breath go out. Don‘t worry if your mind strays. Just goback to

breathing in then breathing out. Do this for 2 or 3 minutes. It will help you do the next steps

2.Identify self-statements.

Try to imagine yourself in one of the situations which causes you anxiety about an exam: the night

before an exam, waiting outside the exam room, getting your first look at the exam paper, coming

across a question that you cannot answer, etc... What are you doing? What areyou thinking? You may

find that you automatically tell yourself some of the same things whenpreparing for a test.

3.Testing the reasonableness of these statements

There‘s also no need to be overly-optimistic: you won‘t be fooled by statements like, ―I don‘tcare if I fail

this exam,‖ or ―This exam is going to be a breeze.‖ Concentrate on being reason-able - on assessing the

evidence for your negative self-statements.

4.Building a strategy

Work out a routine for ―talking to yourself‖ when anxiety strikes. You may find it helpful first of all to

stop what you‘re doing briefly and relax as completely as you can. Do the breathing exercise described

above.

Next, recall your typical negative self-statements and your ―reasonable‖ refutations of them. There is no

universal formula for this - you must build your own. Do this several times periodically until it becomes

a routine which you go into as soon as you start to get nervous. Practising this will enable you to

overcome anxiety in the actual exam situation. Remember that in situations of tension it is those people

who have prepared themselves by practice and in anticipation who are best able to cope.


4. Multiple Choice Exams

Follow these procedures when taking a multiple-choice exam:

1. Ensure that you are well-rested for the exam.

2. Survey the exam. How many questions are there? Be wise about your time. Divide it up.

Forexample,if you have 120 questions and two hours for the test, aim for an average of one

(1)question per minute.

3. Begin the exam, being careful not to rush.

4. Underline important words in the stem of the question.

5. Read ALL the choices before selecting the correct one. Also, make sure you read each

choiceentirely. Don‘t take the ending of any choice for granted.

6. Your first hunch is usually a good one. Pay attention to your intuition which may indicate

whichanswer ―feels‖ best.

7. Select not only a technically correct answer, but the most completely correct answer. Since ―allof the

above‖ and ―none of the above‖ are very inclusive statements, these options, when used,often tend

to be correct.

8. Be careful of

a. words that are TOO positive - all, every, always, best, invariably. These generally make

ananswer false.

b. words that are TOO negative - never, worst, none. These also often make an answer false.

c. note ―hedge‖ words like many, most, few, as a rule, probably, often, usually,

sometimes,seldom, frequently. These often cause the response to be true since they do not

over orunderstate the issue.

9. Use your knowledge of common prefixes, suffixes, and word roots to make intelligent guessesabout

certain terminologies. A knowledge of the prefix ―post,‖ for instance, would give you a cluethat

post-war industrialisation means after the war and not before.

10. Read the question carefully to see if a negative verb is used. If the question asks,―Which of

thefollowing are not applicable?‖ be sure to gear your thinking accordingly. Underline the ―not‖

inthe question. Also, watch out for double negatives. For example, ―it is not unlikely that‖ meansthat

―it is likely that.‖

11. If two choices mean the same thing, you can usually eliminate both of them. If two choices

areopposites, the correct choice is probably one or the other.

12. Look for the answer that may be different from the others. For example, if all choices but onerefer

to events that took place in the years 1800 and the last one reads 1978, that choice may bea

distracter. In that case, you can narrow your selection to the other choices.

13. All else being equal, select the response you best understand. Long-winded statements are likelyto

be included as distracters and may be a lot of words signifying little or nothing.

14. When you do not know the specific facts called for in the question, use your skills of

reasoning.When an answer involves amounts or time (mainly numbers), and you do not know the

answerand cannot find any basis for reasoning (all else being equal) avoid the extreme responses

(thehighest or lowest numerical values.)

15. If you meet a difficult question:

a. Eliminate the choices you know are wrong.

b. If you still can‘t decide on the correct choice, mark the question clearly in the margin, to

returnto later, then go on.


c. Don‘t panic; very few students get 100%. You can get a lot of questions wrong before

failing.

16. The best way to ensure selection of the correct option is to know the right answer.

17. When you have gone over the test for the first time, go back to the questions you have

missed.Perhaps other questions later on in the paper will suggest the answer. If you still don‘t know

theright answer, guess, as long as there is no penalty for wrong answers.

18. Check that you have answered all the questions. If you are using an opscan sheet, make surethat

the answers have been transcribed from your question paper to the correct section on youropscan

sheet.

19. Don‘t hastily change any answer. Your instinctive first choice is probably correct.

20. Use common sense throughout the exam. There are usually a number of questions on anymultiple-

choice exam that can be answered correctly if common sense is applied.

21. Learn from your mistakes on an exam so that you will improve on the next. Once your exam

ismarked, study your mistakes and classify your errors as:

a. lack of knowledge,

b. carelessness,

c. misreading of the question.

