140

CHAPTER 4

THE TRIBES OF PATHANAMTHITTA AND

KOLLAM DISTRICTS

4.1 Introduction

The kingpins in Kerala‟s development experience like, high literacy,

favourable sex ratio, better demographic indicators, government spending in

service sector, remittance income etc., have played only a limited role in the

human development of the tribal communities. Among the communities of Kerala,

tribal communities are perhaps the most disadvantaged groups, even though

special protection schemes have been ensured by the Constitution of India, after

recognizing them as vulnerable groups. In Kerala, within the tribal communities

themselves, marked differences or variations are evident, in the utilization of funds

and aids, provided by the government sector.

The merits of reservation in government jobs and the support schemes

offered by the government to tribal communities are not distributed equally among

tribal communities. Though Kerala has celebrated „Kerala Model of

Development‟, it is observed that the development process fell short to encompass

erstwhile tribal communities in its development process; which makes them

outliers in the Kerala Model of development”1.

The incidence of poverty among the tribes in Kerala constitutes 3 per cent

of the total below poverty line (BPL) population in the State.

1 Human Development Report of Tribal Communities in Kerala, United Nations

Development Programme/Planning Commission Project, Thiruvanathapuram: Kerala

State Planning Board, December 2009, pp.1-3

141

4.2 Tribal Population in Kerala

In Kerala, the tribes are not only geographically concentrated, but are

overwhelmingly rural. Highest concentration of them is seen in Wayanad district

(37.36 percent) followed by Idukki (14 percent) and Palakkad (10.89 percent).

These three districts together constitute more than 60 percent of tribes of the State.

The coastal district of Alapuzha has the lowest percentage (0.15 percent).

Table 4.1 District wise distribution of Tribal population in Kerala

Sl.No District Male Female Total

Percentage

distribution

Percentage

to total

population

1. Kasargod 15132 15206 30338 8.33 2.52

2. Kannur 9793 10176 19969 5.48 0.83

3. Wayanadu 67394 68668 136062 37.36 17.43

4. Kozhikode 2924 3016 5940 1.63 0.21

5. Malappuram 5996 6271 12267 3.36 0.34

6. Palakkad 19990 19675 39665 10.89 1.52

7. Thrissur 2293 2533 4826 1.33 0.16

8. Ernakulam 5079 4967 10046 2.76 0.32

9. Idukki 25510 25463 50973 14 4.51

10. Kottayam 8972 9368 18340 5.04 0.94

11. Alapuzha 1565 1566 3131 0.86 0.15

12. Pathanamthitta 3184 3365 6549 1.8 0.53

13. Kollam 2447 2743 5190 1.43 0.20

14. Thiruvananthapuram 9890 11003 20893 5.74 0.65

Total 180169 184202 364189 100 1.14

Source: Census Report 2001

a) Major Scheduled Tribes of Kerala

1. Adiyan

2. Arandan, Aranadan.

3. Eravallan

142

4. Hill Pulaya, Mala Pulayan, Kurumba Pulayan, Karavazhi Pulayan, Pamba

Pulayan

5. Irular, Irulan

6. Kadar, Wayanad Kadar

7. Kanikaran, Kanikkar

8. Kattunaykkan

9. Kochuvelan

10. Koraga

11. Kudiya, Melakukudi

12. Kurichchan, Kurichiyan

13. Kurumans, Mullukuruman, Mullakuruman, Malakuruman

14. Kurumbas, Kuruman

15. Mahamalasar

16. Malai Arayan, Malaarayan

17. Malai Pandaram

18. Malai Vedan, Malavedan

19. Malakuravan

20. Malasar

21. Malayan, Nattu Malayan, Konga Malayan- excluding the areas comprising

the Kasargod, Kannur, Wayanad and Kozhikode Districts

22. Malayarayar

23. Mannan

24. Muthuvan, Mudugar, Muduvan

25. Palleyan, Pulliyar, Paliyar

26. Paniyan

27. Ulladan, Ullatan

28. Uraly

29. Malavettuvan – in Kasargod and Kannur District

143

30. Then Kurumban, Jenu Kurumban

31. Thachanadan, Thachanadan Moopan

32. Cholanaickan

33. Mavilan

34. Karimpalan

35. Vettakuruman

36. Mala Panicker2

According to the census of 2001, there were 364,189 tribes in Kerala. It

was 1.14 percent of the total population. The rate of tribal literacy in Kerala was

64.35 percent. The national tribal literacy rate is only 47.08 percent. There are

more than 92,000 tribal families living in about 4,082 settlements. Among them,

23 percent belongs to forest dwellers. There are 36 tribal groups in the official list

of the State. Marathis were exempted from the list and two tribal groups, i.e.,

Mavilan and Karimpalan were included.

The Cholanaikkar, Koragar, Kurumbar, Kattunaykkar and Kadar are

considered as primitive tribal communities in Kerala. The primitive tribal

population in Kerala is about 24000 in 2004-05, living in 398 settlements and in

about 6000 families. Their literacy rate is about 26 percent only. In the tribal

population, the Paniyas are the largest community i.e., 27 percent, living mainly in

the district of Wayanad, Kannur and Kozhikode. The tribal communities like

Kanikkar, Mala Arayar, Kurichiyar, Kurumar and Irular come in second position,

in the case of population3.

2 Ibid., p.3.

3 Survey Guideline, Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA), Thrissur, April

2008, pp.97-98.

144

4.3 Educational Programmes for the Tribes

The emancipation and enlightenment of the tribe is only possible through

the education process. The utilization of education facilities by the tribes in Kerala

is greater than other States of India, but in comparison to the general population

they are far behind. The tribal literacy rate in Kerala is 64.35 percent. The literacy

level of the general population is more than 90 percent. This wide disparity

between the tribe and non-tribe communities requires great concern4.

In Kerala the tribal development programmes are implementing through the

Tribal Development Department, functioning under the direct supervision of the

Government of Kerala. In the district level, Tribal Development Offices function

and in the tribal majority areas Tribal Extension Offices are working, to make the

development efforts more effective. The Government has appointed tribal

promoters, sometimes more than one in a settlement, on the basis of the density of

population, on a temporary basis, to locate their settlements and to identify the

beneficiaries of various funds.

Major Educational Programmes for the Tribes

i) Nursery Schools: There are 13 nursery schools under the Scheduled Tribe

Development Department to give Pre-primary education to the tribal students.

ii) Pre-Metric Education: In the beginning of every academic year, to meet

initial expenses, the tribal students till 10th

standard will get Lump-sum-grant,

monthly stipend etc.

4 Scheduled Tribe Development Programmes, Hand Book Published by Scheduled Tribe

Department, Government of Kerala, 2008-09, pp. 1-2.

145

Table 4.2 Lump-sum-grant and Monthly Stipend of Tribal Students

Lump-sum-grant Monthly Stipend

(1) L. P. Section ( I to IV) 140 55

(2) U. P. Section (V to VII) 240 60

(3)High School Section(VIII- X) 330 70

Source: Hand Book of ST Department

If a student fails, he will get 50 percent of the annual lump-sum-grant.

iii) Post Metric Studies: After Secondary School Leaving Certificate (SSLC), the

tribal students will get, full fees needed for that course. If the educational

institution is less than 8 kilometres from their living place, they will get Rs.405, as

monthly stipend. If it is more than 8 kilometres, the monthly stipend would be

Rs.475. Medical, engineering students will get Rs.120/per month, students in other

courses Rs.120/-per month, students in the hostels of Scheduled Tribe Department

will get Rs.70/- per month, as pocket money.

iv) Cloth Distribution: In the tribal schools and welfare schools, every year, two

sets of school uniform are distributed to the lower primary students from tribal

community. The expense for that is fixed as Rs.250, for one student.

v) Financial Aid for Boarding: The tribal students who are residing in the

boarding run by voluntary organizations, approved by the Scheduled Tribe

Development Department, will get Rs.500 as boarding grant.

vi) Incentives to the Parents of Scheduled Tribe Students: The parents who

send their children regularly to school will get Rs.50 per month for 10 months and

a total of Rs.500; as an incentive financial aid, only to the students in the primary

classes and 75 percent of attendance is required to get the incentive prize.

vii) Tutorial Project for School Students and Failed Students: special coaching

is provided for students in the high school, plus one and plus two, for better

performance in the annual examinations.

146

Major Features of the Project:

1. Tuition Fee for High School, plus one and plus two students.

2. Tuition to the failed scheduled tribe students.

3. Girivikas and Gurukulam projects run by Nehru Yuva Kendra and

Attappady Farming Co-operative Society, respectively.

