This article was downloaded by: [University Of Pittsburgh]On: 12 November 2014, At: 12:26Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,UK

The Journal of SocialPsychologyPublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vsoc20

Skin-Color Preferences andBody Satisfaction Among SouthAsian-Canadian and European-Canadian Female UniversityStudentsSarita Sahay a & Niva Piran ba Department of Psychology , Women's CollegeHospital , Canadab Department of Applied Psychology , The OntarioInstitute for Studies in Education , CanadaPublished online: 03 Apr 2010.

To cite this article: Sarita Sahay & Niva Piran (1997) Skin-Color Preferences andBody Satisfaction Among South Asian-Canadian and European-Canadian FemaleUniversity Students, The Journal of Social Psychology, 137:2, 161-171, DOI:10.1080/00224549709595427

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224549709595427

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all theinformation (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness,or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and viewsexpressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of theContent should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with

primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for anylosses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of theContent.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan,sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone isexpressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found athttp://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

The Journal ojSociul Psychology, 1997, 137(2), 161-171

Skin-Color Preferences and Body Satisfaction Among South Asian-Canadian

and European-Canadian Female University Students

SARITA SAHAY Department of Psychology

Women’s College Hospital, Canada

NIVA PIRAN Department of Applied Psychology

The Ontario Institute .for Studies in Education, Canada

ABSTRACT. Skin-color preferences and body satisfaction among 100 South Asian-Cana- dian and 100 European-Canadian female university students were examined. South Asian- Canadian females were found to desire lighter skin than they possessed and had lower body satisfaction compared with European-Canadian females. Among South Asian-Cana- dians, the desire to be lighter skinned was greater the more participants differed from the cultural White ideal. Light- and medium-skinned South Asian-Canadians had the highest and lowest levels of body satisfaction, respectively.

RESEARCHERS HAVE STATED that the principle of reflected appraisals and the tenet of social comparison suggest that feelings toward the body evolve grad- ually, through a learning process in which an individual notes the varied reactions of others to his or her body and compares his or her appearance with that of oth- ers (Fisher & Cleveland, 1968; Kenrick & Gutierres, 1980; Melamed & Moss, 1975; Schilder, 1935). The result of these social contacts is said to be a set of emotionally charged attitudes about the body. Also, during the period of slavery within American society and the era of the Western empires, non-White people internalized the myths of White superiority and, in a defensive reaction known as identijication with the aggressor; adopted White standards of beauty and value

Research reported in this article was part of the$rst author’s doctoral dissertation under the supervision of the second author.

Address correspondence to Sarita Suhuy, Women’s College Hospital, Department qf Psychology, Room 942, 76 Grenville St., Toronto, Ontario, MSS lB2 Canada.

161

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

162 The Journal of Social Psychology

(Chapkis, 1986; Isaacs, 1968; Myers & Yochelson, 1948; Neal & Wilson, 1989; Russel, Wilson, & Hall, 1992). This yearning after Whiteness produced color caste systems, with Whiteness or lightness at the top and Blackness or darkness at the bottom, that are said to persist today in excolonial societies (Isaacs, 1968).

Historical background concerned with early Aryan invasion, compounded by later British colonization, could explain why a preference for lighter skin developed within South Asian culture (Berreman, 1967; Moore & Eldredge, 1970). In many Indian languages, the words fair and beautiful are often used syn- onymously, and there is often a preference for a female with light complexion in marriage, if other considerations are equal (Beteille, 1968; Moore & Eldredge, 1970). The desire for Whiteness finds expression in the existence of intraracial discrimination (Gibson, 1931; Russel et al., 1992; Thompson, 1994), in the use of skin whiteners and cosmetics designed to make one look more White (Buchanan, 1993; Dansby, 1972; Holtzman, 1973), in the phenomenon of pass- ing in which very-light-skinned African Americans pass themselves off as White, and in the psychotic reactions of African American patients who, for example, deny they are Black (Myers & Yochelson, 1948). Such self-rejection can be sub- sumed under the rubric of identification with the aggressor.