5. Taking the Essay Exam

The essay exam is one of the challenges that you as a student must meet. There is no easy solution to

the taking of these exams, but there are some simple hints that may help you to succeed when facing

the dreaded ―enemy.‖ Try the following points and your next encounter is sure to be easier.

a. Preparing for the exam

Pay careful attention to those points that the teacher stresses or repeats in class. Make precise

notes. Chances are that you will be tested on these points.

Try to make a list of the possible questions that may be asked on the exam. If you follow the

previous point, then this should be fairly straightforward.

Write out your answers to the questions on your list, and check your answers by referring to

your notes. If you don‘t have time to do this, at least make an outline for your answers.

If your exam is open-book, highlight important passages of the text and use post-its so that

you don‘t have to search for them during the exam.

DON‘T WAIT UNTIL THE LAST DAY TO PREPARE FOR AN ESSAY EXAM or any exam

b. During the exam

Read over the entire exam before you begin.

Note the marking scheme, and divide your time according to the value of each question.

Start with the questions you find easier in order to gain extra confidence.

Read each question carefully and underline key words to help you focus on the main points

that need to be answered.


Make a brief outline of your essay in order to ensure that you will cover all pertinent points.

Very often your outline will include a number of points you will later elaborate on. Don‘t forget

to transform your points into complete sentences in your essay.

Make sure you elaborate upon your points by giving examples and writing complete

paragraphs. However, DON‘T add meaningless words to increase the length of your answer.

KEEP YOUR EYE ON THE TIME! Don‘t waste time on a question you don‘t understand. Return to

it after you‘ve answered the other questions.

Keep referring to the question in order to ensure that you are answering it correctly.

If you have problems beginning your essay, use the same wording as the question, i.e., Discuss

how DuddyKravitz pursues his dream. ANSWER: There are several ways in which DuddyKravitz

pursues his dream....

Your conclusion should be a restatement of your thesis showing that you have answered the

question.

Always double-space your essays. This will make them easier to proof-read. It will also make it

easier for your teacher to correct them.

Proof-read all your answers to correct spelling, grammar or punctuation errors.

These simple hints will not write your exam for you, but they will help make your task easier. For any

extra help, ask the staff at The Vanier College Learning Centre.

Your notes here:


6. Checklist: The Taking of Exams

Score yourself for each of the following.

Rarely/Never = 0 points; Sometimes = 3 points; Often/Always = 5 points

0 3 5

A. Preparation throughout the Term

1. I plan my studying according to a study schedule. □ □ □

2. I keep satisfactory notes. □ □ □

3. When I read, I look for main ideas and underline them or write them down. □ □ □

4. I periodically review my notes and what I have underlined in my texts □ □ □

throughout the term.

5. I ask the teacher or a peer for help when I am not clear on a subject □ □ □

B. Review Techniques before the Exam

6. I start studying at least a week before the exam. □ □ □

7. I make a plan for my studying every day. □ □ □

8. I study all notes dealing with one topic at the same time. □ □ □

9.I try not to just study passively; I try to get involved in what I study. □ □ □

10. I do at least ONE of the following when I study:

a) try to figure out which questions the teacher will ask; □ □ □

b) keep a list of difficult definitions; □ □ □

c) keep track of questions that are puzzling and see the teacher about them. □ □ □

C. Just Before the Exam

11. I get sufficient sleep for at least two nights before the exam. □ □ □

12. I prepare all of the materials I‘ll need for the exam. □ □ □

13. I arrive at the exam ahead of time. □ □ □

14. I don‘t let myself be distracted by friends. □ □ □

D. Taking the Exam

15. I read through the exam to begin with, noting the marking scheme. □ □ □

16. I start with the easiest questions first. □ □ □

17. I try to stay calm by having realistic expectations of how well I can do. □ □ □

18. If I‘m writing an essay question, I make a brief plan first. □ □ □

19. If I‘m taking an objective exam, I try not to rush as it‘s hard to detect □ □ □

incorrect answers afterwards.

20. If I‘m taking an objective exam, I do not hastily change any responses, □ □ □

as my instinctive first choice was probably correct.

Total Score: _______ /100


Scoring

0 - 50: Based on your results, your grades could be at risk. Go to The Learning Centre for tips on how

you can improve.

51 - 70: Preparing for exams is a skill, just like any other, and your skills need just a little fine-tuning.

Make a list of your weaknesses and drop by The Learning Centre for help.

71 - 100: Your exam-taking skills are good! Keep it up! If you feel that you‘re falling behind, go to The

Learning Centre for advice.

All information taken from Vanier College Learning Centre handout.

7. Meaning of Terms Used in Essay Questions

―Directives‖ ask you to answer, or present information, in a particular way. Review these, and most of all

note that there are different ways of answering a question or writing a paper!

Compare

Examine qualities, or characteristics, to discover resemblances. ―Compare‖ is usually stated as ―compare

with‖: you are to emphasize similarities, although differences may be mentioned.

Contrast

Stress dissimilarities, differences, or unlikeness of things, qualities, events, or problems.

Criticize

Express your judgment or correctness or merit. Discuss the limitations and good points or contributions

of the plan or work in question.