4. One month intensive training programme for tribal students, under the

supervision of district level scheduled tribe officers.

viii) Special Encouragement to Excellent Students: The tribal students in the 8,

9 and 10 classes, who score 45 percent and above marks in the annual examination

will get Rs.50 as encouragement incentive prize.

ix) Special Incentives to Excellent Students: The tribal students who get first

class in the SSLC, plus two, degree and post graduate degree will get Rs.3000,

4000, 4500 and 6000, respectively.

x) Plan to Improve the Standard of Education: special training to the tribal

students to equip them to get admission in the professional centres.

xi) Ayyankali Memorial Talents Search and Development Programme: This is

for the provision of better education to the talented tribal students. To enhance the

quality of the tribal students; books, hostel expenses, special tuition, health

protection, counseling etc., will also be given.

xii) Research Fellowship Based on Tribal Development: this project encourages

research studies on the socio-economic progress of the tribes. Three researchers

will be considered every year under this subject. This is 100 percent Central

Government sponsored plan.

xiii) Study Tour/India Tour: The tribal students who are in the plus two, degree,

post graduate degree, professional diploma courses etc., excellent in their studies

and below poverty line would get the opportunity to go for study tours, through

the schools they study.

147

xiv) Education for Primitive Tribal Children: To provide „visiting teachers‟ to

educate primitive tribal children, in the initial stage, 50 persons will be selected

from the tribal communities and they should be trained and send to the primitive

tribal groups. In the settlements, they will give elementary education to the

children.

xv) Ensure High Quality Education to Tribal Students: To standardize the

tribal students‟ education the following steps should be taken:- ensure 100 percent

admission in schools, enhance hostel facilities, regular tests to know the progress,

remedial coaching, special coaching centers, entrance coaching, admit excellent

students in reputed schools etc.

xvi) Infrastructure Development of Pre-Metric Hostels: There are 110 pre-

matric hostels under the Scheduled Tribe Development Department. For the

infrastructure development of these hostels Rs.5 crores in 2004-2005 and Rs.150

crores in 2005-2006 were received as Central Government aid. In 2007-08, this

project was completed. It also pays attention to the construction of additional

buildings, furniture, lab facilities, and drinking water5.

4.4 Educational Institutions

1. Pre-matric hostels: Functioning and Renovation

There are 110 pre-matric hostels in Kerala, under the control of the Scheduled

Tribe Development Department. In Kerala, 68 hostels for boys, 39 hostels for girls

and 3 co-ed hostels are functioning. They get food, accommodation, text books,

note books, study materials, dress etc.

2. Pre-matric Hostels’ Building Construction

5 Census Report of India, 2001.

148

Among 108 pre-matric hostels in Kerala, 62 have its own permanent building.

The construction of hostel building is the responsibility of both Central and State

governments. The Central Government will meet 50 percent of the expenses.

3. Pre-Metric Hostels’ Purchase of Land

Land has to be purchased for the construction of buildings for pre-matric

hostels. In Kerala, 43 hostels did not have its own land. Among them 33 are for

boys. In the financial year 2009-2010, Rs.50 lakhs were included for this purpose.

4. Model Residential Schools

In Kerala, there are 18 model Residential/ Ashram schools, functioning under

the Scheduled Tribe Development Department. They are working under the

control of Kerala Scheduled Castes /Scheduled Tribes Residential Educational

society. The schools that get 100 percent central assistance for building

construction according to Article 275 (1) of Indian Constitution are called Model

Residential Schools. If the Central assistance is only 50 percent that schools are

known as Ashram Schools.

5. Post- Metric Hostels

The Scheduled Tribe Development Department started post-matric hostels

at Thiruvananthapuram in 2003-2004, at Kozhikode and Palakkad in 2005-06 for

the scheduled tribe students in post-matric courses.

6. Vocational Training Institute

To give vocational training to the tribal students, Industrial Training

Centres (ITC) are functioning at Kuttamala in Nedumangad

(Thiruvananthapuram), Puthedam (Idukki) and Ranni (Pathanamthitta), with 100

percent Central assistance. The courses have the recognition of National Council

of Vocational Training (NCVT).

149

7. Industrial Training Centres

To give technical training in stitching, cane-based works, carpentry etc. 20

Model Training Centres are functioning under the Scheduled Tribe Development

Department.

8. Production Training Centre

To give training in the production of various items, there is a training centre

functioning at Anappara in Thiruvananthapuram district6.

In the field of education and vocational training, all facilities are available to

the tribal students, but the question that arises is about the utilization of these

facilities. If they used it in a positive manner, there would not be illiteracy and

unemployment among them

4.5 Health Programmes

1. Medical Units

The government gives special attention for the health protection of the tribals.

The Scheduled Tribe Development Department has taken measures to give

medical treatment to the tribals. There are 2 Midwifery Centres, one Ayurveda

Hospital and 17 Ayurveda dispensaries working under the Tribal Development

Department.

2. Mobile Medical Units

It is very important to supply medicines in the tribal areas, with the help of the

medical team. For that purpose, two mobile medical units work at Nedumangad

6 Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe Development Guide, Scheduled Caste/Scheduled

Tribe Development Department. Government of Kerala, 2009, p.88.

150

and Thodupuzha, under the auspices of the Scheduled Tribe Development

Department.

3. Mananthavadi, Attappadi, and Idukki - Health Projects

These projects were started in the year 1989-90, to give treatment to the tribals

in Mananthavadi, Idukki and Attapadi.

4. Attappadi Health Project – Construction of Hospital Building

The construction of a speciality hospital building at Attappadi for the tribes is in

progress.

5. Treatment and Rehabilitation of Tribal Patients

This is a project for the treatment and rehabilitation of the tribes, who are

afflicted to various diseases like leprosy, tuberculosis, sickle cell anemia etc. It

tries to give effective and qualitative treatment to the patients7.

4.6 Socio- Economic Development Programmes

1. Special packages for Adiya, Paniya and other primitive tribal groups

2. Food for work programme in Monsoon.

3. Grain Banks.

4. Infra structure facilities in the tribal rehabilitation lands

5. Tribal sub-project by using Corpus Fund

6. Drinking water project for tribals in Wayanad

7 Ibid., p.91.

151

7. Infra structure development programme of schools, hostels and primary health

centres in the tribal areas

8. Health insurance project for the tribals

9. Primitive Tribal Groups: their infrastructure development

10. Drinking water projects in tribal areas of Idukki

11. Construction of Tribal Complex at Ernakulam (Under Article 275(1)

12. Tribal „Kalavyapara Mela‟

13. Rehabilitation of the bonded labourers

14. Loan to start industries or trade, without interest

15. Chingeri Development Project

16. The travel allowance of the members of the State/District level Tribal Advisory

Council

17. Information, education and communication project (publicity section)

18. Tribal development department - renovation & tribal sub-project schemes -

monitoring

19. Tribal promoters

20. Formation of Oorukoottam and Training

21. Implementation of law to prevent atrocities against the tribals.

22. Marriage aid fund for tribal girls8.

8 Ibid., pp. 91-92.

152

4.7 Vocational Projects

1. Special Central assistance to tribal sub-project

2. Attappady Farming Co-operative Society, Priyadarshini Tea Garden: financial

assistance

3. Kudumbasree programmes in tribal areas

4. Ambedkar Memorial Rural Development Institute: financial aid9.

4.8 New Projects

1. The tribes in the forest: their comprehensive development.

2. Rejuvenation of tribal co-operative societies

3. Coaching classes and training programmes for tribal candidates.

4.9 Projects through Local Self-governments

i) Village Panchayat

The major projects that are implemented through the village Panchayat are:

1. Education programmes for old age people from tribal communities.

2. Financial aid to thatch the tribal huts with coconut leaves.

3. Financial aid to dig wells, fix public water taps and street lights in the tribal

colonies.

4. Financial aid for marriage, treatment, higher studies, travel allowance for

attending interviews etc., to tribal people.

5. To implement projects for the formation of tribal colonies.

6. Allow discretionary grants to tribal category.

9 Ibid., pp. 96-97.

153

7. Give assistance and guidelines to the tribal people, to establish projects to

create employment opportunities.

8. Inaugurate welfare programmes for the tribal children.

In Kerala, Idamalakkudi Village Panchayat in Idukki district, entered

history as the first tribal village panchayat with tribal woman as president. All the

wards in this area are exclusively reserved for the tribal communities. The

infrastructure and all round development of that area is the responsibility of that

panchayat committee and it will give them an opportunity to manage and execute

things by themselves. If it is a success, the government can announce more tribal

panchayats, especially in the areas, where, the tribals have a thumbing majority.

ii) Block Panchayat

The major programmes implemented through block panchayat for the tribals are

1. Financial aid for the construction of houses.

2. The rehabilitation of the landless and homeless tribes.

3. Improvement of facilities for the construction of houses of tribes.

4. Guidelines for the foundation of industrial co-operative societies for

tribes.

