slide 1 of 47 introduction to public relations part one public relations…the profession chapter 3...

of 47

Introduction to Public RelationsIntroduction to Public Relations

Part OnePart OnePublic Relations…The ProfessionPublic Relations…The Profession

Chapter 3Chapter 3Theoretical Basis for Public RelationsTheoretical Basis for Public Relations

© 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

of 47

Introduction to Public RelationsIntroduction to Public Relations Theoretical BasisTheoretical Basis

An Assignment Reminder…An Assignment Reminder…

Before viewing this lecture, please read the Before viewing this lecture, please read the following material:following material:

Public Relations: The Profession and the Public Relations: The Profession and the Practice, Practice, Chapter 3: Chapter 3: A Theoretical Basis for A Theoretical Basis for Public RelationsPublic Relations

A Conceptual Schema for Studying Public RelationsA Conceptual Schema for Studying Public Relations

Research

Strategic Planning

Evaluation

Action and Communication

Media Relations

Employee Relations

Community Relations

Consumer Relations

The ProfessionThe Profession

Introduction

Theory

Law and Ethics

History

Part 1Part 1The ProcessThe Process

Part 2Part 2The PublicsThe Publics

Part 3Part 3The PracticeThe Practice

Part 4Part 4

Chapter 3 falls here.

Slide 3 of 47

Public Affairs and Government

Not-for-Profit

Corporate

Financial

Emerging Trends

of 47


In Part One–Chapter 3, Our Focus Is In Part One–Chapter 3, Our Focus Is The Use of Theory In Public RelationsThe Use of Theory In Public Relations

• There is no single theory that covers all public relations There is no single theory that covers all public relations and communication.and communication.

• Today we will study three theories about relationships, Today we will study three theories about relationships, five about cognition and behavior, and two about media five about cognition and behavior, and two about media and communication.and communication.

of 47


Today’s Learning ObjectivesToday’s Learning Objectives

1. Know why the practitioner needs to understand 1. Know why the practitioner needs to understand theories of human relationships and behavior.theories of human relationships and behavior.

2. Comprehend the three theories about human 2. Comprehend the three theories about human relationships.relationships.

3. Understand and know how to apply the theories 3. Understand and know how to apply the theories about cognition and behavior and mass about cognition and behavior and mass communication.communication.

of 47


Why Understand Theory?Why Understand Theory?

Theories help practitioners explain and predict Theories help practitioners explain and predict human behavior and communication and guide human behavior and communication and guide organizational decision making.organizational decision making.

Let’s discuss communication theory…Let’s discuss communication theory…

of 47


How Theories Connect with Public RelationsHow Theories Connect with Public Relations

• What is theory?What is theory?

• A theory is a prediction of how events and actions are A theory is a prediction of how events and actions are related.related.

• How do theories help the PR practitioner?How do theories help the PR practitioner?

• Using theories can make campaigns and messages more Using theories can make campaigns and messages more effective.effective.

of 47


Theories of RelationshipsTheories of Relationships

• Three cause-effect principles or theories can Three cause-effect principles or theories can guide you in understanding how organizations guide you in understanding how organizations relate to their publics.relate to their publics.

• Systems theorySystems theory

• Situational theorySituational theory

• Conflict resolutionConflict resolution

First, the systems theory…First, the systems theory…

of 47


Systems TheorySystems Theory

• Definition: The attitudes and actions of an Definition: The attitudes and actions of an organization or public contribute to a cause-organization or public contribute to a cause-effect chain reaction within their environment.effect chain reaction within their environment.

• The parts of an organization and public exist in The parts of an organization and public exist in relationship to each other, meaning the actions of relationship to each other, meaning the actions of one part affect the others.one part affect the others.

Slide 9 of 47

of 47


Applying Systems Theory to Public RelationsApplying Systems Theory to Public Relations

• Systems theory is especially useful to public Systems theory is especially useful to public relations because it helps the practitioner relations because it helps the practitioner manage the organization’s relationships. manage the organization’s relationships.