Define

Definitions call for concise, clear, authoritative meanings. Details are not required but limitations of the

definition should be briefly cited. You must keep in mind the category to which a thing belongs and

whatever differentiates the particular object from all others in the category.

Describe

In a descriptive answer you should recount, characterize, sketch or relate in narrative form.

Diagram

For a question which specifies a diagram you should present a drawing, chart, plan, or graphic

representation in your answer. Generally you are expected to label the diagram and in some cases add a

brief explanation or description.

Discuss

The term discuss, which appears often in essay questions, directs you to examine, analyze carefully, and

present considerations pro and con regarding the problems or items involved. This type of question

calls for a complete and detailed answer.

Enumerate

The word enumerate specifies a list or outline form of reply. In such questions you should recount, one

by one, in concise form, the points required.

Evaluate

In an evaluation question you are expected to present a careful appraisal of the problem stressing both

advantages and limitations. Evaluation implies authoritative and, to a lesser degree, personal appraisal

of both contributions and limitations.


Explain

In explanatory answers it is imperative that you clarify and interpret the material you present. In such an

answer it is best to state the ―how or why,‖ reconcile any differences in opinion or experimental results,

and, where possible, state causes. The aim is to make plain the conditions which give rise to whatever

you are examining.

Illustrate

A question which asks you to illustrate usually requires you to explain or clarify your answer to the

problem by presenting a figure, picture, diagram, or concrete example.

Interpret

An interpretation question is similar to one requiring explanation. You are expected to translate,

exemplify, solve, or comment upon the subject and usually to give your judgment or reaction to the

problem.

Justify

When you are instructed to justify your answer you must prove or show grounds for your statements. In

such an answer, evidence should be presented in convincing form.

List

Listing is similar to enumeration. You are expected in such questions to present an itemized series or

tabulation. Such answers should always be given in concise form.

Outline

An outline answer is organized description. You should give main points and essential supplementary

materials, omitting minor details, and present the information in a systematic arrangement or

classification.

Prove

A question which requires proof is one which demands confirmation or verification. In such discussions

you should establish something with certainty by evaluating and citing empirical evidence or by logical

reasoning.

Relate

In a question which asks you to show the relationship, or to relate, your answer should emphasize

connections and associations in descriptive form.

Review

A review specifies a critical examination. You should analyze and comment briefly in organized

sequence upon the major points of the problem.

State

In questions which direct you to specify, give, state, or present, you are called upon to express the high

points in brief, clear narrative form. Details, and usually illustrations or examples, may be omitted.

Summarize

When you are asked to summarize or present a summarization, you should give in condensed form the

main points or facts. All details, illustrations and elaboration are to be omitted.

Trace

When a question asks you to trace a course of events, you are to give a description of progress,

historical sequence, or development from the point of origin. Such narratives may call for probing or for

deduction.

Tipsheets; Exams. (n.d.). Retrieved March 22, 2009, from Vanier College,

Learning Centre Web site:http://www.vaniercollege.qc.ca/tlc/tipsheets.html


CHAPTER NINE -ENHANCING ONE’S COMMUNICATION SKILLS

1. Building Your Vocabulary

Homer Simpson: where‘s that... metal deely... you use to...

dig... food...

Marge: You mean a spoon?

Homer: Yeah, yeah!

THE GOAL OF THIS SECTION IS SIMPLE: TO BEGIN DEVELOPING A BETTER VOCABULARY THAN HOMER

J. SIMPSON.

Having an extensive and varied vocabulary is an essential talent that you will need for writing college

level papers. It is imperative that you be able to properly convey your ideas, and a good vocabulary is

the best way to accomplish this goal. Conveying ideas at college is not limited to writing; it is also

critical when doing oral presentations or participating in classroom discussions. This chapter will help

you build your vocabulary, but in order for you to continue building this arsenal you must practice and

learn new words as much as possible.

An extensive vocabulary is an asset not only at college, but also at work and in personal relationships.

Getting your point across in a way that is understandable and does justice to your ideas will help you in

whatever endeavour you choose to undertake. Employers, colleagues, clients and people in general

judge others in a positive or negative light using various criteria including the extent of their vocabulary.

Leaving aside what others may think, a well-developed vocabulary is important to you, first and

foremost. Let‘s get started!

BUILDING A STRONGER VOCABULARY

The need for a good vocabulary is not limited to the classroom. Most students‘ reactions to this is ―I can

communicate well enough with the words I know.‖ However, consider how many times you have said: ―I

know what I mean, but I just can‘t express it.‖ This is a clear indication of a weak vocabulary. Strong

vocabulary skills are an asset in every academic area as well as in the work force. Without an adequate

vocabulary, reading, learning and even thinking become difficult tasks. A direct effort must be made in

order for your vocabulary to grow - it won‘t grow on its own. Be genuinely interested in words. The

words you use are usually an indication of your personality. Here are some suggestions to help you

improve your vocabulary:

USE YOUR DICTIONARY

Don‘t be intimidated by the dictionary. Carrying a pocket dictionary around with you can be very useful.