Researchers contend that women, regardless of racial background, are judged by how they look and traditionally concern themselves with their appear- ance for interpersonal rewards (Dion, Berscheid, & Walster, 1972; Russel et al., 1992; Webster & Driskell, 1983). Chapkis (1986) stated, however, that the model for female beauty is the White, Western woman, and, in contrast to non- White women, European-Canadian females can be reassured that they embody at least one element of the beauty ideal, namely, white skin. This preference is reinforced in the media, where cultural ideals of beauty, such as the preference for light-skinned models and actresses, are encouraged and create psychological pressures to conform to these ideals (Buchanan, 1993; Chapkis, 1986; Jackson, 1992; Neal & Wilson, 1989; Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1984; Rus- sel et al., 1992). Dark-skinned women, therefore, suffer from pressures of an impossible standard. Horowitz (1966) once stated that attitudes about one body part may be transposed to other parts, or to the body as a whole. Studies have confirmed a greater valuation of white skin color (Aboud & Skeny, 1984; Arkoff & Weaver, 1966; Bond & Cash, 1992; Miller, 1969; Wagatsuma & Kleinke, 1979; White & Chan, 1983) and, in general, less body satisfaction among visible minorities.

Body dissatisfaction also specifically appears to involve a discrepancy between perception of one’s own physical characteristics and characteristics one would like to possess (Lerner & Karabenick, 1974; Lerner, Karabenick, & Stu- art, 1973; Strauman, Higgins, Vookles, Berenstein, & Chaiken, 1991). Although studies on subjective-ideal discrepancy have typically addressed body-size con- cerns (Gardner & Tockerman, 1993; Keeton, Cash, & Brown, 1990; Williamson, Gleaves, Watkins, & Schlundt, 1993), the notion of discrepancy can reasonably

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Sahay & Piran I63

be extended to other physical characteristics for which there are prevailing ideals. Because Western culture has created a concept of beauty that is defined by white skin, visible minorities tend to internalize such oppressive forces and judge their closeness to the White ideal (BrownMiller, 1984; Buchanan, 1993; Chapkis, 1986; Lakoff & Scherr, 1984; Roach & Felix, 1989). Researchers have in fact demonstrated a preference for white or light skin among visible minori- ties (Bond & Cash, 1992; Porter, 1971; Russel et al., 1992) and that subjective- ideal skin-color discrepancy is negatively related to facial satisfaction (Bond & Cash, 1992).

In the present investigation, we aimed to examine inter- and intraethnic dif- ferences with respect to skin color preferences and body satisfaction. Authors of previous studies have suggested the relevance of skin color in body satisfaction, but it appears that this variable has not been studied among a South Asian popu- lation even though skin color, as opposed to physical features, appears to be the major distinguishing characteristic from EuropeandNorth Americans (Encyclo- pedia Americana, 1983).

We hypothesized that South Asian-Canadian female students would display a greater wish to be lighter in skin color than would European-Canadian female students and that this discrepancy would be greater the darker the skin color. We also hypothesized that body satisfaction would be lower for South Asian-Cana- dian females, and progressively lower the darker the skin color.

Method

Participants

Participants consisted of 200 women drawn from female, undergraduate stu- dents at the University of Toronto. Of these 200 participants, 100 were South Asian-Canadian students and 100 were European-Canadian students. The crite- ria for being included was that the participants’ parents were of either Euro- pearnorth American or South Asian (i.e., Indian, Pakistanian, Sri Lankan, or Bangladeshian) descent and that the participant herself was either born in Cana- da or immigrated to Canada before the age of 9. The study was described as focusing on issues related to women’s body esteem, including issues of skin color. South Asian-Canadian participants appeared eager to participate in a study that seemed to address issues pertinent to their lives and perhaps also because the researcher identified herself as South Asian-Canadian, which may have increased students’ comfort in addressing these issues. Participants ranged from 18 to 24

1.3). Of the 100 South Asian-Canadian participants, 22, 53, and 25 perceived themselves to be dark ( M = 94.6rnm, SD = 4.6), medium ( M = 70.8mm, SD = 9.2), and light skinned ( M = 42.7mm, SD = 9.9), respectively. The study was con- ducted individually with each participant who volunteered after signing a consent

years of age (MSouth Atian-Canadian = 20.3, SD = 1.4; MEuropean-Canadian = 20.3, SD =

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

164 The Journal ofSocial Psychology

form, at a location and time of the participant’s choice. Participants received a payment of $10.

