Significances of the 1960 Nixon Kennedy Campaign

• Television debate : Appearance versus substance

• Television ads: campaign spending $

• Main Issues:– “missile gap”– religion

• Close election results

Nixon/ Kennedy debate

Inauguration Speech

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xE0iPY7XGBohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3s6U8GActdQ&NR=1

Text of Inaugural Address

The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life. And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state, but from the hand of God

Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this Nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world.

Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.This much we pledge and more.

Text of Inaugural Address

Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations. Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths, and encourage the arts and commerce. Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah to "undo the heavy burdens ... and to let the oppressed go free." And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion, let both sides join in creating a new endeavor, not a new balance of power, but a new world of law, where the strong are just and the weak secure and the peace preserved. All this will not be finished in the first 100 days. Nor will it be finished in the first 1,000 days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than in mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course

Text of Inaugural Address

In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve I and the glow from that fire can truly light the world. And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

Kennedy’s Charisma:

• “…Our faith in him and in what he was trying to do was absolute, and he could impart to our work together a sense of challenge and adventure-a feeling that he was moving, and the world with him, toward a better time.” Pierre Salinger, Press SecretaryGlencoe text p. 842

“New Frontier” Goals

• Increase aid to education• Provide health insurance to

the elderly• Create Dept. of Urban Affairs• Help Migrant Workers

Kennedy’s Critics:

• Despite Democratic large majorities in House and Senate, Kennedy could not pass his New Frontier legislation. – WHY?

Kennedy’s Critics:

• Despite Democratic large majorities in House and Senate, Kennedy could not pass his New Frontier legislation. – WHY?

Kennedy’s Critics

• Congress could follow their own interest:– “A good many [congressional

representatives] were elected in 1960 in spite of his presence on the ticket rather than because his name was there.” Congressional Democrat

• US News & World Report

Kennedy’s Critics

• Republicans and Southern Democrats viewed New Frontier too costly

Southern Democrats controlled Congress

Kennedy: the Pragmatist

• Minor deficit spending– Increased funding for

defense and space exploration

• Supported supply-side economics and tax cuts– “A rising tide lifts all boats.”– Congress denied tax cuts out

of fear of inflation

Kennedy: the Pragmatist

• Less of Ike’s “brinkmanship” and more

“flexible response”• more conventional

troops and weapons– Support of Special Forces“Green Berets”

http://www.specialoperations.com/Army/Special_Forces/SF_Info/Story.htmhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwKYXRLP0rY

A “Marshall Plan” for Latin America?• Poverty and corruption in

Latin America • Kennedy wants to thwart

communist expansion in Latin America

• Alliance for Progress– $20 billion aid for better

schools, housing and health care

– Designed to counter leftist movements

– Chile, Colombia, Venezeula, and Central America benefited

Kennedy’s Enduring Legacy: The Peace Corps

• Helping the people of interested countries in meeting their needs for trained men and women.

• Helping promote a better understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served.

• Helping promote a better understanding of other peoples on the part of all Americans.

• http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/Peace+Corps.htm

• http://www.peacecorps.gov/

The Space Race: “man on the moon”

•

• http://www.nootrope.net/kennedy.html– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e08r5IRTbjE– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ND4kDezFUk8

•U2 INCIDENT

•BAY OF PIGS INVASION

•BERLIN WALL CONSTRUCTED

•CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

•ALLIANCE FOR PROGRESS AND THE THIRD WORLD, THE PEACE CORPS

•U.S. INCREASES INVOLVEMENT IN VIETNAM

•NUCLEAR TEST BAN TREATY

•1960s TIMELINES

A US U-2 RECONNAISSANCE (SPY) PLANE WAS SHOT DOWN OVER THE SOVIET UNION AND ITS PILOT GARY POWERS

CAPTURED AND PUT ON TRIAL. KHRUSHCHEV USED THIS INCIDENT TO

CANCEL A PLANNED EAST-WEST SUMMIT CONFERENCE IN PARIS.