When you are studying, reading, or writing an essay, keep a good desk dictionary by your side. Use it to

improve your understanding of the subject matter while you learn new and useful words.

75 ▪ Chapter Nine -Enhancing One‘s Communication Skills

USE YOUR THESAURUS

A thesaurus is a valuable tool for expanding your vocabulary. It is a book of synonyms (words that have

the same meaning) and is veryuseful when you find yourself using the same word over and over again.

For example, instead of repeating the phrase, ―he said‖, in your essay, the thesaurus will provide you

with alternatives such as, ―he remarked‖, ―uttered‖, ―conveyed‖, ―declared‖, ―stated‖, ―announced‖,‖

expressed‖, ―maintained‖, ―articulated‖. Most word processing programs have a thesaurus which makes

looking for that perfect word easy and fun!

MAKE VOCABULARY SHEETS

To make a vocabulary sheet, first divide a piece of notebook paper into 4 columns.

In the first column. Find the word you need to learn and write it here. Choose key words or specialized

vocabulary that are used over and over in your courses or that are the subject of an entire section in

your textbook. Choose those general vocabulary words that are somewhat familiar to you or that have

always bothered you because you did not know them. Remember that even writing them down in the

column will help you.

In the second column. Write the word in the context in which you first found it here. Be sure to write

only enough context to show the use of a word. Often only a phrase is needed.

In the third column. Look up the meaning of the word in the dictionary. Write out the definition in

your own words. Be sure the definition you choose fits the context in question, as words often have

more than one meaning.

In the fourth column. Associate the word or term with any other familiar English or foreign word,

object, diagram, example, or experience and write it here. It doesn‘t matter how far-fetched the

association is so long as it helps you to remember the new word.

Example:

I. II. III. IV.

TIRADE We had to listen to his

tirade after we came in

late.

long, angry speech Feel ―tired‖ after a

―tirade‖

FIND YOUR ROOTS

Look up the origins of words. You will be surprised at the fascinating information you can gather from

very simple words. It is useful to know the meanings of Latin and Greek prefixes, suffixes and roots. You

can often get a pretty good idea of what a word means if you know the meaning of its Latin or Greek

components and you study the context in which you find the word. Learn the precise definition of a

root word and then surround it with as many prefixes and suffixes as possible. Try to understand what

these additions make to the changing definition of the word.


Example:

Phobic is a suffix of Greek origin. The Greek word phobos means fear and in English is used in forming

adjectives to indicate fear of a specific thing. For instance, agoraphobia is the fear of open spaces

(agora is the Greek word for market place).

2. Vocabulary in Context: Deducing the Meaning of Words

Deciding on the meaning of an unfamiliar word, through its use in a sentence, enables you to make

sense of your reading when you do not have access to a dictionary.

a. DEFINITION

Sometimes a sufficient explanation of the word is given within the sentence.

His succinct style made for difficult reading; that is, he compressed so much information into a few

words that is was difficult to get the full meaning.

Succinct means:_________________

b. ANALYSIS

The parts used to construct the word (roots, suffixes, prefixes) can sometimes be a direct clue to its

meaning.

The material the teacher wanted to cover was circumscribed by the course competencies.

Hint: ―Circum‖ means around and ―scribe‖ means write

Circumscribe means: ___________________

c. EXPERIENCE

Either by drawing upon an experience of your own or one that you can imagine, the meaning of the

word may become clear.

We walked warily across the ice-covered sidewalk.

Warily means: _____________________

d. CONTRAST

Look for words, phrases or ideas that stand in contrast to the word you are trying to understand.

The troops fought to the end rather than capitulating.

Capitulate means: ______________________

e. INFERENCE

At times sufficient clues may be given so that you can make an educated guess as to a word‘s meaning.

The medicine seemed to ameliorate her condition and soon she was feeling better.


Ameliorate means: ___________________

f. BORROWING FROM ANOTHER LANGUAGE

If you know another language, some loan words (words borrowed from a foreign language) may be

easier to understand.

The instructor augmented his regular salary by tutoring privately.

(Do you know the meaning of the French word ―augmenter‖ or the Italian word ―augmentare‖?)

Augmented means: ___________________

g. LOOK FOR REPETITION

Sometimes you may see almost exact restatements of familiar words that seem to be unfamiliar.

I shall take a postgraduate course the fall after I graduate.

Postgraduate means: ___________________

h. LOOK FOR OVERLAPPING WORDS

Sometimes adjectives that have similar meaning are used in pairs.

She was very gregarious and friendly at the same time.

Gregarious means: _____________________

3. Spelling Strategies: Improving Your Written Communication Skills

The first thing to realize is that nobody can give you all of the rules to overcome the difficulties of

English spelling. No experience and no rule can take the place of your dictionary. If you have a general

idea of a word‘s spelling, then you should have little problem looking it up in a dictionary.