Measures

Body-Cathexis Scale (BC). The BC scale (Secord & Jourard, 1953) consists of 46 body parts rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Two items, overall appearance and skin color, were added to the scale for a total of 48 items, which were aver- aged to obtain the overall body satisfaction score. High scores suggest high lev- els of body satisfaction. Cronbach’s alpha for the BC scale was .91 for the pre- sent sample.

Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). The VAS (Aitken, 1969) is typically a lOO-mm, horizontal line, anchored by terms that represent the extremes of a subjective phenomenon. Participants are instructed to make a mark through the line at the point that best represents their subjective feeling. Responses are scored, with a ruler, by measuring the distance from the left end of the line to the participant’s mark. We constructed three such scales for the present study. They were each 120-mm in length, with the words white and dark brown at the left (0-mm end) and right anchor points (120-mm end), respectively. We obtained scores by mea- suring the scale from the 0-mm end to the point that the participant marked. We obtained three continuous scores: a score for subjective skin color, a score for ideal skin color, and a score to indicate the researcher’s rating of the partici- pant’s skin color. We used these scores to calculate a subjective-ideal discrep- ancy score for skin color for each participant and to determine the correlation between the researcher’s rating of the South Asian-Canadian student’s skin color and the student’s own skin-color rating. The subjective-ideal discrepancy score was also calculated by measuring the difference between the subjective and ideal skin-color scores. Because the 0-mm and 120-mm ends of the contin- uums were arbitrarily labeled, the more positive the discrepancy score, the more the participant wished to be lighter in skin color. The more negative the dis- crepancy score, the more the participant wished to be darker in skin color. The correlation between the researcher’s rating of the South Asian-Canadian stu- dent’s skin color and her own self-rating was .74. Thus, researcher and partici- pant were fairly consistent as to the participant’s skin-color rating; that finding suggests that participants did not distort how light or dark skinned they per- ceived themselves to be.

In addition, we arbitrarily divided the subjective skin-color continuum into four equal categories-0 mm to 30 mm, 30 mm to 60 mm, 60 mm to 90 mm, 90 mm to 120 mm-and classified the categories as white, light, medium, and dark skinned, respectively, to perform analyses on the South Asian-Canadian skin color subgroups. European-Canadian participants were not subdivided into skin-color categories. None of the South Asian-Canadian participants

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Sahay & Piran 165

marked themselves in the range of white skin. The ideal skin color continuum was similarly divided to note ideal skin color categories where relevant.

Results

Skin-Color Preferences

Group and subgroup mean differences on subjective-ideal discrepancy for skin color were significant, as predicted (see Tables 1 and 2). South Asian-Canadians wished to be significantly lighter in skin color than they perceived themselves to be, compared with European-Canadian participants. However, the mean ideal skin color for South Asian-Canadians itself ( M = 58.2mm, SD = 19.7) fell within the light-skin-color category as opposed to the white-skin-color category. European- Canadian participants would have preferred to be darker in skin color, as indicated by the negative sign. To determine the desire to be different, irrespective of whether the participant wished to be lighter or darker skinned, we calculated a t test on the magnitude of the subjective-ideal discrepancy for skin color by averaging the absolute values of the individual discrepancy scores ( M s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = 1 1.43, SD = 12.67; M E ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = 12.25, SD = 14.41) and found it to be not significant. Thus, the South Asian-Canadian participants wanted to be lighter skinned as much as the European-Canadian participants wanted to be darker skinned. The mean sub- jective skin color for European-Canadians was 15.4mm (SD = 14.9), and the mean ideal skin color for European-Canadians was 26.8mm (SD = 18.5); however, both means still fell within the white-skin-color category as defined.

TABLE 1 Mean Comparisons Between European-Canadian and South Asian-Canadian Students on Subjective-Ideal Discrepancy

and Body Satisfaction Scores

European- South Asian- Dependent Canadian Canadian measure ( N = 100) ( N = 100) t

DY M -1 1.41 10.81 1 1.08** SD 15.09 13.21

M 3.43 3.28 -2.12* SD .47 .50

BC

Note. DY = subjective-ideal discrepancy for skin color; BC = body satis- faction. "p < .05. **p < .01.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

166 The Journal of Social psycho log.^

TABLE 2 Mean Comparisons Between the South Asian-Canadian Subgroups on Subjective-Ideal Discrepancy and Body

Satisfaction Scores

Dependent Light Medium Dark measure (n = 25) ( n = 53) ( n = 53) F(2, 97)

DY M 4.00 11.66 16.50 "6.03** SD 7.80 12.91 15.79

M 3.46 3.18 3.34 '2.93* SD .56 .48 .43

BC

Note. DY = subjective-ideal discrepancy for skin color; BC =body satis- faction. "linear trend, p < .001. 'quadratic trend, p < .05. *p < .05. **p < .01.