5. Infrastructure development of the tribal colonies.

6. Implement health projects for the residents in the colonies.

The Block Panchayat programmes mainly concentrate in the land, house and

other infrastructure facilities of the tribes.

iii) District Panchayat

1. Provision of better education for excellent tribal students.

2. The functioning and supervision of balavadis, nursery schools, season day

care and dormitory for tribes.

3. Co-operative societies for tribal students can be organized.

154

iv) Municipality / Corporation

1. Implement programmes to provide food for pre-school children.

2. Organize propaganda against superstitions, communalism and

untouchability.

3. Conduct educational programmes for old age people belonging to tribal

groups.

4. Financial aid for tribals to thatch their houses with coconut leaves.

Economic assistance to construct houses.

5. Implement common facilities in the tribal colonies.

6. Economic aid to tribals for their marriage, medical treatment, higher studies

etc.

7. Welfare programmes for tribal children should be inaugurated.

8. Formation of legal aid committees for weaker sections.

9. Other welfare programmes for tribal sections10

.

4.10 The role of KIRTADS in Tribal Development.

Kerala Institute for Research, Training and Development of Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes (KIRTADS) is under the control of the Government

of Kerala. It conducts elaborate and authentic survey for the enumeration and

other aspects connected with scheduled tribes. Unlike the Census Report, its

research wing is more effective and efficient than any other agency. In Kerala, it is

situated at Chevayoor, near Kozhikode. This institute studies the ethnography,

recent developments in social, cultural, economic, religious, educational,

employment profile etc., of different tribal communities of Kerala. It has elaborate

system to study and analyse the tribal progress. Its chief organs are the Research

Department, Development Studies Wing, Training Section,” Adikalagramam”,

10 Ibid., pp. 98-99.

155

Museum, Library etc. It also provides enough funds to the scholars for research

fellowship11

.

4.11 The Recent Issues on Tribal Development in Kerala

Where ever mobilization of tribals took place under the label of established

political parties, it was either around universalizing ideologies like class or over

principles which were system preserving and not over issues of direct concern to

the tribes. The marginalized groups can be engaged in protest activity only if they

revise the manner in which they look at some problematic conditions or aspects of

life12

.

In Kerala, protest movements, with the help of political parties or

politically significant communities, have been a hallmark of recent political

history. The theories of social movements often lay emphasis on the resource

mobilization capabilities or their ability to draw on internal community

resources13

.

In the northern districts of Kerala, 5 percent live on agriculture, 82 percent

work as agricultural labourers and 0.4 percent is in government jobs. In the

southern districts, 30 percent are engaged in agriculture, 40 percent are

agricultural labourers and 4.5 percent are in government services. On 31st March,

2001, there were 25,407 registered unemployed tribals in the age groups 15-40

years. Work participation among the tribes is higher than the general category at

46 percent compared with 31 percent for the general population. Work

participation among tribal women is 36.9 percent compared with 25.75 percent for

11 Ibid., p.113.

12 Economic Review, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala State Planning Board, 2009, p.373.

13 Robert D. Benford, “Social Movements” in Edgar F Borgata and Marie L Borgata (ed.)

Encyclopedia of Sociology,Vol.4, New York: Macmillan, 1992, p.182.

156

the general women population. As per IRDP survey, 40 percent of the tribes in

Kerala are below the poverty line compared with 25.75 percent for the general

population. Of the total 17,086 Panchayat members of the entire three tiers in the

State, 193 persons are tribals. In the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, they have no

representation. In the State Legislative Assembly, they hold one seat14

.

Of the 35 tribal groups, in the State, Cholanaikans, Kattunaikans,

Kurumbas, Kadars and Koragas are catagorised as primitive tribal groups and

constitute about 4.8 percent of the tribal population. Some of the basic factors for

the categorization are their pre-agricultural stage of development, stagnant

population and illiteracy. Eleven tribal groups, including Kurichiyars, Kurumars

and Malai Arayans, live solely on agriculture having traditionally inherited

agricultural land, although many of them have now become agricultural labourers

following land alienation. Fourteen tribal groups, including Aranadans, Uravalans,

Hill Pulayans, Kanikkars and Kattunaikans depend solely on minor forest

produces (MFP) for their livelihood15

.

4.12 The Thirst for Land among the Kerala Tribes

4.12.1 Land Alienation in Kerala

Land alienation is a dark blot on tribal development in Kerala. Agricultural

settlers, primarily migrated from central Travancore, have been directly benefitted

by the alienation of tribal land. Many of them had fraudulently alienated tribal

land, by exploiting the ignorance and innocence of the tribals. The migrants from

central Travancore used many fowl plays to manipulate the tribes like, the offering

14 Govinda Chandra Rath, (ed.) Tribal Development in India: The Contemporary Debate,

New Delhi: Sage Publication, 2006, p.183.

15 Ibid., pp.183-184.

157

of salt from the nearby shop or his own shop, and offering of tobacco and country

liquor etc16

. The tribes did not consider the land as a valuable resource and

transfered it without any hesitation. They did not secure any relevant document

from the concerned authorities to prove their right over the land. They did not

believe in the registering of land in village offices or the remittance of land tax

regularly.

4.12.2 Efforts to Restore Tribal Land

More than half of the tribal population in the State (55.47 percent) is

composed of landless agricultural labourers, compared to the all India average of

32.99 percent. But the extent of landlessness among the general category is much

lower in Kerala at 20.78 percent. The total land alienated until the end of 1996 is

80,590 hectors, of which only 440 hectors have been restored to the tribes17

. The

Dhebar Commission in 1960 by the Central Government suggested that all land

alienated from 1950 onwards should be restored. The R. Shankar Ministry, which

was then in power in Kerala State, had suggested to the Dhebar Commission to

include the tribal areas in Kerala in the Scheduled Areas. It was on the

recommendation of the Dhebar Commission and its endorsement by the Centre

that the 1975 Act was passed unanimously during the tenure of the Achutha

Menon Ministry. The Act was known as the Kerala Scheduled Tribes (Restriction

on Transfer of Land and Restoration of Alienation of Lands) Act, 1975. This was

enacted by the government to fulfill the Constitutional obligation under Article

244(1), under which the State is obliged to make suitable legislation to protect the

tribes. The Act was included in the 9th

Schedule of the Constitution. Finally, the

Act was passed in the State Legislative Assembly in 1986. But it was given

16 Ibid,, p.184.

17 Ibid., p.189.

158

retrospective effect only from 1982. As per the Act of 1975, all land from 1960

had to be restored to the tribals and all such transactions nullified. There were

8,553 applications submitted for restoration of 10,1777 hectors of land. Later the

number of applications rose to 8,879. Only 4,524 applications were accompanied

by supporting evidence (made it compulsory under the Act of 1975) and therefore,

found valid. Accordingly, 3170.12 hectors of land had to be restored. However,

the Kerala government did nothing in this regard18

.

In Kerala, out of a total claim for 9909.4522 hectors made by 8754

applicants only 5.5 percent of the claims have been restored. The two major ruling

fronts: The Congress led United Democratic Front (UDF) and CPI (M) led Left

Democratic Front (LDF) remarkably exhibited a collective unity in non-

implementation of the 1975 Act for in hood-winking the very Act which they had

passed unanimously in the State Assembly in 1975. Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer,

former Supreme Court Judge, has rightly commended on the tribal land issue,

“The Kerala Scheduled Tribes (Restriction on Transfer of Lands and Restoration

of Alienated Lands) Act, 1975 was not implemented so far due to the lack of

political will on the part of successive governments and political parties who ruled

the State so far. There is an urgent need for a fraternity of various sections of the

people to fight for the right of the tribals and against the increasing atrocities on

them. If atrocities and injustice are not eliminated in the new era of development,

we cannot give justice to the tribals”19

.

4.12.3 The Tribal Land Act (1975)

The Tribal Land Act was passed in the Kerala Assembly in April 1975,

unanimously with veteran CPI leader C. Achutha Menon, as UDF Chief Minister

18 Ibid.

19 Ibid., pp.189-190.

159

and frontline CPI (M) leader, E.M.S.Namboodiripad, as main opposition leader.

Moving the Bill in the Assembly, the then Revenue Minister, Baby John of

Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP) said that the encroachers had snatched the

lands from the tribals by adopting fraudulent methods apart from providing them

paltry amounts of money in return. He assured that the government is determined

to return back the stolen property to their rightful owners, by adopting vigorous

methods20

.

The Act passed by Kerala Assembly got the mandatory assent of President

of India on November 11, 1975. But the strict rules prevailed in the emergency

period prevented the implementation of the Bill. The government took 11 years to

formulate the rules to implement the Act, which was formed only in 1986 with

retrospective effect from January 1, 1982. Even after belatedly formulated the

rules, the successive governments failed to implement, but on the other hand, the

powerful lobby of encroachers, with due political patronage, continued their tribal

land grabbing spree21

.