The next step is to understand that you have to work at improving your spelling. Sometimes you‘ll have

to devise your own way of teaching yourself. Here are six suggestions:

1. Keep a running list of the words that you consistently spell incorrectly.

2. When a paper has been returned to you, look over the corrections for misspelled words.

Find out how to spell the words correctly and add them to you list.

3. Underline the difficult letters in a word. Make up devices to help you keep the letters

straight in your mind. Most good spellers use ―association clues‖ to help them spell

troublesome words that is, they associate the spelling of the word with something that they

can easily remember. Some examples are as follows:

attendance - think of ―attending a dance‖

battalion - think of a ―battle against a lion‖

definite - it comes from ―finite‖

occurrence - it has ―rre‖ as in ―current event

principal - the principal of a school is a ―pal‖ to you

principle - it means rule and ends ―le‖ as well

separate - it‘s hard to spell and there‘s a rat in it

stationery - it means paper and ends in ―er‖ too.


4. Keep looking at your list. Refer to it whenever you have a spare moment or two.

5. Get annoyed if you keep getting the same words wrong. You have to be willing to make an

effort and soon the words will be yours – permanently!

6. Use a spell check program – a tool on most word processing programs which allows you to

check and correct your spelling mistakes. However, please remember not to rely exclusively

on spell check as it is a limited tool.

You should also familiarize yourself with five basic rules, which are regular enough to be helpful:

A. “I” before “E”

except after ―c‖ (or when sounded like ―a‖, as in neighbour and weigh.)

B. Add “ES” instead of “S”

when an extra syllable is pronounced; church - churches; fox -foxes

when a noun ends in ―o‖ and is preceded by a consonant; potato - potatoes, hero - heroes. (A

major exception here is for words that are derived from the Italian language; soprano -

sopranos, piano - pianos, solo - solos.)

C. “Y” to “I”

before adding a suffix when ―y‖ is preceded by a consonant; berry - berries, company -

companies

except with words which end in ―ing‖; fly - flying, try - trying.

D. Drop the final “E”

when a suffix begins with a vowel; dine - dining, note - noting.

except whenthe suffix begins with a consonant; live - lively, hope - hopeful (except for the

words truly and argument.)

E. Double the final consonant

when the suffix begins with a vowel; ―ing‖, ―er‖, ―ed‖, ―est‖

when the word is only one syllable or when the last syllable is stressed; re fer‘, o mit‘

when the word ends in one consonant preceded by one vowel; quit, split.

Examples:

sin - sinned - sinning

begin - beginner – beginning


4. List of Frequently Confused Words.

THEIR / THERE / THEY’RE

There - refers to place: ―There are three problems.‖ ―I used to live there.‖

There is the opposite of here (same spelling pattern).

Their -is a possessive pronoun: ―Their class is very interesting.‖ ―We found their books.‖

Their is the possessive for they (like adding r to you = your) but the y in they becomes an i

when you add an r.

They’re -is the contraction of they are: ―They‘re all taking the same course.‖

The apostrophe in they‘re indicates a missing a from they are.

ITS / IT’S

Its - is a possessive pronoun: ―Its wheels fell off.‖ ―The tree lost its leaves.‖

Its is a possessive pronoun (e.g., his, my…).

No possessive pronouns have apostrophes.

It’s - is a contraction :―It‘s time to go.‖ ―It‘s been nice to meet you.‖

It‘s is a contraction, short for ―it is‖ or ―it has.‖

A contraction always requires an apostrophe.

LOSE / LOOSE

lose - (verb) ―They mustn‘t lose the game.‖ ―I always lose my keys.‖

loose - (adjective) ―A loose shirt is comfortable.‖ ―My fan belt is loose.‖

To lose is the verb—with an irregular spelling (the single O), but the adjective loose follows the

expected spelling pattern.

AFFECT / EFFECT

affect - (verb) The changes don‘t affect me. Supply often affects price.

effect - (noun) That has no effect on me. The effects of war are tragic.

effect - (verb) The new government effected many changes.

The verb to effect is not seen very often.

Memory Aid: A cause leads to an effect; the final letter of the word cause is the first letter of

effect.

THEN / THAN

then - (reference to time or sequence of events)

I planned my essay and then I wrote it.

than - (used in making a comparison)

Vanier is larger than most colleges.


5. Subject-Verb Agreement

One of the most common grammatical problems is failure to make the subject and verb agree with

each other in a sentence. Here are rules for subject-verb agreement:

Single subjects take singular verbs.Plural subjects take plural verbs.

Singular words concern one person or thing.

The clock ticks.

George works.

Plural words concern more than one person or thing.

The clocks tick.

George and his brother work.

6. Six Special Cases

a. Multiple subjects that are joined by “or,” “either - or,” “neither - nor,” “not - but”

The verb agrees in number with the nearest subject. That is, if the subject closest to the verb is singular,

the verb will be singular, if the subject closest to the verb is plural, the verb will be plural too.

Neither the Prime Minister nor the Cabinet Ministers are responsible.