A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated a significant differ- ence in the subjective-ideal discrepancies for skin color between the South Asian-Canadian subgroups; the linear trend was significant. As predicted, the desire to be lighter became greater the further South Asian-Canadian partici- pants perceived themselves to be from the White ideal. Once again, the mean ideal skin color itself (Mllgh, = 38.7, SD = 12.0; Mmedlum = 59.2, SD = 14.8; Mdark

= 78.1, SD = 16.0) did not fall within the range of white skin for any of the groups.

Body Satisfaction

Tables 1 and 2 also contain group and subgroup mean differences on body satisfaction scores. A t test comparing South Asian-Canadians with European- Canadians revealed that South Asian-Canadian participants were significantly less satisfied with their bodies than were European-Canadian participants.

A one-way ANOVA indicated a significant difference in body satisfaction among the South Asian-Canadian subgroups, and the quadratic trend was sig- nificant. This finding was inconsistent with the hypothesis and suggested that medium-skinned South Asian-Canadian students had lower body satisfaction than dark-skinned South Asian-Canadian students did. An additional t test indi- cated that the mean body satisfaction of light-skinned South Asian-Canadian participants (3.46) and of European-Canadian participants (3.43) was not sta- tistically different.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Sahay & Piran 167

Discussion

The hypothesis that South Asian-Canadian females would want to be lighter in skin color compared with European-Canadian females was confirmed. South Asian-Canadians, however, did not desire to be white skinned per se. This aspect of the finding is consistent with more recent studies that suggest that the prefer- ence for white skin appears to be shifting away from white skin and more toward light skin, precipitated perhaps by spillover effects from the Black Is Beautiful movement, the advent of civil rights movements, multiculturalism, racial inte- gration, and equal opportunity programs (Bond & Cash, 1992; Okazawa-Rey, Robinson, & Ward, 1986; Wade, 1991). We also found that European-Canadian females wished to be darker skinned as much as South Asian-Canadians wanted to be lighter skinned. However, they still wanted to be white skinned, as defined by the categories. Therefore, the desire may reflect more the wish to be olive skinned or have slightly tanned skin than it is to be dark per se (Broadstock, Bor- land, & Gason, 1992; BrownMiller, 1984; Miller, Ashton, McHoskey, & Gimbel, 1990). In addition, the notion that white skin may be more vulnerable than dark- er skin to skin cancer resulting from sun exposure could also be fueling the pre- sent-day idealization of darker white skin among European-Canadian females (Tierney, McPhee, & Papadakis, 1994).

The hypothesis that the desire to be lighter skinned would be greater the dark- er South Asian-Canadians perceived themselves to be was supported. Dark-skinned South Asian-Canadians showed the greatest desire to be lighter in skin color; they were followed by medium- and light-skinned South Asian-Canadian females, respectively-findings congruent with those of researchers who have consistently demonstrated the idealization of white or light skin among non-White participants (Bond & Cash, 1992; Clark & Clark, 1947; Rosenberg & Simmons, 1972; Russel et al., 1992). None of the South Asian-Canadian subgroups, however, wished to be white skinned per se, and they did not select ideals vastly different from them- selves, perhaps because individuals are also motivated to try to preserve esteem (Rosenberg, 1979). This tendency underscores the importance of examining the discrepancy between subjective and ideal skin color; it subtly reveals the growing preference to be lighter the darker individuals perceived themselves to be. As Bond and Cash (1992) and Okazawa-Rey et al. (1986) stated, even if the desire to be white skinned is no longer overwhelming, dark skin is seldom coveted. Thus, the internalization of White ideals cannot just be erased despite the changing times noted above. Some identification with White values of beauty remain.