The Act also restricted transfer of tribal lands to non-tribals from 1982

without prior consent of the authorities. This provision was aimed to restore the

alienated lands to the original tribal owners. The Revenue Divisional Offices

(RDO) in the concerned districts was entrusted with the responsibility to

implement the Act22

.

In 1988, Dr.Nalla Thampi Thera, a tribal of Mananthavadi in Wayanad

District, moved public interest litigation, before the Kerala High Court. On

20 Nishi K. Dixit, Tribes and Tribals, Delhi: Vista International Publishing House, 2006,

pp. 165-166.

21 Ibid., pp.166-167.

22 Ibid., p.167.

160

October 15, 1993, five years later, a positive verdict came from the High Court,

giving the Government six months time to implement the Act of 1975. The then

UDF Ministry led by K. Karunakaran submitted an appeal before the High Court

to extent the last date to carry out its order. Thus, the Court granted the extension

to two and half years ending April 15, 1996. A. K. Antony replaced Karunakaran

as the Chief Minister in 1995, but the new Government also did not carry out the

Court order even during this extended period23

.

4.12.4 The Kerala Scheduled Tribes Act (1999)

In 1999, the LDF Government led by the Marxist leader E. K. Nayanar,

passed the Kerala Scheduled Tribes (Restriction of Transfer of Lands and

Restoration of Alienated Lands) Act, scrapping the 1975 Act. According to the

provisions of the 1999 Act, where transactions were far less than two hectors, the

affected tribal was entitled to get matching land from the Government. The Act

also made the State, to provide a minimum of one acre of land to the landless

tribals in their residential district within a period of two years from March 1999.

The High Court of Kerala nullified the 1999 legislation and observed that the

Kerala Government had committed contempt of Court. However, the government

went in appeal to the Supreme Court, resulting in the possibility of retrieving

alienated land becoming enmeshed in numerous legal entanglements24

.

4.13 The Role of Tribal Organizations

a) Adivasi - Dalit Samara Samiti (ADSS)

When the legal measures were failed, the tribes selected the path of

agitation and it continued for 47 days. C. K. Janu, a young, neo-literate tribal

23 Ibid., pp.167-168.

24 Ibid., p.169.

161

women born to a very poor Adiya tribal family in Wayanad, who was formerly a

member of the Communist Party of India Marxist (CPI (M)). She led the struggle

under the newly formed organization known as the Adivasi-Dalit-Samara-Samiti

(ADSS). The ADSS started its agitation focusing on poverty related deaths, which

the leaders alleged had a regular feature every year and which neither the media

nor the officials recognized in the name of the „Salvaging the vaunted Kerala

model of Development‟25

.

The ADSS inaugurated its movement with an open letter submitted to the

then Chief Minister of Kerala on 24th

August 2001, by C. K. Janu. The incident

that prompted her was the occurrence of 23 poverty related deaths among the

tribes of Kerala. Land alienation was recognized as the crucial causative factor

behind these deaths and the State was blamed for hoarding most of the tribal

land26

.

The ADSS demanded 5 acres of land for each tribal family. To the tribals,

land was closely knitted to their culture, identity and livelihood, and it was not

seen as a commodity with exchange value that made it dear to the tribes or only as

a status symbol. Janu even identifies the existence of some spiritual elements in

land, trees and so on, which tribals worship27

. Their existence as communities is

possible only if their inalienable right to their territories is acknowledged28

.

The ADSS adopted the method of non-violent agitation and it primarily

targeted the State and in no way expresses hostility to the settlers. It got the

support of the philanthropists and others who respect the preservation of human

25 Govinda Chandra Rath, op.cit, p.190.

26 Ibid., p.191.

27 Ibid.

28 Madhyamam Daily, 28 October, 2001.

162

rights. The press and electronic media exclusively exposed the tribal issues to the

public. Thus, the tribal problem came to the forefront of the political history of

Kerala29

. The agitators occupied the entrance to the Kerala secretariat and its

premises, constructed makeshift huts, cooked food and performed cultural events

even as they protested. Similar „refugee camps‟, as they called them, were set up

in front of the Chief Ministers‟ residence.

Even though most of the tribes did not have land, the ADSS, never raised

the issue, of distributing 5 acres of land in the preliminary phase of agitation38.

The

agitation was described as a „morale booster for the Adivasi-Dalit struggles across

the country and was acknowledged as the first successful democratic agitation

demanding compensatory land against alienated tribal land30

.

The government consented to try to provide five acres of cultivable land to

all the landless tribal families, who were around 45,000 in number, and identified

some 42,000 acres of land for this purpose. The government took a tough stance

for demolishing the illegally constructed huts in the Secretariat premises31

.

On 16th

October, 2001, on the basis of the agreement with the State

government, it was decided to grant five acres of cultivable land to each tribal

family, in case sufficient land was not available, each of them would be then given

at least one acre of cultivable land. The activists of the ADSS largely laid

emphasis on the distribution of forest land in Wayanad32

. The Government ordered

29 Bijoy C.R. “Adivasis Betrayed: Adivasi Land Rights in Kerala”, Economic and

Political Weekly: 29 May 1999, p.1331.

30 The Hindu Daily, 19

th and 20

th October 2001.

31 Give Agricultural Land and Employment to Tribals, The Open Letter submitted to the

Chief Minister by the Adivasi Dalit Samara Samithi Chairperson, Janu on 24th August

2001.

32 The Hindu Daily 19

th October, 2001.

163

the State Planning Board to prepare a master plan for integrated tribal

development and to implement it on a time bound basis from the very beginning of

the 10th

plan. The Tribal sub-plan (TSP) Projects would be run with the active

participation of the tribes and the power of forest management would be taken

away from the Forest Department and restored to the tribes33

.

b) Adivasi Gothra Mahasabha

A State level organization outside the political party framework was formed

during the dusk of the 20th

century, which functioned as an apex decision making

body of the tribes in Kerala and fought for tribal interests across the State. The

Mahasabha now has 380 members and it has given the movement greater

legitimacy among the tribes. Now the tribal organizations have realized the need

of pressure to exert upon the authorities to get priorities and privileges. The

distribution of „Pattayams‟ to the tribes after conducting big „melas‟ or meeting

has been a new fashion in Kerala.

c) Sadhujana Vimochana Sena

In the recent past, the political atmosphere of Kerala witnessed a hurricane

in the form of „Sadhujana Vimochana Sena‟ concentrated mainly in

Pathanamthitta District. It is a dalit/ tribe organization mainly for the acquisition

of land. Their agitation is chiefly connected with the landless dalits and tribals.

They demand property right in the Rubber Plantations at Chengara, now in the

possession of Harrison Company. They occupied the plantation land and

constructed makeshift huts, cooking food, tapping rubber etc. Laha Gopalan is the

leader of this organization and he had conducted dialogue with the Kerala

government and at last reached an agreement. The agreement assures one acre

33 Ibid.

164

land to all landless agitators. Chengara model land encroachment has occured in

Wayanad District also.

4.14 Progress in Land Restoration

The tribes will get land in places where it is available and not at places adjacent to

their settlements. It will results the uprooting of the tribes from their native places.

The elements of self-governance or „Oorukkoottams‟ in its real meaningful sense

will not be possible, if they are dispersed to different settlements34

.

The government promised to hold the first round of land redistribution on

1st January, 2002 with the usual fanfare. But systematic approach was absent and

deliberate attempt was evident for watering down the original demand of the

tribals for five acres of land35

.

The tribal mission has identified 2,226 acres of land for distribution in the

Mathikettan area. Now the State Government decided to give the tribes the record

of rights for the land since it was found difficult to identify land for which clear

title deeds existed. Since the record of rights is going to be given on forest lands,

their legal status is in doubts. The government hopes to follow what it had done

earlier with respect to settler farmers36

.

The Aralam farm in Wayanad district with an extent of 7612 acres has been

purchased by the State Government for resettlement and half the extent of the farm

retained as farm itself and the remaining portion (about 3779 acres) distributed to

2557 families during the year 2006-2007. In addition to this, Government of India

34 Janu C.K. and M. Geethanandan, Adivasi Gramapanchayatum Swayambharanavum,

Cochin: Clan n‟ Culture, 2001, pp.37-38.

35 Mathrubhumi Daily, 2 June 2002.

36 Govinda Chandra Rath, op. cit, pp.195-196.

165

has been approached for diversion of 12,196 hectors of forest land for assignment

to the landless families and by 31st October 2007, about 6713 acres of surplus land

has been distributed to 8394 tribal beneficiaries. Major projects such as

Sugandhagiri Cardamom Project, Priyadarsini Tea Estate, Pookot Dairy Projects,

Vattachera Tribal Collective Farm (all in Wayanad district), Attappady Farming

Co-operative Society in Palakkad district etc were started to promote socio-

economic conditions of the tribes. These five projects could rehabilitate 1089

tribal families in 3295 hectors of land. These families have been given housing

and other amenities and employment in these farms37

.