Neither the Cabinet Ministers nor the Prime Minister is responsible.

b. Subjects that look multiple but really aren’t

Don‘t be fooled by phrases beginning with such words as ―with‖, ―like‖, ―as well as‖, ―together with‖, ‗in

addition to‘, ―including‖. These phrases are not part of the subject of the sentence. Cross them out

mentally; they do not affect the verb.

Singular: My typing teacher, as well as my counselor, has advised me to switch programs.

Plural: All of my courses, including sociology, are easier this term.

c. Words that end in “one,” “thing,” or “body”

When used as subjects, the following words are always singular, requiring the singular form of the verb:

everybody everything everyone

anybody anything anyone

somebody something someone

nobody nothing no one

Everyone involved in the graduation ceremony is at the meeting.

d. The words “each,” “either (of),” “neither (of)”

When used as subjects, these words take singular verbs.

Neither of the stores is open after six o‘clock.


e. Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a word naming a group acting as a unit. Some examples are company, class,

committee, team and group.

When you are referring to the group acting as a unit, use a singular verb.

When you are referring to the members of the group acting individually, use a plural verb.

The team is sure to win tomorrow‘s game. (Here “team” refers to the group acting as a whole.)

The teams are getting into their uniforms now. (The separate members of the team are acting

individually.)

f. Units of money, time, mass, length and distance

These require singular verbs.

Four dollars is too much to pay for a hamburger.

Three hours is a long time to wait.

Seventy kilograms is the mass of the average man.

7. Punctuation

Punctuation can often seem mysterious, even if one is very familiar with the language. Here are some

pointers that should help you unravel the mysteries:

a. Periods .

Use a period at the end of a sentence that contains a subject, a verb and expresses a complete thought.

We went to the movies last night.

Use a period after an abbreviation.

Mr. Ibs., Tues., Dr. Oz., Oct., etc.

b. Question Marks ?

Use a question mark after a direct question.

Were you invited to the party?

However, you should not use a question mark if the

question in the sentence is asked indirectly.

He asked whether the new job offered a higher

salary.

c. Exclamation Points!

Use an exclamation point after an expression or statement that shows strong feeling.

We did it!


d. Quotation Marks “ ”

Use quotation marks to enclose the exact words of a speaker or writer.

She said, ―I‘m finally ready to go.‖

Periods and commas are always placed inside the quotation marks (unless the page reference follows)

Question marks and exclamation points are placed outside quotation marks except when the quotation

itself is a direct question or exclamation.

He said, ―I enjoy cooking.‖

―I enjoy cooking,‖ he said.

Did you say, ―We are going away together‖?

―Are you coming?‖ he asked.

Use quotation marks to enclose the title of a short story, essay, poem, or song, or any work that appears

within a larger published work.

―The Garden Party‖ was written by Katherine Mansfield.

e. Semi-Colons;

Use a semi-colon to separate two complete sentences.

The movie started late; we had enough time to buy popcorn.

Do not use a semi-colon when two independent clauses are joined by connecting words such as, and,

but, for, nor, or, so, yet.

However, if the clauses are joined by also, however, therefore, then, otherwise, nevertheless, moreover,

you should use a semicolon.

Tennis is fun; however, one must have a partner.

Use semi-colons to separate items in a series when the items have internal punctuation or are very long.

We visited Montreal, Quebec; Toronto, Ontario; and Halifax, Nova Scotia.

f. Colons:

Use a colon to introduce a list following a noun that names the list. Note, however, that the colon is

only used after an independent clause.

I have three favourite colours: red, blue and green.

Use a colon to set off a list or statement that is introduced by the words ―the following‖ or ―as follows.‖

The crooks stole the following: a radio, a camera, and a clock.

g. Commas,

Use commas to separate three or more items in a series.

I like baseball, football, and hockey.

Use commas on both sides of a word or phrase that interrupts the flow of a sentence.

Cake, for example, is delicious with coffee.

Use commas to set off non-essential material.


Mrs. Lee, our new director of nursing, was in the office early.

Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so and yet when they join two complete sentences.

He wanted to study engineering at McGill, but he didn‘t get in.

Use a comma after an introductory word or phrase.

Unfortunately, she can‘t come to our place tonight.

When they returned from their vacation, they realized that they had been robbed

(2009). Tipsheets; Spelling & Vocabulary. Retrieved May 5, 2009, from Vanier College,

Learning Centre Web site: http://www.vaniercollege.qc.ca/tlc/tipsheets.html

Your notes here:


CHAPTER TEN -WHAT IS PLAGIARISM AND HOW TO AVOID IT

Vanier College, like all other academic institution has a policy on cheating and plagiarism referred to as

Academic Honesty. Cheating and plagiarism are extremely serious offences that can get you suspended

or expelled from college or university. Committing one of these offences can put your future at risk.

There are not many universities or employers interested in admitting or hiring a cheater!

The first and most important rule to avoid plagiarism is when in doubt, ask your teacher!

There are some actions that can almost unquestionably be labelled plagiarism. Some of these include

buying, stealing or borrowing a paper (including, of course, copying an entire paper or article from the

Web); hiring someone to write your paper for you; and copying large sections of text from a source

without quotation marks or proper citation.