MAY 1960: THE U-2 INCIDENT

JOHN F. KENNEDY BECOMES PRESIDENT OF THE US IN 1961 AND INHERITS A PLANED INVASION OF CUBA FROM

THE EISENHOWER ADMINISTRATION

1960 - ALL US BUSINESSES IN CUBA ARE NATIONALIZED (TAKEN OVER BY THE CUBAN GOVERNMENT) WITHOUT

COMPENSATION. THE US BREAKS OFF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH CUBA AND SEES CASTRO AS AN

ENEMY OF THE US.

EISENHOWER AGREES TO A CIA PLAN FOR AN EXILE INVASION OF CUBA TO

OVERTHROW CASTRO IN MARCH OF 1960

BAY OF PIGS INVASION SITE

CUBAN EXILES INVADING CUBA WITH THE HELP OF

THE US, APRIL 1961

THE INVASION WAS A FAILURE AND ALL THE CUBAN EXILE INVASION FORCE WAS EITHER KILLED OR CAPTURED BY

CASTRO’S ARMY.

CASTRO’S FORCES ON THE MARCH

CASTRO’S AIR FORCE

DESTROYED THE INVADING SHIPS

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TWO SUPER POWERS WORSEN AFTER THE VIENNA SUMMIT IN JUNE OF 1961.

KHRUSHCHEV THREATENS JFK WITH

AN ULTIMATUM ON BERLIN. JFK

RESPONDS WITH A US MILITARY BUILD-UP

AND A US CIVIL DEFENSE PROGRAM

TENSIONS RISE DURING THE REMAINDER OF1961. ON AUGUST 13th EAST GERMANY BEGINS PREPARING FOR THE

CONSTRUCTION OF THE BERLIN WALL AND ON SEPTEMBER 1 THE USSR RESUMES ATMOSPHERIC

TESTING OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

IN JUNE OF 1963 PRESIDENT KENNEDY WENT TO BERLIN AND DELIVERED HIS FAMOUS “ICH BIN EIN

BERLINER” ( I AM A BERLINER) TO SHOW U.S. DETERMINATION TO KEEP BERLIN FREE.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

AUGUST TO NOVEMBER 1962

THE CLOSEST THE WORLD HAS COME TO FULL SCALE NUCLEAR WAR

US INTELLIGENCE BEGINS RECEIVING REPORTS OF SOVIET MISSILES IN CUBA. A U-2 FLIGHT ON AUGUST 29TH CONFIRMED THE PRESENCE OF SURFACE TO AIR MISSILE BATTERIES IN CUBA. THESE MISSILES WERE DESIGNED TO

SHOOT DOWN ENEMY AIRCRAFT.

MAP USED BY JFK AND HIS ADVISORS TO PLOT WEAPONS IN CUBA DURING THE MISSILE CRISIS

DECLASSIFIED 1962 MAP SHOWING THE

DISTANCES NUCLEAR ARMED MISSILES WOULD

GO IF FIRED FROM CUBA. ALMOST ALL

MAJOR US POPULATION

CENTERS WERE WITHIN RANGE. MAPS LIKE THIS CONVINCED JFK

THAT THE SOVIET MISSILES MUST BE REMOVED FROM

CUBA.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS FROM U.S. SPY PLANES LEFT NO DOUBT THAT THE RUSSIANS WERE INSTALLING NUCLEAR MISSILES IN CUBA

AIMED AT THE U.S.

LOW ALTITUDE VIEW OF MISSILE PREPARATION AREA. THE PILOT TAKING THIS SHOT FLEW AT AN ALTITUDE OF ABOUT 250 FEET, AND AT THE SPEED OF SOUND.

EACH ONE OF THE RUSSIAN MISSILES IN CUBA HAD THE EXPLOSIVE POWER OF 50

HIROSHIMA TYPE ATOMIC BOMBS

SECRETARY OF DEFENSE ROBERT Mc NAMARA, SECRETARY OF STATE DEAN RUSK AND JFK, THE

MAIN POLICY MAKERS DURING THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS ALONG WITH ROBERT KENNEDY.