The Tribal Development Mission has been formed to undertake

rehabilitation activities based on a Master Plan. They have identified 22052

landless tribal families and 3231 families with less than one acre of land. The

Tribal Resettlement and Development Mission (TRDM) could so far distributed

8295.341 acres of land to 6134 tribal families. The resettlement activities contain

the following procedures, (a) preliminary work such as identification of land,

survey and demarcation of plots, completion of procedures for selection of

beneficiaries in a transparent manner prior to the resettlement (b) the actual

resettlement by providing land and families such as housing, drinking water,

sanitation, health care, education etc (c) the development of the plots into self

sufficient agricultural farms, through crop husbandry, animal husbandry, soil

conservation activities, irrigation facilities etc and (d) providing other essential

infrastructure development38

.

37 The Hindu Daily,16

th October, 2001.

38 The Hindu Daily, 1

st June, 2002.

166

Table 4.3 District-wise distribution of Surplus land to Tribals as on 30.11.2009

Name of the District Number of Tribal

Beneficiaries

Land Distributed

(Area in acres)

Thiruvananthapuram 2 0.08

Kollam 59 5.27

Pathanamthitta 8 0.54

Alappuzha 77 1.66

Kottayam 91 27.38

Idukki 15 2.52

Ernakulam 90 1.92

Thrissur 187 10.35

Palakkad 1384 602.55

Malappuram 129 27.96

Kozhikode 21 1.56

Wayanad 2376 994.08

Kannur 2150 510.66

Kasargode 940 278.84

Total 7529 2465.37

Source: Survey and Land Records Department, Government of Kerala.

The shock waves of the Muthanga incident, during the UDF Ministry of A.

K. Antony as Chief Minister, continued for many years and the tribal problem and

their grievances have been widely discussed by the enlightened Kerala society.

4.15 Petitions, Protests and Realities

Meanwhile, many cases were filed in the High Court of Kerala, regarding

the distribution of land to the tribals, according to the Government Order, 2002, to

give 5 acres of land to the landless tribals. One such petition was filed by one

Chellama and seven others from Peerumedu. Considering the case, the Court

asked explanation from the Kerala Government, about the time limit, to give land

167

to the deserving tribes and the court has consented a fortnight to the Government

to give answer39

.

The Scheduled Tribe Forest Rights Bill was passed in the parliament in

December 2006. The Bill provided the provision of property right to the Tribals,

who have been living in a particular place, for three generations (75 years) and

they will get four hectors of land40

.

As a whole, 30,000 acres of land is required for the tribals, but only 5,000

acres is with the State government and another 19,000 acres has to be identified.

The Kerala government has been thinking of the recapturing of alienated land

from the encroachers41

. But it will not be an easy task because the non tribals who

have occupied the tribal land are well organized than the tribes.

4.16 The Scheduled Tribe’s Forest Rights Bill (2007)

The Government of India issues a very important notification on 1st January

2007, by recognizing the traditional right of the tribes and primitive tribal groups

on forest and forest goods. The new Order has given the tribals the right to

cultivate in the forest land and to collect, use and sell the minor forest produces

(MFP)42

.

The Scheduled Tribes Forest Rights Bill, 2007 had the least response from

the Kerala State, when compared to other States of India. In other States, about 8

lakh applications for Forest Rights were filed in the Forest-Environment

39 Economic Review, Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala State Planning Board, 2007, p.437.

40 Malayala Manorama Daily, 6

th August 2009.

41 Malayala Manorama Daily, 30

th November 2006.

42 Malayala Manorama Daily, 15

th January 2007.

168

Department, but in Kerala, not even a single application was submitted. Moreover

the formation of Scrutiny Committee for Forest Rights, were also in uncertain. The

Ministry level Sub-committee considered the demand of the petitioners and the

District Collectors have given the discretionary power to decide on this matter.

But the government did not issue any order on that decision. In this way, the lack

of will power prevented the effective implementation of the Forest Rights Bill,

2007 in Kerala State43

.

4.17 Restoration of Tribal Land: Minister’s Announcement

In September 2009, the then Minister for Backward/SC/ST Welfare,

Government of Kerala, made a thorough visit in the tribal concentrated areas of

Wayanad district and he learned the tribal problems directly by being with them

for some days. He reiterated that those who were not yet submitted application to

get land by the Forest Right Bill can submit it before October 15, 200944

.

There were 2157 applications from Attappady itself and 11,000 acres of

land have surveyed for distribution. All tribal families will get ration cards from

November 2009. The government instructed the Integrated Tribal Development

Project (ITDP) to prepare a special plan for the reconstruction and renovation of

6229 tribal houses at Attappady and announced the completion of the

reconstruction of 2500 houses by the Attappady Hills Area Development

Society45

.

In December, 2009, the government again made the announcements that,

by February 2010, all the tribes who live in the forest will get right over the land

43 Malayala Manorama Daily, 27

th November 2007.

44 Malayala Manorama Daily, 15th August 2008.

45 Malayala Manorama Daily, 21

st September 2009.

169

and the proceedings for that purpose were completed. Those who received

„Pattayam‟ will get a vivid picture about the location of land and the government

will give financial aid to construct houses in that places46

.

The Government of Kerala announced its policy, home to all homeless,

especially to all tribals, who remain as homeless, would get economic aid from the

government within two years and Rs120 crores will be allotted for that purpose47

.

4.18 Forest Rights Bill: A Failure

The expert committee under the supervision of the Socio-Economic Study

Centre, Hyderabad, conducted a detailed study with the co-operation of the Kerala

Forest Department, about the results of the Forest Rights Bill for the tribal land in

Kerala. They have selected 450 tribal families in Kerala for their studies. The

Committee has analyzed that the Scheduled Tribes Forest Rights Bill is a failure,

because it could not solve the land problems of the tribals. Moreover the bill could

not give the means of subsistence to the tribals.

They have selected 30 colonies and 52 percent tribals did not even hear

about the Forest Rights Bill. The lack of co-ordination between the departments

like Scheduled Tribes Welfare, Revenue and Forest, prevented the effective

distribution of land. So far, 64.4 acres of land distributed to 6000 tribal families.

The lack of awareness programmes to make the Bill familiar and friendly to the

tribals caused its failure. The expert Committee strongly recommended the

restructuring of the government machinery, to convert the Forests Rights Bill, an

46 Malayala Manorama Daily, 22

nd September 2009.

47 Malayala Manorama Daily, 5

th October 2009.

170

effective one. The awareness is needed not only to the tribals but to the

bureaucrats also48

.

4.19 The Tribes of Pathanamthitta and Kollam Districts

4.19.1 The Ulladans

The Ulladans perceive their distribution mainly in Palakkad, Thrissur,

Ernakulam, Kottayam, Alappuzha, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram and

Pathanamthitta districts. Many of the older generations use literary Malayalam and

its script. Till 1976, the community had been a scheduled caste; but thereafter, it

was included in the Mala Ulladans as a scheduled tribe.

The Ulladans show a higher frequencies of both A and B blood groups to

about 24 percent, as in the case of other tribal communities of Travancore hills.

The Ulladans are omnivorous and eat the flesh of rat, tortoise, squirrels,

cow, buffalo, pork, fowl, pigeon etc. Eggs and fishes, both marine and fresh water

are also welcome. Rice is their staple cereal food. Roots and tubers, especially, the

tapioca and colocasia, are side-dishes with the rice or sometimes a substitute for it.

Pulses, vegetables, onion and a variety of leaves are also taken. Coconut or palm

oil is the cooking medium. Their fruit consumption is moderate. Milk and milk

products, tea and coffee without milk are consumed. Their men take alcoholic

drinks occasionally from the local market. Betel-chewing with or without tobacco

is common to both sexes, while men only smoke beedis/ cigarettes49

.

The Ulladans‟ food habits have not changed much, but now a day the

consumption of animal food has decreased considerably. Tortoises, rats and

48 Malayala Manorama Daily, 16

th July 2010.

49 Malayala Manorama Daily, 29

th July 2010.

171

squirrels are not so abundant; the habit of wandering and procuring of such food is

being abandoned. The flesh of other animals is a luxury. Now, the most common

nonvegetarian dish is to be the salted dried fish, generally the dried sardine. The

fruit consumption has increased.

The Ulladans have illams (clans) and illam rules and regulations. Vachoor,

Kothari, Kodayathu, Peringale, Vayalattu, Kizhoormenattu etc. are some of the

illams. The names of these illams are after the respective places. The

differentiation indicated hierarchical order and the social status of an individual.

These implications have either vanished or are simply ignored by the present

generation. Now, the clan division is taken into account only at the time of

marriage, since marriage within the illam is a taboo and incestuous.