But then there are actions that are usually in more of a gray area. Some of these include using the

words of a source too closely when paraphrasing (where quotation marks should have been used) or

building on someone‘s ideas without citing their spoken or written work. Sometimes teachers

suspecting a student of plagiarism will consider the student‘s intent, and whether it appeared the

student was deliberately trying to make ideas of others appear to be his or her own.

However, other teachers and administrators may not distinguish between deliberate and accidental

plagiarism. So let‘s look at some strategies for avoiding even the suspicion of plagiarism.

Adapted (From the OWL at Perdue)

1. What is Plagiarism?

Many people think of plagiarism as copying another‘s work, or borrowing someone else‘s original ideas.

But terms like ―copying‖ and ―borrowing‖ can disguise the seriousness of the offense:

According to the Merriam-Webster OnLine Dictionary, to ―plagiarize‖ means,

1) to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one‘s own;

2) to use (another‘s production) without crediting the source;

3) to commit literary theft;

4) to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source (for example

submitting the same paper in two different courses).

In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else‘s work and lying

about it afterward.

A. PREVENTING PLAGIARISM: STUDENT RESOURCES

In a research paper, you have to come up with your own original ideas while at the same time using

work that has already been done by others. But how can you tell where their ideas end and your own

begin? What‘s the proper way to include sources in your paper?If you change some of what an author

said, do you still have to cite that person?

Confusion about the answers to these questions often leads to plagiarism. If you have similar questions,

or are concerned about preventing plagiarism, we recommend using the checklist below.

85 ▪ Chapter TEN -What is Plagiarism and How to Avoid it

1. Consult with your Instructor

Have questions about plagiarism? If you can‘t find the answers in this guide, or are unsure about

something, you should ask your instructor. He or she will most likely be very happy to answer your

questions. You can also check out the guidelines for citing sources properly. If you follow them and the

rest of the advice in this chapter, you should have no problems with plagiarism.

2. Plan your Paper

Planning your paper well is the first and most important step you can take toward preventing

plagiarism. If you know you are going to use various sources of information, you need to plan how you

are going to include them in your paper. This means working out a balance between the ideas you have

taken from other sources and your own, original ideas. Writing an outline, or coming up with a thesis

statement in which you clearly formulate an argument about the information you find, will help

establish the boundaries between your ideas and those of your sources.

3. Take Effective Notes

One of the best ways to prepare for a research paper is by taking thorough notes from all of your

sources, so that you have much of the information organized before you begin writing. On the other

hand, poor note-taking can lead to many problems – including improper citations and misquotations,

both of which are forms of plagiarism! To avoid confusion about your sources, try using different

coloured fonts, pens or pencils for each one, and make sure you clearly distinguish your own ideas from

those you found elsewhere. Also, get in the habit of marking page numbers, and make sure that you

record bibliographic information or web addresses for every source right away – finding them again

later when you are trying to finish your paper can be a nightmare!

4. When in Doubt, Cite Sources

Of course you want to get credit for your own ideas. And you don‘t want your instructor to think that

you got all of your information from somewhere else. But if it is unclear whether an idea in your paper

really came from you, or whether you got it from somewhere else and just changed it a little, you

should always cite your source. Instead of weakening your paper and making it seem like you have

fewer original ideas, this will actually strengthen your paper by, 1) showing that you are not just copying

other ideas but are processing and adding to them, 2) lending outside support to the ideas that are

completely yours, and 3) highlighting the originality of your ideas by making clear distinctions between

them and ideas you have gotten elsewhere. 4) showing that you can synthesize (combine in a new and

original way) the ideas from your sources.

5. Make it Clear Who Said What

Even if you cite sources, ambiguity in your phrasing can often disguise the real source of any given idea,

causing inadvertent plagiarism. Make sure when you mix your own ideas with those of your sources

that you always clearly distinguish them. If you are discussing the ideas of more than one person, watch

out for confusing pronouns. For example, imagine you are talking about Harold Bloom‘s discussion of

James Joyce‘s opinion of Shakespeare, and you write: ―He brilliantly portrayed the situation of a writer in

society at that time.‖ Who is the ―He‖ in this sentence? Bloom, Joyce, or Shakespeare? Who is the

―writer‖ - Joyce, Shakespeare, or one of their characters? Always make sure to distinguish who said

what, and give credit to the right person.


6. Know How to Paraphrase

A paraphrase is a restatement in your own words of someone else‘s ideas. Changing a few words of the

original sentences does NOT make your writing a legitimate paraphrase. You must change both the

words and the sentence structure of the original, without changing the content. Also, you should keep

in mind that paraphrased passages still require citation because the ideas came from another source,

even though you are putting them in your own words.

