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An Arabic Version of the

Testimonium Flavianum

and its Implications



P U B L I C A T I O N S O F T H E I S R A E L A C A D E M Y

O F S C I E N C E S A N D H U M A N I T I E S

S E C T I O N O F H U M A N I T I E S

A N A R A B I C V E R S I O N O F T H E

T E S T I M O N I U M F L A V I A N U M

A N D I T S I M P L I C A T I O N S



An Arabic Version of the

Testimonium Flavianum

and its Implications

by

S H L O M O P I N E S

Jerusalem 1971

The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities



© T h e I s ra e l A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s a n d H u m a n i t i e s , 19 7 1

P r i n t e d i n I s r a e l

a t t h e J e r u s a l e m A c a d e m i c P r e s s



F E W H I S T O R I C A L T E X T S , o r n o n e , h a v e b e e n m o r e o f te n

q u o t e d , m o r e p a s s i o n a t e l y r e j e c t e d a n d d e n o u n c e d a s l i t e r a r y

f o r g e r i e s , m o r e d e v o t e d l y d e f e n d e d , m o r e c a re f ul ly e d i t e d a n d

m o r e v a r i o u s l y e m e n d e d t h a n t h e s o - c a l l e d ' T e s t i m o n i u m

F l a v i a n u m ' , a s h o r t p a s s a g e i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates Judaicae,

X V I I I , 6 3 - 6 4 , 1 d e a l i n g w i t h J e su s . I f g e n u i n e , i t c o n t a i n s

p e r h a p s t h e e a r l i e s t e v i d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g J e su s w r i t t e n d o w n b y

a m a n w h o w a s n o t a C h r i s t i a n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e su r p r i s i n g t h a t ar ec en s io n o f th e T es t im on iu m th a t i s s ign if ican t ly d i ff e ren t f rom

t h e v u l g a t e t e x t h a s n o t b e e n g i v e n a n y a t t e n t i o n b y t h e n u

m e r o u s s c h o l a r s w h o s t u d i e d t h i s t e x t o f J o s e p h u s . T h i s n e g l e c t

m a y e v e n a p p e a r i n e x p l i c a b l e i f w e c o n s i d e r t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l

d a t a : t h e r e c e n s i o n o c c u r s i n Kit ab al-eUnwân,2 a n A r a b i c

h i s t o r i c a l w o r k o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y b y A g a p i u s , 3 w h i c h h a s

b e e n e d i t e d t w i c e : ( 1 ) b y L . C h e i k h o , u n d e r t h e t i t l e AgapiusEpiscopus Mab bugensis: Historia Universalis f and (2 ) by

1 T h e T e s t i m o n i u m a l s o o c c u r s s o m e t i m e s , i n a n a m p l if ie d f o r m , i n c e r

t a i n M S S o f J o s e p h u s ' Bellum Judaicum, h a v i n g b e e n t a k e n o v e r ,

w i t h o u t d o u b t , f r o m h i s Antiquitates. I n t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r I c a n n o t

g o i n t o t h e p r o b l e m s p o s e d b y t h e a c c o u n t o f J e s u s f o u n d i n t h e o l d

R u s s i a n t r a n s l a t i o n o f Bellum Judaicum.

2 T h e f u l l t i t l e i s Kitäb al-'Unwän al-mukallal bi-fatfail al-fiikma al-

mutawwaj bi-anwä' al falsafa al-mam düht bi-fiaqaq al-ma'rifa.

3 I n A r a b i c A g h ä b i y ü s ; a l s o c a ll e d M a h b û b Q u s t a n t ï n a l -M a n b i j ï . H e

w a s t h e M e l k i t e b i s h o p o f M a n b i j ( H i e r a p o l i s ) .

4 S e e b i b l i o g r a p h y o n p . 8 3 .



A . V a s i l i e v , u n d e r t h e t i t l e Kitab al-'Unwân / Histoire Uni

verselle, écrite par Agap ius (Mahboub) de Menbidj. Vas i l i ev a l so

t r a n s l a t e d i t i n t o F r e n c h . 5

A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e d e a l s w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d f r o m t h e

b e g i n n i n g t i l l t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . H e a n d h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y