The Ulladans‟ marriage rules prevent them from marrying outside the

community and inside the clan. Consanguineous marriages between cross-cousins

both paternal and maternal are prevalent. In the past, it was the preferential

marriage. Sororate and levirate are also practiced. Marriages are always after

puberty. There is generally no age limit. The girls usually get married at the age of

16 years or above, and the boys 20 or above. The mates are acquired generally

through negotiation between the parents. The negotiation is always initiated from

the boy‟s side. Monogamy is a norm, but rarely polygamy also occurs. It can be

sororal or nonsororal. The thali is the marriage symbol, tied around the neck of the

bride. Bride-price existed in the past.

Among the Ulladans, divorce is permitted to both sexes with social or

judicial approval. It can be simple desertion also in which the spouses separate on

the score of infidelity. Adultery, barrenness, impotency, chronic sickness, cruelty

and practice witchcraft are generally accepted reasons for social approval of

divorce. Compensation to the divorced is not insisted upon. Nowadays,

occasionally, the validity of conversational type of divorces are challenged in the

172

judicial court and in such cases, the compensations are decided by the courts. The

children are considered as the liability of both parents after the divorce. Widower

and divorcee are permitted to remarry.

The Ulladans‟ family patterns are generally nuclear, comprising husband

and wife and their unmarried children. Mixed extended families are also found.

The eldest male member of the family is the head, usually; it is the father in the

nuclear families and the karanavar (maternal uncle) in the joint families. The

inheritance at present is equigeneture and succession is by the eldest son.

The Ulladan women enjoy equal status. They have the right to ancestral

property, which is equally distributed between both men and women. Besides,

household activities like the collection of fuel and bringing potable water, they

have roles in economic activities like agricultural operations, animal husbandry,

basket making and mat weaving.

Pulikudi is a pre-delivery ritual observed by the Ulladans during the

seventh month of pregnancy. The delivery is conducted in a separate hut called

theendapura (pollution hut) attended by an old women, usually her mother.

The Ulladans observed the puberty rites of females with great pomp in the

past. A girl or menarche is segregated to a theendapura for 15 days.

The marriage rituals are performed at the bride‟s residence. The day is fixed

in consultation with a kaniyan (astrologer) and almanac. The bridegroom and his

party moves to the bride‟s house, where they are welcomed to a pandal (booth)

erected for the occasion.

Burial is the conventional mode of disposing of the dead. But, now-a-days,

cremation is also in vogue.

173

The major economic resource of the community is the land and the forest.

The resources are controlled by the individuals or by the government. The

community is mainly landless. Wood cutting, canoe making, bee-keeping, basket

making, mat weaving etc., are also practiced by them. Some of them are employed

in government or private services. A negligible number are engaged in self

employment like petty shops, business or petty traders. Landlessness and

unemployment are increasing. There is an increase in the number of daily wage

casual labourers. The wages are paid in cash. Changes had occurred in their

economic life. They are shifted from nomadic to settlement patterns of

livelihood50

.

The Ulladans had tribal assembly formed of elder members of the tribe. It

was headed by a muppan (headman). The assembly met chiefly to deal with cases

of immortality and guilt. The guilty persons were taken to the ruler of the state,

who was informed of the circumstances. Cash fines and physical punishments

were awarded to the delinquents. At present only the institution of muppan

(chieftain or headman) exists. The only relevance he now enjoys is to be invited to

the marriages and other rituals. Now, they have a registered association, the

„Ulladan Maha Sabha‟. The membership to this sabha is opened to all the Ulladans

of above eighteen years. This sabha attends to the upliftment of the community

and its members.

In religion, the Ulladans are pure tribal religionists or spirit worshippers. At

present, they profess Hinduism. Sastha, Ayyappa, Siva and Bhadrakali are some of

their favourite deities. They also worship the spirits of dead ancestors, demons and

malevolent deities like Theekutty and Chathan. They believe that natural

50 Thurston E., Castes and Tribes of Southern India, New Delhi: Cosmo Publications,

1975, pp 214 - 220.

174

calamities, illness and barrenness are caused due to the malignant influence of

these deities. Sabarimala Sastha temple is a popular centre of pilgrimage.

The Ulladan boys and girls generally drop out at the secondary level. Their

poor economic condition is one of the major reasons for this. Towards health and

medicare, their attitude is favourable. They use both modern and traditional

medicare. Family planning programmes are welcomed. The couples generally

prefer two or three children. Generally the men get sterilized.

Dug wells, ring wells and piped water are the Ulladans‟ sources of drinking

water. Many of them have got free houses under the relevant schemes of the

government. The Ulladans avail of the benefits of government sponsored rural

employment programmes (IRDP, NREP and RLEGP), nutrition programmes

(midday meal to school children and ICDS) ration through public distribution

system and banking. They also enjoy all modern amenities. But, towards savings

and investments, their attitude is not favourable. They still mostly depend on

moneylenders and shop keepers for their immediate needs51

.

4.19.2 The Malai Vedans

The Malai Vedan community is found distributed mainly at Kottayam,

Kollam, Pathanamthitta and Thiruvananthapuram districts. They use Malayalam

and its scripts for speaking and writing both at home and with others.

Constitutionally, the community people are listed differently. Those who live in

the urban and semi urban areas are included in the Scheduled Caste list as Vetan

and whereas forest dwellers are included in the scheduled tribe‟s list under the

name Malai Vedan.

51 Singh K. S. (ed.) People of India: Kerala – Vol. XXVII- Part II, New Delhi:

Anthropological Survey of India, 2002, pp. 1415 - 16.

175

The Malai Vedans are dark in complexion, of short stature and having long

heads. They have dark curly hair, black eyes, and short nose depressed at the root.

The Malai Vedans of Travancore may also be remnants of the pre-Dravidian race.

The Malai Vedans are non-vegetarian. Rice is the staple diet in the form of

kanji (gruel) or choru (the solid form of boiled rice). Roots and tubers, various

types of yams, colocasia and others collected from the forest are cooked along

with the condiments either as a side dish to the rice preparation or sometimes as a

substitute to it. They eat vegetables, mustard leaf and leaves of various wild plants.

Pulses are also consumed by them. Their fruit consumption is moderate and

mostly seasonal. Milk and milk products are not taboo, but rarely consumed as

they find these too costly for them. Both the sexes consume alcoholic drinks

occasionally, the requirement being met from the local market. Smoking beedis

and cigarettes are found only among the males, where as betel chewing is common

to both the sexes52

.

Among the Malai Vedan, community endogamy and clan exogamy is the

rule. In the past, the marriage alliances were restricted to enengam illoms (brother-

in-law clans). Today most of them choose their spouses outside the kin group and

sometimes even outside the community. Pre-puberty marriages existed in the past.

The girls now usually marry at the age of 16 to 20 and boys 20 to 25. The

marriages are generally arranged by elders through negotiation, but sometimes it

may occur through mutual consent. Monogamy is the norm. Polygyny, sororal or

nonsororal may also occur. Polyandry is prohibited. The thali (a metallic badge

made of silver, brass or gold in white thread) is used as the marriage symbol.

Dowry in cash and kind is prevalent, which according to them is a new practice; in

52 Ibid., pp. 1416-17.

176

the past, there was no dowry or bride price. They are neolocal, after marriage.

Rarely patrilocal residence is found.

The Malai Vedans do not give much respect to marriage bonds. Divorce

and desertion are common and either party can do so. In Malai Vedan community,

the family organization is nuclear.

The Malai Vedan women enjoy equal status. They have the right to

ancestral property. The descent is reckoned always through the female line.

Women have roles to perform in social, ritual and religious spheres. They also

have a role in economic activities like agricultural occupations, animal husbandry,

collection of minor forest produces, wage labours etc. The women also equally

participate in collection of fuel. Bringing potable water, cooking and similar other

house hold jobs are done by women alone. Women contribute to family income

and have the right to control the expenditure53

.

At present, the pulikudi ceremony in the seventh month of pregnancy is

rarely done. The Malai Vedan observed the thirandukuli for the girls. A girl on

menarche is secluded in the valaima pura for seven days. She is assisted by her

female friends or relatives.

The Malai Vedan‟s marriage rituals are practiced at the bride‟s residence in

the presence of the headman. The marriage is fixed in consultation with a kaniyan

(astrologer), which is a recent practice.

The Malai Vedan buries their dead. Intimation of death is conveying to all

relatives.

53 Luiz A.D, Tribes of Kerala, New Delhi: Bharathiya Adimjathi Sevak Sangh, 1962, pp.

155 - 157.

177

Land and forest are their major economic resources. Most of them hold

land or allotted by the government. Some, who dwell in the urban areas, work for

wages in various labour activities. Traditionally, they are nomadic agriculturists

with hunting and gathering. At present, their economy is mainly centred on settled

cultivation as well as wage labour. A negligible number are engaged in

government or private services and self employment like petty shop owners,

animal husbandry, non-skilled casual labour and seasonal collection of minor

forest produces.