The hypothesis that South Asian-Canadian participants would report lower body satisfaction than would European-Canadian participants was confirmed. The difference, however, although statistically significant, was not substantive. The average body satisfaction for both groups was about 3, indicating that both groups of women were neither satisfied nor altogether dissatisfied with their appearance. All women experience the stress of comparison against normative

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

168 The Journal of Sociul Psychology

standards of beauty presented in the mass media. The tall, thin, blue-eyed, blonde Western ideal is a cultural image that does not reflect even the way White North Americans really look (Buchanan, 1993). Thus, although White women may not have profound issues around skin color per se, they are still forced to struggle to attain feminine ideals, which may be reflected in the rampant pursuit of thinness (Garner & Garfinkel, 1980; Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986). Thus, all women feel psychological pressures to conform to beauty standards; these pressures make it difficult for anyone to feel beautiful enough. Hence, it is not surprising that both groups of women revealed comparable, yet only adequate, levels of body satisfaction.

The hypothesis that there would be progressively lower body satisfaction among light-, medium-, and dark-skinned South Asian-Canadian females, respec- tively, was not supported. Instead, medium-skinned, rather than dark-skinned, South Asian-Canadian females exhibited the lowest body satisfaction. The present finding is compatible with the findings of Rosenberg and Simmons (1972), who suggested that the cultural ideal may be endorsed but still considered unattainable such that it has little or no negative impact. Dark-skinned South Asian-Canadians appear to have been aware that the cultural ideal is discrepant from themselves and, hence, desire it, but this discrepancy, unlike for medium- and light-skinned South Asian-Canadians, was not significantly correlated with body satisfaction. This ten- dency suggests that dark-skinned individuals may protect their body esteem by not allowing the discrepancy to significantly affect their level of body satisfaction.

Light-skinned South Asian-Canadian women showed the highest body satis- faction among the South Asian-Canadian subgroups-higher even than European- Canadian women-although this difference was not significant. This finding is not surprising given the numerous studies that have shown that light skin is per- ceived as more attractive than dark skin (Aboud & Skerry, 1984; Russel et al., 1992; Wagatsuma & Kleinke, 1979), that skin-color ideals may be shifting away from the White ideal per se (Bond & Cash, 1992), that tanned skin is perceived as more attractive than white skin (Miller et al., 1990), and that non-Whites who look more European are believed to resemble the White beauty ideal but are simply labeled exotic (Buchanan, 1993; Chapkis, 1986; Hooks, 1992; James, 1990).

Medium-skinned South Asian-Canadian women may be caught in the mid- dle between their dark- and light-skinned counterparts. In contrast to the dark- skinned South Asian-Canadian women, they may feel that being just a little lighter is still within the realm of possibility; they are perhaps not dark enough to retreat from White standards of beauty and thus are unable to appreciate their own appearance. On the other hand, they are also perhaps not light enough to feel secure and benefit from the advantages of having light skin. This middle position may produce a sense of inadequacy and account for the fact that this group exhib- ited the lowest body satisfaction.

In summary, South Asian-Canadian women were found to idealize light skin and had significantly lower body satisfaction than did European-Canadian

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Sahay & Piran 169

women-although this latter difference was not substantive. Thus, body image is an issue that affects all women who feel pressured to conform to beauty standards. The tall, thin, white-skinned, blue-eyed, blonde Western ideal of the beauty myth is unattainable for most women of any race or ethnic background. Thus, therapists should help women to challenge the beauty myth. For instance, non-White women need to recognize that the White standard of attractiveness is not suitable for them. In fact, a goal of therapy for all women may be to begin to conceptualize beauty in terms that are more flexible and embrace women of many colors, shapes, sizes, and ages. Therapists may also want to implement the various techniques and exer- cises that have been developed to enhance body satisfaction in women, including imagery, positive affirmations, mirror work, drawing and sculpting, dance, and journal writing (Freedman, 1990; Hutchinson, 1985; Shisslak & Crago, 1994). As Collins (1990) added, the steps toward creating an alternative aesthetic involves deconstructing existing standards of beauty. With respect to non-White women, with insight into how skin color became a symbol of prestige and beauty, this myth will begin to lose its psychological force. Among South Asian-Canadian females, the idealization of lighter skin was found to be greater the further one was from the cultural White ideal, yet, this did not have a negative impact on the body satisfaction of those with the darkest skin. Further investigation is, thus, needed to determine what factors may mediate levels of body satisfaction.

