Social and economic change in the later seventeenth century

Social and economic change in the later seventeenth century, Part IICommercialization, urbanization, and the rise of the public sphereCommercialization: the development of commercial and manufacturing capitalism1. During the second half of the seventeenth century, the shift of population away from the land, and the increased disposable income of the population as a whole, allowed for the growth of markets in non-necessities and luxuries.2. The expansion of the market led to the extension of the division of labor as English men and women specialized in the production of particular commodities for an ever-growing market. In order to achieve the gains from trade, individual producers made one commodity as efficiently as possible for sale on the market, rather than making everything necessary for their own subsistence.3. In order to produce a particular commodity as efficiently as possible, men and women broke up the production process into different tasks and procedures, thus creating a division of labor within each workshop.

There was an extensive division of labor within a pin factory at the dawn of the eighteenth century.

Commercialization: the development of commercial and manufacturing capitalism, continued

4. By 1700, England not only had an urban-rural (or town-country) division of labor, which had existed in previous millennia, but also an extensive division of labor between different towns, cities, and regions, as well as an extensive division of labor within individual productive units and workshops.5. The market that is, the world of commerce increasingly mediated social life in England. Men and women produced less and less for their own consumption. Rather, they worked in order to acquire the means (i.e., money) to buy the products of other peoples work.6. By 1700, England had entered an age of manufacture. It was no longer a traditional agrarian realm but rather a dynamic commercial and manufacturing society.7. In addition to Englands traditional cloth-making industry, new forms of manufacturing spread throughout the country, including the New Draperies, sugar refining, glass making, pottery making, shipbuilding, and mining (for coal, tin, iron ore, and lead).

Urbanization: the growth of towns and cities1. In the early sixteenth century, between 10 and 12% of the English population lived in villages, towns, and cities. By 1700, 40% of the English population lived in villages, towns, and cities.2. The rest of Europe was becoming less urban in the late seventeenth century, but the process of urbanization continued in England.3. London grew from a population of 75,000 in 1550 to a population of 575,000 in 1700. By the end of the seventeenth century, it was the largest city in Europe and one of the three largest cities in the world.4. New urban centers rose to prominence throughout England and its overseas possessions during the seventeenth century: 1. Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, Newcastle, Liverpool, Sheffield, and Portsmouth transformed from villages into cities; 2. Norwich, Exeter, and Bristol transformed from smaller into bigger cities; and 3. Philadelphia, Boston, Charleston, and New York City arose in colonial North America.5London, Europes largest city, c. 1700

The rise of the public sphere: coffee-houses, newspapers, and pamphlets1. There were hundreds of coffeehouses in the greater London area by the late seventeenth century, and there were many coffeehouses in provincial cities, towns, and villages throughout England.2. The postal service grew along with the improvement and expansion of roads and canals in England. Post offices were established throughout the country. The Penny Post guaranteed same-day delivery of letters in metropolitan London.3. More newspapers, newsletters, and pamphlets were published in England during the second half of the seventeenth century than ever before. 4. By the late seventeenth century, there was a vibrant political culture that existed beyond the bounds of the Court and Parliament. This extra-parliamentary political culture constituted a public sphere that allowed men and women to criticize, and to hold to account, political authorities. It formed the cauldron in which public opinion was brewed.A coffeehouse in London, c. 1700