• This theory emphasizes interdependence This theory emphasizes interdependence between an organization and its internal and between an organization and its internal and external environments.external environments.

There are two types of systems…There are two types of systems…

of 47


Closed and Open SystemsClosed and Open Systems

• Closed System: Focuses on the history of the Closed System: Focuses on the history of the organization and makes decisions based on past organization and makes decisions based on past experiences.experiences.

• Open System: Focuses on input from external Open System: Focuses on input from external publics and the organization’s external publics and the organization’s external environment.environment.

of 47


Situational TheorySituational Theory

• Definition: People will act on an issue or situation Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. their actions can make a difference.

• Three variables:Three variables:

• Problem recognition: People must be able to see the Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally.potential of an issue to affect them personally.

• Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue.something about the issue.

• Level of involvement: People must care about resolving Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue.the issue.

• Definition: People will act on an issue or situation Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. their actions can make a difference.

• Three variables:Three variables:

• Problem recognition: People must be able to see the Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally.potential of an issue to affect them personally.

• Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue.something about the issue.

• Level of involvement: People must care about resolving Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue.the issue.

Slide 12 of 47

of 47


Two Benefits of Situational TheoryTwo Benefits of Situational Theory

• Helps the practitioner predict when groups will Helps the practitioner predict when groups will become active or remain apathetic.become active or remain apathetic.

• Helps the practitioner create communication Helps the practitioner create communication strategies for specific publics.strategies for specific publics.

How to handle conflicts…How to handle conflicts…

of 47


Conflict Resolution ApproachesConflict Resolution Approaches

• Conflicts involve an individual or group actively Conflicts involve an individual or group actively opposing another because of differences in values opposing another because of differences in values and goals.and goals.

• Four resolution elements:Four resolution elements:

• Separate the people from the problem.Separate the people from the problem.

• Focus on interests, not positions.Focus on interests, not positions.

• Invent options for mutual gain.Invent options for mutual gain.

• Insist on objective criteria. Insist on objective criteria.

of 47


Cognition and BehaviorCognition and Behavior

• Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while behavioral theories deal with action.behavioral theories deal with action.

• Public relations practitioners find it useful to think Public relations practitioners find it useful to think about effects—how its client’s behavior affects others. about effects—how its client’s behavior affects others.

• Practitioners know that words and actions are given Practitioners know that words and actions are given personalized meanings by others, and sometimes that personalized meanings by others, and sometimes that meaning is not what was intended.meaning is not what was intended.

• The practitioner seeks to influence his or her publics’ The practitioner seeks to influence his or her publics’ interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent.interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent.

of 47


Theories of Cognition and BehaviorTheories of Cognition and Behavior

• To learn how humans think and behave, we will To learn how humans think and behave, we will look at four theories and one model:look at four theories and one model:

• Action assembly theoryAction assembly theory

• Social exchange theorySocial exchange theory

• Diffusion theoryDiffusion theory

• Social learning theorySocial learning theory

• Elaborated likelihood modelElaborated likelihood model

How do people listen and remember?

of 47


Action Assembly TheoryAction Assembly Theory

• People filter information People filter information through personal values and through personal values and expectations and selectively expectations and selectively retain what appearsretain what appears to be to be worthwhile to them.worthwhile to them.

• To understand someone’s To understand someone’s behavior, we must realize that behavior, we must realize that it seems logical to the person it seems logical to the person exhibiting that behavior.exhibiting that behavior.

of 47


Three Constructs of ThoughtThree Constructs of Thought

• To understand behavior, we must try to understand To understand behavior, we must try to understand how people think. Thinking can be explained at a very how people think. Thinking can be explained at a very abstract level by three constructs: structures, content, abstract level by three constructs: structures, content, and processes.and processes.

• Cognitive structuresCognitive structures defines the form of our thought. Our defines the form of our thought. Our expectations affect how we process and store information. expectations affect how we process and store information.

• Cognitive contentCognitive content is the specific information, or details, is the specific information, or details, within the basic cognitive structure.within the basic cognitive structure.