REFERENCES

Aboud, F., & Skerry, S. (1984). The development of ethnic attitudes: A critical review. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, IS, 3-34.

Aitken, R. C. B. (1969). Measurement of feelings using visual analogue scales. Proceed- ings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 62, 17-20.

Arkoff, A,, & Weaver, H. B. (1966). Body image and body dissatisfaction in Japanese- Americans. The Journal of Social Psychology, 68, 323-330.

Berreman, G. D. ( 1 967). Stratification, pluralism, and interaction: A comparative analysis of caste. In A. DeReuck & J. Knight (Eds.), Caste and race: Comparative approaches (pp. 45-73). London: J. & A. Churchill.

Beteille, A. (1 968). Race and descent as social categories in India. In J. H. Franklin (Ed.), Color and race (pp. 166-185). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Bond, S., & Cash, T. F. (1992). Black beauty: Skin color and body images among African American college women. Journal ofApplied Social Psychology, 22( 1 1 ), 874-888.

Broadstock, M., Borland, R., & Gason, R. (1992). Effects of suntan on judgements of healthiness and attractiveness by adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22(2), 17-172.

BrownMiller, S . (1984). Femininity. New York: Linden Press. Buchanan, K. S. (1993). Creating beauty in Blackness. In C. Brown & K. Jasper (Eds.),

Consuming passions: Feminist approaches to weight preoccupation and eating disor- ders (pp. 36-5 I ) . Toronto: Second Story Press.

Chapkis, W. (1 986). Beauty secrets: Women and the politics of appearance. Boston: South End Press.

Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. K. (1947). Racial identification and preference in Negro chil- dren. In T. M. Newcomb & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (pp.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

170 The Journal of Social Psychology

169-178). New York: Henry Holt.

empowerment. Boston: Unwin Hyman.

Black psychology (pp. 145-1 55). New York: Harper & Row.

Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285-290.

Collins, P. ( 1 990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness and the politics of

Dansby, G. P. (1972). Black pride in the seventies: Fact or fantasy? In R. L. Jones (Ed.),

Dion, K. K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of

Encyclopedia Americana. ( 1 983, Vol. 6). Danbury, CT: Grolier. Fisher, S., & Cleveland, S. (1968). Body image and personality (2nd ed.). New York:

Dover. Freedman, R. (1990). Body love: Learning to like our looks and ourselves. New York:

HarperCollins. Gardner, R. M., & Tockerman, Y. R. (1993). Body dissatisfaction as a predictor of body

size distortion: A multidimensional analysis of body image. Genetic, Social, and Gen- eral Psychology Monographs, 11Y( I ) , 127-145.

Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1980). Cultural expectations of thinness in women. Psy- chological Reports, 47, 483-491.

Gibson, C. F. (193 I ) . Concerning color. Psychoanalytic Review, 18(4), 413-425. Holtzman, J. (1973). Color caste changes among Black college students. Journal of Black

Hooks, B. (1992). Black looks: Race and representation. Toronto: Between the Lines. Horowitz, M. J. (1966). Body image. Archives of General Psychiaty, 14, 456-460. Hutchinson, M. G. (1985). Transforming body image: Learning to love the body you have.

New York: Crossing Press. Isaacs, H. R. (1968). Group identity and political change: The role of color and physical

characteristics. In J. H. Franklin (Ed.), Color and race (pp. 75-97). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Jackson, L. A. (1992). Physical appearance and gendel: Albany: State University of New York Press.

James, C. (1990). Making it: Black youth, racism and career aspirations in a big city. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press.

Keeton, W. P., Cash, T. F., & Brown, T. A. (1990). Body image or body images?: Com- parative, multidimensional assessment among college students. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54(1 & 2), 213-230.

Kenrick, D. T., & Gutierres, S. E. (1980). Contrast effects and judgments of physical attractiveness: When beauty becomes a social problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38( I ) , 131-140.

Lakoff, T. R., & Scherr, R. L. (1984). Face value: The politics of beauty. Boston: Rout- ledge and Kegan Paul.

Lerner, R. M., & Karabenick, S. A. (1974). Physical attractiveness, body attitudes, and self-concept in late adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 3(4), 307-3 16.