JFK HAD TWO CHOICES OF HOW TO DEAL WITH THE SITUATION IN CUBA:

FIRST: HE COULD ORDER AIRSTRIKES ON THE MISSILE SITES IN CUBA AND RISK AN ALL OUT NUCLEAR WAR WITH THE USSR

SECOND: HE COULD ORDER A NAVAL BLOCKADE AND STOP SOVIET SHIPS FROM BRINGING IN MISSILES AND OTHER EQUIPMENT. NO ONE KNEW HOW THE RUSSIANS WOULD REACT TO THIS.

HE CHOSE THE NAVAL BLOCKADE

Bay of Pigs, Cuba: April 17, 1961 • CIA trained 1,400 Cuban

Exiles• Kennedy cancelled air support• Cubans did not rise up in

support of exiles• Castro personally led defense

of island• 1,189 captured/100 killed• US paid $53 in food and

medicine for their releasehttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/bay-of-pigs/kennedy-2506-flag.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/baypigs.htm&h=580&w=743&sz=149&hl=en&start=5&um=1&tbnid=EaDthiYRThqXLM:&tbnh=110&tbnw=141&prev=/imag

PRESIDENT KENNEDY SIGNING CUBA QUARANTINE

PROCLAMATION. OVAL OFFICE, WHITE

HOUSE, 10/23/1962

PHOTOS OF US SHIPS ENFORCNG THE QUARANTINE AND (LEFT) SHADOWING A SOVIET

SUBMARINE

OCTOBER 27, 1962: THE SOVIET SHIP GROZNY

CROSSES THE QUARANTINE LINE, BUT STOPS AFTER U.S.

NAVY SHIPS FIRE STAR SHELLS ACROSS HER BOW.

  KHRUSHCHEV GAVE IN TO US PRESSURE AND REMOVED SOVIET MISSILES FROM CUBA FOR A US

PROMISE NOT TO INVADE CUBA.

MISSILES BEING LOADED ON SOVIET SHIPS FOR

RETURN TO THE SOVIET UNION

SOVIET CARGO SHIP LEAVING CUBA WITH MISSILES VISIBLE ABOVE THE

DESK

ADLAI STEVENSON SHOWS AERIAL PHOTOS OF CUBAN MISSILES TO THE UNITED NATIONS IN NOVEMBER 1962.

“THEREFORE I HAVE CALLED ON ALL PEOPLE OF THE HEMISPHERE TO JOIN IN A NEW ALLIANCE FOR

PROGRESS -- ALIANZA PARA PROGRESO -- A VAST

COOPERATIVE EFFORT, UNPARALLELED IN

MAGNITUDE AND NOBILITY OF PURPOSE TO SATISFY THE BASIC NEEDS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE FOR

HOMES, WORK AND LAND, HEALTH AND SCHOOLS -

TECHO, TRABAJO Y TIERRA, SALUD Y ESCUELA.”

JOHN F. KENNEDY, MARCH 13, 1961

ALLIANCE FOR PROGRESS

PRESIDENT AND MRS. KENNEDY CONGRATULATE THE SON OF A NEW HOME

OWNER AT LA MORITA RESETTLEMENT PROJECT NEAR CARACAS, VENEZUELA.

IN HIS INAUGURAL ADDRESS OF JANUARY 20, 1961, PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY CHALLENGES A NEW GENERATION OF AMERICANS TO JOIN "...A GRAND AND

GLOBAL ALLIANCE...TO FIGHT TYRANNY, POVERTY, DISEASE, AND WAR..."

KENNEDY CONTINUES IN HIS SPEECH, "TO THOSE PEOPLE IN THE HUTS AND

VILLAGES ACROSS THE GLOBE STRUGGLING TO BREAK THE BONDS OF MASS MISERY, WE PLEDGE OUR BEST

EFFORTS TO HELP THEM HELP THEMSELVES."