The urban dwellers have at present formed an association named „Hindu

Malai Veda Mahasabha‟. It functions for the social and economic upliftment of its

members.

The Malai Vedans are Hindus, who worship the entire Hindu pantheon of

gods. They also worship the tribal deities like Kattumallan, Mala moorthy,

Arthakandan, Kalamoorthy and Kaliamma.

During festive seasons like Onam, Vishu and Karkidaka vavu (the day of

spirits), they worship at Kulathoor, Vaipur, and Kottangal, the three Siva temples

in Pathanamthitta district, which are considered their sacred centres. Madavathi is

sacred specialist among them. He performs the worship connected with the spirits.

He used to be their medicine man also.

The Malai Vedan‟s attitude towards formal education is partly favourable.

The boys and girls generally study up to secondary level. They drop out mainly

due to social and economic reasons. They use both modern and traditional

medicare. They accept small family norm by adopting modern methods of family

planning.

Drinking water is available within the Malai Vedan‟s locality and the

sources are streams, ring wells or piped water. Chemical fertilizers and

178

insecticides are used for agriculture. Various schemes, through ITDP, NREP and

RLEGP, are launched by the government for their economic upliftment. Some are

benefitted by having free houses, fifty percent subsidy on loans for self-

employment in animal husbandry, small scale industries etc. They enjoy facilities

of media and communication, electricity, midday meal for school children, ITDP,

ration through fair-price shops and banking. Their attitude towards savings and

investments is not favourable and they continue to depend on money lenders and

shop keepers66

.

4.19.3 The Malai Pandarams

They are mainly distributed in the high range areas of Kollam and

Pathanamthitta districts. With others, they communicate in Malayalam and the

educated use the Malayalam script for writing.

The Malai Pandarams are dark in complexion. The average height of men is

154.7 while that of women is 143.2cm. Their average cephalic index is 75.8 cm.

The forehead is receding and brow ridges are prominent. They have prognathous

jaw and receding chin. The nose is short and flat. The average nasal index being

83.4. The hair on the head is black and looks curly in some. The eyes are black.

They are strong and sturdy. The average circumference of the chest is 78 cm for

men and 73.8 cm for women.

The Malai Pandarams are basically non-vegetarian. They eat beef and pork

in Kollam district while in Palakkad area they avoid beef and pork. Their staple

food is rice. But tapioca, colocasia, yams and other tubers are the main types of

food. For two or three decades, the roots and tubers have been the main items of

food. Pulses like gram, tur and urad are also consumed by them depending on the

availability. The edible oil used is coconut or palm. Brinjal, pumpkin, bitter guard

and the leafy vegetables of the forest are the most commonly consumed

179

vegetables. Both men and women are fond of alcoholic drinks and its demand is

met from the local markets. Black coffee and tea are relished by them. Smoking of

beedi/cigarettes is common among the men folk, where as betel-chewing with or

without tobacco is common to both the sexes54

.

The Malai Pandarams have no social division or exogamous clan system as

such. The form of marriage is usually monogamy. It is said that polygamy is not

objected and it is rarely practiced. The thali is the symbol of marriage, though it is

not observed strictly. Presently, there exists no dowry system or bride-price

among them. However, the earlier record stated that bride-price was prevalent

among them. Divorce is allowed and either party can divorce. It is usually a simple

desertion or separation. The reason can be barrenness.

The family organization of the Malai Pandaram is of nuclear family. Under

one roof, there may be two or three families, each having a separate hearth. The

norm regarding inheritance was male equigeniture. However, at present, they

follow the equigeniture. The succession is by the eldest son, who is residing with

the family.

The Malai Pandaram women possess a low status. They have role in

agricultural operations, animal husbandry, collection of fuel, bringing potable

water and other economic activities.

Their economic life is overwhelmingly forest based. The resources are

controlled by the government. They are landless. Presently, the government has

allotted plots of forests land to groups in which they have erected their huts and in

the remaining area some individuals engage in cultivation, mainly tapioca.

Hunting and gathering are the traditional occupations attributed to them. However,

54 Ibid., pp. 157 - 159.

180

foraging seems to be their major traditional occupation along with occasional

hunting of small games. The forest produce collected includes items for personal

consumption and sale. Wild roots, tubers and yams are mainly used for self

consumption. Items like ponnampoovu, pulichika, inja, kundirikam, inchi, wild

pepper, cardamom and honey are sold in the „Girijan Co-operative Society‟ or in

the open market. Collection of honey is mainly a joint venture of two or three

families and the income is shared equally.

The medicinal herbs are collected from forests of Sabarimalai, Irali and

Wayanad. The medicine men called as nattuvaidyan or sidhavaidyan, have claim

title in the village side. During Sabarimala pilgrim season, between October to

January, many of them are engaged in the sale of mala. Both groups have direct

access to market and they depend on the local market for most of their necessities

like rice, condiments, oil and cloth.

Changes have occurred in their economic activities. Presently, non-skilled

labour, mainly daily wage casual labour in the forest has become their primary

occupation. Herbal medicine has less demand in recent times. Foraging turned out

to be a secondary or seasonal occupation. Many of them have taken to agriculture

and plantation labour. Animal husbandry also becomes one of their major

occupations. Bonded labour does not exist. However, child labour is not unusual

but it is not reported. The wages and transactions are all made in cash.

The Malai Pandarams have the office of muttukani (chieftain or headman)

in Kollam area. Now-a-days the only privilege he enjoys is being invited to

marriages and other functions.

The Malai Pandarams follow Hinduism. Sastha or Ayyappan is their

principal deity. Most of their settlements in Travancore are also located near the

Sastha temples like Aryankavu, Achencoil and Sabarimala.

181

The Malai Pandarams are one of the least modified tribes of pre-Dravidian

race. They live either in rock shelters or under break-winds made of jungle wood,

posts and thatched with wild plantation leaves. In recent years, they have taken to

making fire with the aid of chakmula and using earthenware vessels for cooking

their food. This reveals that, till recently, they were in a state of pre-technological

level that is yet to find out the technology of making artifacts.

The attitude of the Malai Pandaram towards formal education is partly

favourable. The increased awareness, mainly of the recent economic benefits for

the parents, seemed to be the reasons for sending the children to school. However,

a large number of them drop out after the primary school. The poor economic

background and the lack of nearby high schools are the main reasons for drop out.

Depending on the availability, they use both traditional and modern medicare as

and when they feel necessary. Medical check up for pregnant women and making

use of hospital facility or services of qualified nurse for child birth are not in

vague. They are in favour of family planning and the couples prefer three or four

children. The intensive programmes of the family planning department made

many of them adopt sterilization. Generally, it is the women who get sterilized.

Drinking water is available within the localities. Springs, streams, rivulets,

dug wells, ring wells and tube wells are the sources for drinking water. They

received free grants and subsidies for the self employment and other sorts of

opportunities. Cinema and radio are the commonly availed media. Their fuel

resource is firewood. Rain water is made use in their agricultural activities. Mid

day meal to school children and ICDS facilities are availed by them. Almost all

have ration cards and they avail the facility of ration distribution through fair-price

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shops. Their attitude towards, savings is not favourable and majority of them are

dependent on money lenders and shop keepers for their immediate needs55

.

4.19.4 The Kanikkars

They inhabit the southern hilliest areas of the Western Ghats,

Neyyattinkara and Nedumangad taluks. They are also found in Kollam district and

spread over adjoining districts. They are a homogeneous community without sub

tribal groupings.

The Kanikkars are mainly a rural community with 98.72 percent of their

population returned from rural areas. The dialect spoken by them is the Kanikkar

Bhasha or Malapashi which has Tamil and Malayalam words and is spoken

among them. The script used within the community and with others is Malayalam.

The Kanikkars are short statured with round or oval faces and broad nose.

They are occasional non-vegetarians, without beef and pork. Wild game, mostly

rabbits and birds, provide them meat. Staple food is rice supplemented by tubers

like tapioca and wild varieties collected from forests. They consume coarse grains

cultivated by themselves, and grains, cow peas and beans purchased from market.

Locally available vegetables and fruits are consumed.

Traditionally, the men used the title „kani‟ along with their names, but this

is dropped now-a-days. Community level endogamy and clan level exogamy are

the guiding rules among the Kanikkars. Nuclear family predominates among them.

The Kanikkar women have the right to inherit their ancestral property. They bury

their dead.

55 Singh K.S. op.cit., pp

. 1525 – 28.

183

Their natural resources are land and forest. Their religion is a combination

of Hinduism and tribal religion. Their clan deities are called „Thampuran‟. Their

traditional sacred specialist is the „plathi‟, who is also the medicine man56

.