The purpose of paraphrasing is not to make it seem like you are drawing less directly from other

sources or to reduce the number of quotations in your paper. It is a common misconception among

students that you need to hide the fact that you rely on other sources. Actually it is advantageous to

highlight the fact that other sources support your own ideas. Using quality sources to support your

ideas makes them seem stronger and more valid. Good paraphrasing makes the ideas of the original

source fit smoothly into your paper, emphasizing the most relevant points and leaving out unrelated

information.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE UNACCEPTABLE AND ACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASES

Here is the ORIGINAL text, from page 1 of Lizzie Borden: A Case Book of Family and Crime in the 1890s

by Williams et al.:

―The rise of industry, the growth of cities, and the expansion of the population were the

three great developments of late nineteenth century American history. As new, larger,

steam-powered factories became a feature of the American landscape in the East, they

transformed farm hands into industrial labourers, and provided jobs for a rising tide of

immigrants. With industry came urbanization the growth of large cities (like Fall River,

Massachusetts, where the Borden‘s lived) which became the centres of production as

well as of commerce and trade.‖

HERE’S AN UNACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE THAT IS PLAGIARISM:

The increase of industry, the growth of cities, and the explosion of the population were three large

factors of nineteenth century America. As steam-driven companies became more visible in the eastern

part of the country, they changed farm hands into factory workers and provided jobs for the large wave

of immigrants. With industry came the growth of large cities like Fall River where the Borden‘s lived

which turned into centres of commerce and trade as well as production.

WHAT MAKES THIS PASSAGE PLAGIARISM?

The preceding passage is considered plagiarism for two reasons:

the writer has only changed around a few words and phrases, or changed the order of the

original‘s sentences.

the writer has failed to cite a source for any of the ideas or facts.

If you do either or both of these things, you are plagiarizing.

NOTE: This paragraph is also problematic because it changes the sense of several sentences (for

example, ―steam-driven companies‖ in sentence two misses the original‘s emphasis on factories).

HERE’S AN ACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE:

Fall River, where the Borden family lived, was typical of north-eastern industrial cities of the nineteenth

century. Steam-powered production had shifted labour from agriculture to manufacturing, and as

87 ▪ Chapter TEN -What is Plagiarism and How to Avoid it

immigrants arrived in the US, they found work in these new factories. As a result, populations grew, and

large urban areas arose. Fall River was one of these manufacturing and commercial centres (Williams,

1988, p.1).

WHY IS THIS PASSAGE ACCEPTABLE?

This is acceptable paraphrasing because the writer:

accurately relays the information in the original

uses her own words.

lets her reader know the source of her information.

HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF QUOTATION AND PARAPHRASE USED TOGETHER, WHICH IS ALSO

ACCEPTABLE:

Fall River, where the Borden family lived, was typical of north-eastern industrial cities of the nineteenth

century. As steam-powered production shifted labour from agriculture to manufacturing, the demand

for workers ―transformed farm hands into industrial labourers,‖ and created jobs for immigrants. In turn,

growing populations increased the size of urban areas. Fall River was one of these hubs ―which became

the centres of production as well as of commerce and trade‖ (Williams, 1988, p.1).

WHY IS THIS PASSAGE ACCEPTABLE?

This is acceptable paraphrasing because the writer:

records the information in the original passage accurately.

gives credit for the ideas in this passage.

indicated which part is taken directly from her source by putting the passage in quotation

marks and citing the page number.

Note that if the writer had used these phrases or sentences in her own paper without putting quotation

marks around them, she would be PLAGIARIZING. Using another person‘s phrases or sentences without

putting quotation marks around them is considered plagiarism EVEN IF THE WRITER CITES IN HER OWN

TEXT THE SOURCE OF THE PHRASES OR SENTENCES SHE HAS QUOTED.

7. Evaluate Your Sources

Not all sources on the web are worth citing – in fact, many of them are just plain wrong. So how do you

tell the good ones apart? For starters, make sure you know the author(s) of the page, where they got

their information, and when they wrote it (getting this information is also an important step in avoiding

plagiarism!). Then you should determine how credible you feel the source is: how well they support

their ideas, the quality of the writing, the accuracy of the information provided, etc. We recommend

using the Library‘s ―evaluating web sources‖ document found on their web page.

Above section From: (From http://www.plagiarism.org/learning_centre/printable_docs.html)

B. TERMS YOU NEED TO KNOW (OR WHAT IS COMMON KNOWLEDGE?)

Common knowledge: facts that can be found in numerous places and are likely to be known by a lot of

people.

Example: John F. Kennedy was elected President of the United States in 1960.

This is generally known information. You do not need to document this fact.


However, you must document facts that are not generally known and ideas that interpret facts.

Example: According to the American Family Leave Coalition‘s new book, Family Issues and

Congress, President Bush‘s relationship with Congress has hindered family leave legislation

(1999, p.6).

The idea that ―Bush‘s relationship with Congress has hindered family leave legislation‖ is not a fact but

an interpretation; consequently, you need to cite your source.

Quotation: using someone‘s words. When you quote, place the passage you are using in quotation

marks, and document the source according to a standard documentation style.

Your notes here:

89 ▪ References

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social science and commerce student success guide

Documents