A NATIONAL NIGHTMARE BEGINS: JFK AND THE ORIGINS OF THE VIETNAM WAR

PRESIDENT HO CHI MINH,DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF

VIET NAM

PRESIDENT NGO DINH

DIEMREPUBLIC OF

VIET NAM

PRESIDENT OF SOUTH VIETNAM NGO DINH DIEM, LEFT, IS WELCOMED IN CEREMONIES AT WASHINGTON NATIONAL AIRPORT. WITH HIM IS PRESIDENT DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER, AND BEHIND THEM, FROM LEFT, AIR FORCE CHIEF OF STAFF GENERAL NATHAN TWINING, SECRETARY OF STATE JOHN FOSTER DULLES, AND PRESIDENTIAL AIDE AND PILOT, COLONEL WILLIAM C. DRAPER. 05/08/1957

THE US SUPPORTED A CATHOLIC, NGO DINH DIEM, WHO WAS HATED BY THE MAJORITY OF THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE WHO WERE BUDDHIST. HIS MISRULE LED TO A SMALL REBELLION WHICH GREW INTO A MAJOR WAR IN THE EARLY

1960’S. PRESIDENT EISENHOWER SENT A SMALL TRAINING UNIT TO HELP BUILD DIEM’S ARMY IN 1955.

US ARMY ADVISORS TRAINING SOUTH VIETNAMESE SOLDIERS IN 1961-62

BOTH KOREA AND VIETNAM WERE PRODUCTS OF THE U.S. DOMINO THEORY :

THE IDEA THAT COUNTRIES BORDERING COMMUNIST COUNTRIES WERE IN MORE

DANGER OF FALLING TO COMMUNISM UNLESS THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER WESTERN NATIONS WORKED TO PREVENT

IT.

THE NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT (NLF) WAS ORGANIZED IN 1960 BY ANTI-DIEM GROUPS. IT WAS CONTROLLED BY FORMER COMMUNIST

VIETMINH CADRES WHO HAD FOUGHT AGAINST THE FRENCH. THE NLF WAS ULTIMATELY CONTROLLED BY THE NORTH VIETNAMESE.

EISENHOWER’S MILITARY ADVISORY AND ASSISTANCE GROUP WAS REPLACE BY MACV (MILITARY ASSISTANCE COMMAND VIETNAM) UNDER

THE COMMAND OF GENERAL PAUL HARKINS. OVER 11,000 ADVISORS WITH MODERN WEAPONS AND AIRCRAFT WERE SENT TO HELP THE

SOUTH VIETNAMESE GOVERNMENT. THE NUMBER GROWS TO 16,000 BY NOV. 1963.

NLF FLAG

MACV HEADQUARTERS BUILDING IN SAIGON

"BY CHRISTMAS IT WILL BE ALL OVER.” (AMERICAN GENERAL PAUL HARKINS, APRIL

1963). BUT IT WASN’T OVER UNTIL 1975 WHEN THE COMMUNISTS WON AND TOOK CONTROL OF

SOUTH VIETNAM

GENERAL HARKINS’ OVERLY OPTIMISTIC REPORTS LED TO A CONFUSED UNDERSTANDING OF THE TRUE SITUATION IN SOUTH VIETNAM: THE SOUTH

VIETNAMESE ARMY WAS NOT FIGHTING WITH ANY SPIRIT OR SKILL AND WOULD LOSE WITHOUT A MASSIVE US TROOP DEPLOYMENT

VIETNAM 1962STRATEGIC HAMLETS: OPERATION SUNRISE

VIETNAMESE PEASANTS WERE FORCED TO

BUILD AND MOVE INTO THESE FORTIFIED

VILLAGES TO PREVENT CONTACT WITH

COMMUNIST VIETCONG GUERRILLAS. 6800

WERE BUILT BY 1963. THEY WERE

UNPOPULAR WITH THE VIETNAMESE PEOPLE

AND THIS ALONG WITH OTHER ABUSES BY THE

SOUTH VIETNAMESE SAIGON GOVERNMENT

CAUSED MANY TO SUPPORT THE COMMUNISTS.