• Cognitive processesCognitive processes are how we take in, transform and are how we take in, transform and store information.store information.

of 47


How Action Assembly WorksHow Action Assembly Works

• Through observation, people Through observation, people begin to expect that certain begin to expect that certain actions will result in actions will result in predictable outcomespredictable outcomes in in similar situations. similar situations.

• Habitual expectations are Habitual expectations are developed about such actions-developed about such actions-outcomes.outcomes.

• Expectations can become so Expectations can become so strong that you may fail to notice strong that you may fail to notice when the actions or outcomes when the actions or outcomes vary from what you expect to vary from what you expect to see.see.

Relationship to public relations…Relationship to public relations…

A matador develops certain A matador develops certain expectations about bulls.expectations about bulls.

of 47


Application of Action Assembly TheoryApplication of Action Assembly Theory

• Practitioners must decide if they should tap into Practitioners must decide if they should tap into their public's existing memory structures, or try their public's existing memory structures, or try to establish and reinforce entirely new ones. to establish and reinforce entirely new ones.

• Example: to avoid being ignored, put vital Example: to avoid being ignored, put vital communiqués where your public looks for communiqués where your public looks for important facts.important facts.

• Such as in employee pay packets, instead of Such as in employee pay packets, instead of on the company bulletin board.on the company bulletin board.

of 47


Social Exchange TheorySocial Exchange Theory

People generally act People generally act in ways that they in ways that they assume will reduce assume will reduce costs and increase costs and increase rewards.rewards.

DDEECCRREEAASSEE

IINNCCRREEAASSEE

Slide 21 of 47

of 47


Social Exchange Theory and Social Exchange Theory and Decision MakingDecision Making

• PR practitioners try to make decisions based on the PR practitioners try to make decisions based on the assertion that people will factor in the consequences of assertion that people will factor in the consequences of their behavior before they act.their behavior before they act.

• Practitioners must try to keep costs low and rewards Practitioners must try to keep costs low and rewards high in everything from survey responses to product high in everything from survey responses to product recalls. recalls.

• When the situation is complex, the practitioner must When the situation is complex, the practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to evaluate all possible employ a pay-off matrix to evaluate all possible decisions and with their accompanying costs and decisions and with their accompanying costs and rewards.rewards.

Pay-off Matrix ExamplePay-off Matrix Example(Based on Social Exchange Theory)

Issue: Defective lot of screws

CustomersU

nit

ed P

R W

ork

s

Option 1:Recall Screws

Option 2:Ignore Defect

Find Out Doesn’t Find Out

Rewards

Rewards Rewards

N/A

CostsCosts

Costs

N/A

•Company tied with quality

•positive publicity

•money• Initial negative publicity

• lose goodwill

•negative publicity

• law suits• lose customers

•no immediate cost

•no negative publicity

•save cost of recall

Slide 23 of 47

of 47


The Firestone Tire ExampleThe Firestone Tire Example

• An example of a true An example of a true public relations disaster public relations disaster is the Firestone tire is the Firestone tire company.company.

• Click on the image to Click on the image to read from CNN how read from CNN how executives’ PR gamble executives’ PR gamble can go bad.can go bad.

of 47


Diffusion TheoryDiffusion Theory

Individuals can be influenced to diffuse and adopt an idea by going through five stages.

Mass media is useful in the first two stages, and personal influence is needed in the next two before adoption takes place.

1. awareness1. awareness

2. interest2. interest3. evaluation3. evaluation

4. trial4. trial5. adoption5. adoption

Slide 25 of 47

of 47


Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

• Personal example and mass media can be Personal example and mass media can be important for acquiring new behaviors.important for acquiring new behaviors.

• New behavior is likely to occur when it is seen New behavior is likely to occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.as potentially rewarding.

What makes people change their minds?What makes people change their minds?

of 47


Elaborated Likelihood ModelElaborated Likelihood Model

• Describes two routes to possible changes in Describes two routes to possible changes in human attitudes and behavior.human attitudes and behavior.