Lerner, R. M., Karabenick, S. A., & Stuart, J. L. (1973). Relations among physical attrac- tiveness, body attitudes, and self-concept in male and female college students. The Journal of Psychology, 8.5, 1 19-1 29.

Melamed, L., & Moss, M. K. (1975). The effect of context on ratings of attractiveness of photographs. The Journal of Psychology, YO, 129-1 36.

Miller, A. G., Ashton, W. A., McHoskey, J. W., & Gimbel, J. (1990). What price attrac- tiveness? Stereotype and risk factors in suntanning behaviour. Journal ofApplied Social Psychology, 20( 13, 1272-1 300.

Miller, E. L. (1 969). Body image, physical beauty and color among Jamaican adolescents. Social and Economic Studies, 18, 72-89.

Studies, 4(1), 92-101.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14

' Sahay & Piran 171

Moore, C. D., & Eldredge, D. (1970). India yesterday and today. New York: Praeger. Myers, H. J., & Yochelson, L. (1948). Color denial in the Negro. Psychiatry, 11, 3 9 4 6 . Neal, A. M., &Wilson, M. L. (1989). The role of skin color and features in the Black com-

munity: Implications for Black women and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 9,

Okazawa-Rey, M., Robinson, T., & Ward, J. V. (1986). Black women and the politics of skin color and hair. Women's Studies Quarterly, 14( 1-2), 13-14.

Porter, C. P. (1971). Social reasons for skin tone preferences of Black school-age children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61( l), 149-154.

Roach, J., & Felix, P. (1989). Black looks. In L. Gamman & M. Marshment (Eds.), The female gaze (pp. 132-140). Seattle, WA: Real Comet Press.

Rodin, J., Silberstein, L., & Striegel-Moore, R. (1984). Women and weight: A normative discontent. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 32, 267-307.

Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the se& New York: Basic Books. Rosenberg, M., & Simmons, R. (1972). Black and White self-esteem: The urban school

child. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association. Russel, K., Wilson, M., & Hall, R. (1992). The color complex. New York: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich. Schilder, P. (1935). The image and appearance ofthe human body. London: Kegan, Paul,

Trench & Trubner. Secord, P. F., & Jourard, S. M. (1953). The appraisal of body-cathexis: Body-cathexis and

the self. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 17(5), 343-347. Shisslak, C. M., & Crago, M. (1994). Toward a new model for the prevention of eating

disorders. In P. Fallon, M. A. Katzman, & S. C. Wooley (Eds.), Feminist perspectives on eating disorders (pp. 419437). New York: Guilford Press.

Strauman, T. J., Higgins, E. T., Vookles, J., Berenstein, V., & Chaiken, S. (1991). Self-dis- crepancies and vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(6), 946-956.

Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia. American Psychologist, 41, 246-263.

Thompson, B. (1994). Food, bodies, and growing up female: Childhood lessons about cul- ture, race, and class. In P. Fallon, M. A., Katzman, & S. C. Wooley (Eds.), Feministper- spectives on eating disorders (pp. 355-378). New York: Guilford Press.

Tierney, Jr., L. M., McPhee, S. J., & Papadakis, M. A. (Eds.). (1994). Current medical diagnosis and treatment (33rd ed.). Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange.

Wade, T. J. (1991). Race and sex differences in adolescent self-perceptions of physical attractiveness and level of self-esteem during early and late adolescence. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(12), 1319-1324.

Wagatsuma, E., & Kleinke, C. L. (1979). Ratings of facial beauty by Asian-American and Caucasian females. The Journal of Social Psychology, 109, 299-300.

Webster, Jr., M., & Driskell, Jr., J. E. (1983). Beauty as status. American Journal ofSoci- ology, 89(1), 140-165.

White, W. G., & Chan, E. (1983). A comparison of self-concept scores of Chinese and White graduate students and professionals. Personnel and Guidance, 11(4), 138-141.

Williamson, D. A., Gleaves, D. H., Watkins, P. C., & Schlundt, D. G. ( I 993). Validation of self-ideal body size discrepancy as a measure of body dissatisfaction. Journal ofPsy- chopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15( 1 ), 57-68.

323-333.

Received November 21, 1995

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity O

f Pi

ttsbu

rgh]

at 1

2:26

12

Nov

embe

r 20

14