HUNDREDS OF BLOCKHOUSE STRONG

POINTS WERE BUILT THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRYSIDE TO

“PROTECT” THE PEASANTS FROM THE

VC. THESE WERE EQUIPPED WITH

THOUSANDS OF RIFLES AND MACHINE GUNS

MOST OF WHICH ENDED UP IN THE

HANDS OF THE VC TO BE USED AGAINST THE

SOUTH VIETNAMESE AND AMERICANS

THE BATTLE OF AP BACNEW PHASE OF THE VIETNAM WAR: ON JANUARY 2ND 1963, 340 VIET CONG GUERRILLAS

HELD OFF THE COMBINED ASSAULTS OF MORE THAN 1500 SOUTH VIETNAMESE GOVERNMENT TROOPS NEAR THE SMALL VILLAGE OF AP BAC. SHOOTING DOWN FIVE

AMERICAN HELICOPTERS AND WITHSTANDING M113 ARMORED PERSONNEL CARRIERS, INFANTRY, ARTILLERY, AND CLOSE AIR SUPPORT, THE VC WITHDREW IN GOOD ORDER WITH FEW CASUALTIES, MUCH TO THE AMERICAN ADVISORS’ FRUSTRATIONS. AP BAC’S

WARNING SIGNS, WHILE UNDERSTOOD BY THE LOWER-LEVEL ADVISORS AND THE

PRESS, WERE LOST ON THE SENIOR AMERICAN CIVIL AND MILITARY LEADERSHIP. THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE ARMY WOULD NOT FIGHT SO WAS IT WORTH THE LIVES OF AMERICAN SOLDIERS TO DEFEND

THEIR NATION WHEN THEY THEMSELVES WOULDN’T?

MODERN VIETNAM MONUMENT TO

THE COMMUNIST VICTORS OF THE

BATTLE OF AP BAC.

PHOTOS OF THE BATTLE OF AP BAC TAKEN BY STEVE STIBBENS (http://www.stibbens.com/war.htm). USED WITH PERMISSION

AIR STRIKE BEFORE THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE

TROOPS ARE LANDED

LANDING TROOPS BY HELICOPTER

AP BAC PHOTOS PAGE TWO

THREE US HELICOPTERS SHOT DOWN BY VC FIRE

AP BAC VILLAGE WITH THE THREE DOWNED HELICOPTERS AND THEIR

US CREWS

BODIES OF US HELICOPTER PILOTS AND CREW BEING SHIPPED HOME WITH MILITARY HONORS

PRESIDENT KENNEDY, TO AVOID BEING ACCUSED OF “LOSING SOUTH VIETNAM” AS PRESIDENT TRUMAN WAS ACCUSED OF “LOSING CHINA”,

INCREASED THE NUMBER OF MILITARY ADVISORS FROM 800 TO 16,000 AND FORMED THE GREEN BERETS SPECIAL FORCES. TO PROTEST THE CATHOLIC

DIEM’S ATTACKS ON BUDDHIST PAGODAS, BUDDHIST PRIESTS SET FIRE TO THEMSELVES IN PROTEST. THE US DECIDED THAT DIEM'S MURDEROUS

REGIME WAS TOO UNPOPULAR AND SUPPORTED AN ARMY COUP THAT KILLED DIEM. PRESIDENT KENNEDY WAS ASSASSINATED A FEW WEEKS LATER IN

DALLAS.

VIETNAMESE BUDDHIST MONKS SET THEMSELVES ON FIRE TO PROTEST THE

BRUTAL DIEM REGIME.