• Understanding these two options helps the Understanding these two options helps the practitioner devise effective ways to present practitioner devise effective ways to present information.information.

of 47


The Central RouteThe Central Route

• In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the central In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the central route of communicating a message presumes route of communicating a message presumes that people are interested in your message, will that people are interested in your message, will actively think about an issue and will evaluate it actively think about an issue and will evaluate it with an open mind. with an open mind.

But, that’s not always the case…

of 47


The Peripheral RouteThe Peripheral Route

• The peripheral route is taken when a receiver is The peripheral route is taken when a receiver is deemed unable or unwilling to think directly deemed unable or unwilling to think directly about an issue.about an issue.

• Hence the person is presented with softer cues Hence the person is presented with softer cues peripheral to the issue, such as…peripheral to the issue, such as…

• repetition of the messagerepetition of the message

• credible sourcescredible sources

• rewards or premiumrewards or premium

of 47


A Summary of Theories about A Summary of Theories about Cognition and BehaviorCognition and Behavior

• Action Assembly Theory:Action Assembly Theory: people filter and retain data people filter and retain data by personalized logic and habitual expectations.by personalized logic and habitual expectations.

• Social Exchange Theory:Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that reduce people act in ways that reduce costs and increase rewards.costs and increase rewards.

• Diffusion Theory:Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to diffuse people can be influenced to diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.and adopt ideas through five stages.

• Elaborated Likelihood Model:Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies message strategies choose between central/peripheral routes based on choose between central/peripheral routes based on receiver’s motivation to process.receiver’s motivation to process.

of 47


Theories of Mass CommunicationTheories of Mass Communication

• There are two theories that help us understand There are two theories that help us understand the powerful influence of media.the powerful influence of media.

• Use and Gratification TheoryUse and Gratification Theory

• Agenda Setting TheoryAgenda Setting Theory

How do we define media?How do we define media?

of 47


A Definition of MediaA Definition of Media

• The English word The English word media media is a Latinis a Latin derivative of derivative of medius, medius, meaning meaning middle.middle.

• For our purposes we define media as… For our purposes we define media as…

• all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., usually along with advertising usually along with advertising (Webster’s New World (Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 1999).College Dictionary, 1999).

• Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun.Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun.

of 47


Use and Gratification TheoryUse and Gratification Theory

• People are active users of media and People are active users of media and choose how and when to use media choose how and when to use media based on its gratification for them.based on its gratification for them.

• You should research why your You should research why your particular publics use media. Do they particular publics use media. Do they do it…do it…• as entertainmentas entertainment

• to scan the environment for items that are to scan the environment for items that are important to themimportant to them

• as a diversionas a diversion

• as a substitute for personal relationshipsas a substitute for personal relationships

• as a check on self-identityas a check on self-identityThe connection with PR…

of 47


Application for the PractitionerApplication for the Practitioner

• The use and gratification theory helps the The use and gratification theory helps the practitioner explain media effects, or the practitioner explain media effects, or the absence of effects.absence of effects.

• The practitioner must remember that just The practitioner must remember that just because a message is available doesn’t mean because a message is available doesn’t mean that people will pay attention and remember it.that people will pay attention and remember it.

of 47


Agenda Setting TheoryAgenda Setting Theory

Agenda Setting is based on the assumption Agenda Setting is based on the assumption that although media can’t tell people what that although media can’t tell people what opinion to hold about an issue, it has opinion to hold about an issue, it has influence on what issues people think influence on what issues people think about.about.

of 47


The Influence of The Influence of Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

• The agenda setting theory The agenda setting theory proposes that media has the proposes that media has the potential to:potential to:

• build issue or product build issue or product awarenessawareness

• increase issue salience increase issue salience

How do movies, mass media, How do movies, mass media, affect what issues people discuss?affect what issues people discuss?

Slide 36 of 47

of 47


Useful Typologies for Understanding PRUseful Typologies for Understanding PR

• It’s time to discuss how the practitioner’s role is It’s time to discuss how the practitioner’s role is affected by the broad application of public affected by the broad application of public relations theory.relations theory.