4.19.5 The Mala Arayans

The Mala Arayans are distributed in Idukki, Kottayam, Pathanamthitta and

Kollam districts. They are one of the scheduled tribes. They speak and write in

Malayalam among them, and also with the outsiders. The educated members are

able to speak English and Hindi. They are mostly short-statured with long and

narrow head shape, and short and broad nose.

They are non-vegetarian, but do not eat beef. As there is no scope for

hunting or trapping of the wild animals, now there is decrease in their meet

consumption. Rice is their staple food and it is supplemented with tapioca. They

use vegetables, pulses and fruits. In the past, they collected edible tubers from the

forest. Men drink toddy and arrack. Milk and milk products are used by them.

Men smoke beedis and cigarettes. Men and women chew betel leaves, lime and

tobacco. Some of them have the habit to use snuff57

.

Endogamy is the norm of the Mala Arayan community. Cross-cousin

marriage is permitted. „Thalikettu kalyanam‟, was performed on the ninth day of

first menstruation in the past. Girls are married after attaining puberty.

Marriageable age for boys is between 25 and 30 years and that for girls is between

18 and 25 years. Now the „thali‟ is the symbol of marriage. Dowry was not given

in the past. At present, girls are given ornaments at the time of their marriage.

56 Ibid., pp. 826-828.

57 Luiz A.D. op.cit. pp. 140-146.

184

Remarriage for widow, widower and divorcee is granted. The customs of levirate

and sororate are permitted.

Nuclear families are predominating. The father is the head of the family.

The women occupy secondary status. They performed all house hold duties and

agricultural operations. In the past, education for girls was not encouraged. Now,

girls are sent for higher education. The educated women are employed in

government offices, public firms etc.

The Mala Arayans bury their dead. When father dies, the eldest son is the

chief mourner. If mother dies, the youngest son is the mourner.

The Mala Arayans were dependent on shifting cultivation, hunting and food

gathering. Now the conditions have significantly changed. The forest has been

reserved and hence, food collection, hunting and shifting cultivations have been

prohibited. Now they are interested in growing cash crops. Besides paddy, they

grow raggi and tapioca, cash crops like pepper, areca nut, coconut, rubber, coffee,

cashew nut, ginger and turmeric. Now they prefer white collar job and business

than agriculture and agricultural labour.

The Mala Arayans are Hindus. They worship Shiva, Vishnu, Ayyappa,

Bhagavathy and Ganapathy. Sastha or Ayyappan is their „dharmadaivam’. In the

past, velichapadu (oracle) used to perform the pooja. Now, a Brahmin priest is

employed for performing pooja. During mandalam, they visit the Sabarimala

temple. They make pilgrimage to Rameswaram and Pazhani. Onam, Vishu,

Sivarathri and Poojayeduppu are their major festivals. The Mala Arayans live in

Meenachil Taluk of Kottayam district have embraced Christianity and they belong

to the Church of South India (CSI).

Some of the Mala Arayans have skill in making mats, baskets, winnowing

fans with reeds and bamboo splits. Folk songs are sung by the Mala Arayans.

185

Their men participate in the traditional dance such as „kolady or kampu kali‟ and

„chavittukali‟. The younger generation are interested in modern music, film songs

etc. Now some of the children are trained in classical music and dance. They

participated in temple festivals and other public functions along with other

communities.

Education has provided the Mala Arayans the opportunity to contact with

advanced communities and in taking up white collar jobs in government offices

and private institutions. There are businessmen, teachers, lecturers, engineers,

doctors and administrators among them. They actively participate in the political

activities and leadership has emerged in the Panchayat level. They encourage

higher studies for both boys and girls. They have achieved high literacy rate. They

make use of modern and traditional medicare. They favour family planning. Most

of them possess transistor radios. They make use of the media and communication

facilities. Most of their settlements are not electrified. In the past, no pesticides

were used, but now, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and improved variety of seeds

use by them.

Multi-roomed well-built cottages have come into existence and their houses

are furnished with modern furniture. The youngsters like modern dress and food.

They have adopted the customs and practices of the Hindu castes in celebrating

marriage and other life cycle rituals58

.

4.19.6 The Malayar

The Malayar are mainly distributed in Thrissur, Palakkad and Kottayam

districts. Now, a small strand is found in Pathanamthitta district also. Only one

family is found in Pathanamthitta district. They speak Malayalam. They are non-

58 Thurston E. op.cit. pp. 393-395.

186

vegetarian and eat pork and beef also. Men as well as women occasionally

consume alcoholic drinks like toddy, purchased from the shops. Females of the

younger generation have a negative attitude towards the consumption of alcoholic

drinks. Milk and milk products, tea and coffee are taken. The changes seen are in

the consumption of pulses and vegetables and decrease in fruit consumption. The

latter is due to scarcity of forest yields. The most common type of families found

among them are nuclear and mixed extended. The women have an equal right over

ancestral property. They take part in agricultural operations and cattle rearing

along with men besides house hold chores. The puberty rights are not observed.

Marriage rituals are performed at the bride‟s residence. The Malayar dead are

given a solemn burial or cremation. Major economic resource is land and most of

them are landless and mainly work as agriculture labourers. In the limited land

they possess, coconut, plantain etc., are cultivated. They also collect forest

produces. They continue their traditional occupation, honey collection. They have

a „muppan‟ (headman) in every village. They were tribal religionists in the past.

Today they are becoming more influenced by Hinduism and worship Hindu gods.

They favour formal education for children and study mostly up to secondary level.

Indigenous traditional medicare is used for minor treatment and makes use of the

modern medicines also. Their attitude towards family planning is favourable and

generally prefers two children. The water sources are tube wells, dug wells and

ring wells. They listen to radio and sometimes visit cinema, but television is

beyond their reach. Electricity is available in the village, but they are not provided

with the house hold electricity connections59

.

59 Iyer L.A.K., The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Trivandrum: Government Press, 1937,

pp.161-165.

187

4.19.7 The Mudugar

Mudugar‟s name might have originated from the primitive custom of

carrying children on their back (muthuku). Not much is known about their early

history or migration. They speak „mutuga bhasha‟, which is a dialect of Malayalm

and Tamil. The literate are bilingual, but use the Malayalam script. Females bear

tattoo marks on their forehead above the eye brows. They are non-vegetarian, but

avoid beef. Deforestation and strictures on hunting and trapping restrict them now

to the domestic breeds. The Raggi and rice are the most favoured cereals, wild

roots, tubers and tapioca provide the carbohydrates. Red gram predominates

among the pulses. Their intermarriage with the Kurumbas have been long

prevalent. They do not have any age concept of marriage, marriages are always

after puberty. In the past, there was no marriage symbol as such, but now there is a

„thali. Bride price (pariya panam) has to be paid to the bride‟s parents. Divorce is

permitted to both the sexes at any time, often it is simple desertion. The children

are always considered the liability of the father. Widow / widower and divorcee

are permitted to remarry. Both sororate and levirate are prevalent. The family is

nuclear. The women have nominal or low status, but participate in all activities

and contribute to the family income. The Mudugar bury their dead. Their access to

the forest is increasingly restricted to the strictures of laws, which exclude the

erstwhile forest dwellers. They profess Hinduism and their God is Siva of the

Malleswaram peak, and Sivarathri is observed by fast (nombu). An increasing

number of the Mudugar children are passing out of primary school. They have a

long tradition of indigenous medicare, but ready to avail the facilities of modern

medicines also. Family planning is adopted by women. Their traditional huts have

188

been replaced by masonry houses built under the housing schemes of the

government. They are served by protected water supply60

.

4.20 Conclusion

The tribal communities of Pathanamthitta and Kollam districts are analysed

to understand the basic features of those communities. The seven communities

found in both districts share common aspects but varied in their approach and

attitude to the development profiles offer by the official authorities.

The will power, both from the part of the authorities and tribals is strongly

required for the advancement of the tribals in proper direction and vision is needed

to alleviate their endless poverty and misery. The tribals, the real inhabitants of the

land had been evicted from their abode for various reasons and the non-tribes

chiefly migrated to these places and snatched the tribal lands by playing tricks and

using cliques. They misutilised the innocence and ignorance of the tribes and

further ousted them to the interiors of the forests. Those processes continue for

decades, without any breach or break. The tribals did not need any sympathy or

soothe, they need justice and jurisprudence, as early as possible. So we have to do

the right things at right time, to avoid mistakes committed against the tribal

communities and we have to ensure their benevolence.

The plans and projects of the Union and State governments clearly prove

that the tribal under development is not because of the paucity of funds and vision

but due to the lack of will power from the part of the executers of these provisions.

Above all the negative mentality of the tribes also plays a leading role in that

aspect. Tribes by birth have the habit of least preserving any thing for the future or

for the next generation. They think about today and least bothered about tomorrow

60 Ibid., pp.170-172.

189

or future periods. Besides, they have very little knowledge about the special

facilities available to them, for different development functions.