Berlin Wall June 1961

http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/photographs/berlinwall-1961.htmhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARQ4EDKlQ0k

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2ZyeG4tdOQ

• http://library.thinkquest.org/11046/

Warren Court

JFK Assassination

• On 22 November 1963 the world was stunned to learn that Kennedy had been shot to death as he rode in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas. Within hours of Kennedy's shooting, the Dallas police arrested his alleged assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, a mysterious, twenty-four-year-old ex-Marine who had lived in the Soviet Union, brought home a Russian wife, and sympathized with Castro. He was unfortunately never brought to trial because two days after his arrest, in full view of a national television audience, he was shot and killed in the basement of the Dallas police headquarters by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner who reportedly was grief-stricken over Kennedy's assassination.

Less than a year later, a presidential commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren concluded that Oswald had acted alone in killing Kennedy, that Oswald had not been part of a conspiracy. But from the time of the assassination itself, a significant part of the public was incredulous at the thought of a lone assassin, and the Warren Commission's findings and methods were subjected to endless second-guessing. In 1979 a special congressional investigation concluded that it was probable that more than one person was involved in Kennedy's assassination, though it was unable to identify anyone besides Oswald or to determine the nature and extent of the conspiracy.

1960

March: Cuban exiles: Eisenhower agrees to CIA proposal to train Cuban exiles to subvert Castro regime.May 1: U-2 reconnaissance plane shot down over central U.S.S.R. Pilot Gary Powers is held by the Soviet Union. Incident is announced by Khrushchev on May 5.May 16: East-West summit conference in Paris collapses over U-2 incident.August 19: U-2 pilot Gary Powers sentenced by the U.S.S.R. to ten years in prison; he is exchanged for a Soviet spy in 1961.November 8: Kennedy elected president.December 20: Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Republic of Vietnam, organizes the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF). Ho commits the NLF to the overthrow of the U.S.-supported Ngo Dinh Diem regime, the ouster of U.S. advisers, and the unification of Vietnam.

1961

January 3: Cuba: Eisenhower Administration breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba.January 17: Eisenhower's farewell address warns of potential "unwarranted influence ... by the military-industrial complex."January 20: John F. Kennedy inaugurated.March 13: Alliance for Progress, a 10-year plan of economic aid to Latin American is proposed by Kennedy.April 17: Bay of Pigs landing by more than 1,000 CIA-trained Cuban refugees fails in its attempt to "liberate" Cuba.May 11: Kennedy authorizes American advisors to aid South Vietnam, against the forces of North Vietnam.June 3: Vienna Summit: Khrushchev reissues ultimatum to begin talks on Germany within 6 months or face a permanent the division of Germany. Kennedy responds with call for military build-up, beginning of civil defense program.August 13: East Germany closes the Brandenburg Gate, sealing the border between East and West Berlin in preparation for building the Berlin Wall.September 1: Soviet Union resumes atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.September 15: United States resumes underground testing of nuclear weapons.

1962

January 29: East-West Conference on Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests, begun in October 1958, collapses in deadlock at Geneva.April 25: United States resumes atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.October 23: Cuban Missile Crisis United States establishes air and sea blockade of Cuba in response to photographs of Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba. United States threatens to invade Cuba if the bases are not dismantled and warns that a nuclear attack launched from Cuba would be considered a Soviet attack requiring full retaliation.October 28: Khrushchev agrees to remove offensive weapons from Cuba and the United States agrees to remove missiles from Turkey and end Cuban-exile incursions.November 21: United States ends Cuban blockade, satisfied that all bases are removed and Soviet jets will leave the island by December 20.

1963

June 26: Kennedy visits Berlin, declares "Ich bin ein Berliner."June 10: Kennedy, in speech at American University, calls for reconsideration of Cold War as "holy war."June 20: "Hot Line" established, a direct teletype link between the White House and the Kremlin, to start service August 30.October 7: Kennedy signs Limited Test Ban Treaty Britain, Soviet Union, and United States agree to outlaw tests in the atmosphere, under water, and in outer space.November 1: South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem is assassinated.November 22: President Kennedy is assassinated.