• We’ll consider two aspects:We’ll consider two aspects:

• Practitioner rolesPractitioner roles

• Grunig’s model of public relationsGrunig’s model of public relations

of 47


Practitioner RolesPractitioner Roles

• There are two broad roles found in public relations.There are two broad roles found in public relations.

• Technician: The public relations technician is largely Technician: The public relations technician is largely involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling communication production, running special handling communication production, running special events and dealing with the media. events and dealing with the media.

• Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-solver that uses the PR process to support and influence solver that uses the PR process to support and influence the goals of the organization. the goals of the organization.

There are three PR manager roles…

of 47


PR Manager RolesPR Manager Roles

• Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to define a problem, suggest options and oversee implementation.

• Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way communication open by spanning the boundary between the organization and its environment.

• Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a partner with senior management to identify and solve problems.

of 47


Models of Public RelationsModels of Public Relations

It is useful to examine the four public relations models It is useful to examine the four public relations models developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key concepts of PR and how they are related to each other. concepts of PR and how they are related to each other. The models are based on the concepts of The models are based on the concepts of communication and research.communication and research.

• Press Agentry modelPress Agentry model

• Public information modelPublic information model

• Two-way asymmetric modelTwo-way asymmetric model

• Two-way symmetric modelTwo-way symmetric modelThe four models are…

of 47


Press Agentry ModelPress Agentry Model

• The practitioner holds to a one-way The practitioner holds to a one-way movement of information from the movement of information from the organization to its publics. organization to its publics.

• This is the oldest form of public This is the oldest form of public relations and relies on persuasion.relations and relies on persuasion.

• In Grunig’s model, the intention often is In Grunig’s model, the intention often is to deceive the receiver on some level for to deceive the receiver on some level for manipulative purposes.manipulative purposes.

IN

FO

RM

ATI

ON

of 47


Public Information ModelPublic Information Model

• Like press agentry, this is a one-way movement Like press agentry, this is a one-way movement of information.of information.

• The intent is to inform rather than press for The intent is to inform rather than press for promotion and publicity. promotion and publicity.

• Often used by government, educational institutions Often used by government, educational institutions and not-for-profit organizations.and not-for-profit organizations.

of 47


Two-way Asymmetric ModelTwo-way Asymmetric Model

• Organization uses social science research Organization uses social science research methods to persuade in a two-way exchange of methods to persuade in a two-way exchange of information.information.

• This includes the use of surveys, interviews and This includes the use of surveys, interviews and focus groups.focus groups.

• This model is more interested in influencing This model is more interested in influencing publics about the company than influencing the publics about the company than influencing the company.company.

of 47


Two-way Symmetric ModelTwo-way Symmetric Model

• Organization seeks mutual understanding and Organization seeks mutual understanding and influence with its publics rather than one-way influence with its publics rather than one-way persuasion. persuasion.

• The organization and the public adjust to one The organization and the public adjust to one another. another.

of 47


New Model of SymmetryNew Model of Symmetry

In 1995 a new model of public relations was developed. This model is known as the

Model of Symmetry as Two-Way PracticeModel of Symmetry as Two-Way Practice

In this model, the publics and the organization are on a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as needed. The organization and the public seek to persuade each other as much as possible.

of 47


Developing Models of Public RelationsDeveloping Models of Public Relations

Two new models have been developed that fall into the asymmetrical category:

Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that do business in other countries and need to be cognizant of the language, culture, customs and political systems of those countries.

Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who try to develop personal relationships with key individuals who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.

of 47


In Summary…In Summary…

Understanding the theories behind the behavior Understanding the theories behind the behavior of an organization’s publics is essential for of an organization’s publics is essential for developing strategies and tactics that can help developing strategies and tactics that can help an organization achieve its goals. Modern PR an organization achieve its goals. Modern PR practitioners focus on two-way communication practitioners focus on two-way communication that values the input of the publics as much as that values the input of the publics as much as the persuasive power of the company.the persuasive power of the company.

slide 1 of 47 introduction to public relations part one public relations…the profession chapter 3...

Documents

public relations slide

communication theory

systems theory slide

public affairs

single theory

use of theory

mass communication

human behavior