E u t y c h i u s I b n S a e i d a r e t h e e a r l i e s t C h r i s t i a n A r a b i c a u t h o r s

t o h a v e w r i t t e n u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r i e s . E u t y c h i u s ' c h r o n i c l e s e e m s

t o a n t e d a t e A g a p i u s ' , a s t h e l a t t e r m e n t i o n s i n o n e p a s s a g e t h a t

h e i s w r i t i n g i n t h e e i g h t h m o n t h o f t h e y e a r 3 3 0 H . , w h i c h

c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e y e a r 9 4 2 o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a ; E u t y c h i u s

d i e d i n 9 4 0 .T h e p a s s a g e i n w h i c h t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s i n c l u d e d m a y b e

r e n d e r e d a s f o l l o w s : 6

5 S e e b i b l i o g r a p h y o n p . 8 3 . T h e b i b l i o g r a p h y r e l a t i n g t o A g a p i u s m a y

b e f o u n d i n G . Graf, Geschichte der Christlichen arabischen L iteratur, I I ,

C i t t à d e l V a t i c a n o 1 9 4 7 , p . 3 9 . A g a p i u s s e e m s t o h a v e u s e d S y r i a c

r a t h e r t h a n A r a b i c s o u r c e s ; o n e o f t h e s e s o u r c e s c a n p e r h a p s b e i d e n

t i f i e d . I r e f e r t o t h e l o s t h i s t o r i c a l w o r k o f T h e o p h i l o s o f E d e s s a , a

S y r i a c a u t h o r w h o d i e d i n 7 8 5 ; c f. C . H . B e c k e r , ' E i n e n e u e C h r i s t l i c h e

Q u e l l e z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e s I s l a m ' , Der Islam, I I I ( 1 9 1 2 ) , p p . 2 9 5 - 2 9 6 ;

Α . B a um s t ar k , Geschichte der syrischen Literatur, Bonn 1 9 1 2 , p p . 3 4 1 - 3 4 2 .

A n a rt i cl e o f Α . B a u m s t a r k , e n t i t l e d ' D i e L e h r e d e s r ö m i s c h e n P r e s b y

t e r s F l o r i n u s ' , Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, X I I I ( 1 9 1 2 ) ,

p p . 3 0 6 - 3 1 9 , d e a l s w i t h A g a p i u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e d o c t r i n e s o f t h i s h e r e t i c .

I t s h o w s , inter alia, t h a t t h i s a c c o u n t , w h i c h d e s c r i b e s o t h e r w i s e u n

k n o w n p o i n t s o f F l o r i n u s ' d o c t r i n e s , c a n n o t b e d e r i v e d f r o m E u s e b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica, w h i c h , a s B a u m s t a r k r e c o g n i z e s , w a s a m a i n

s o u r c e f o r A g a p i u s ' a c c o u n t s o f o t h e r C h r i s ti a n h e r e s i e s . H e p o i n t s o u t ,

h o w e v e r , t h a t i n t h e s e a c c o u n t s a l s o i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n t h a t i s n o t

f o u n d i n E u s e b i u s ' w o r k . H e i s i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t A g a p i u s m a y

h a v e u s e d a t e x t w r i t t e n i n S y r i a c . A s f a r a s F l o r i n u s i s c o n c e r n e d ,

t h i s t e x t m a y h a v e b e e n — b u t B a u m s t a r k m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e is n o t

a t a ll s u r e o f t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s — a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n

o f a l e t t e r o f I r e n a e u s t o P o p e V i c t o r , w h i c h m a y h a v e i n c l u d e d a n

a c c o u n t o f F l o r i n u s ' o p i n i o n s .

6 S e e e d . C h e i k h o , p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ; e d . V a s i l i e v , p p . 4 7 1 - 4 7 3 . V a s i l i e v ' s

F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n i s o n t h e w h o l e c o r r e c t , b u t , i n v i e w o f t h e i m p o r

t a n c e o f t h e e x a c t w o r d i n g , a t le a s t w i t h r e g a rd t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m



[Al-Maribijï] 1 has said: W e have found in many books of the

philosophers that they refer to the day of crucifixion of Christ

[ a l - m a s i h ] , and that they marvel thereat. The first of them is

the philosopher Iflaßn,8 who says in the thirteenth chapter of

the book he has written on the kings: 9 'In the reign of [Tiberius]

Caesar, the sun was darkened and there was night for10 nine

itself, I s h a l l a t t e m p t t o g i v e a l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n . B o t h e d i t i o n s o f t h i s

p a rt o f A g a p i u s ar e b a s e d o n o n e s i n g l e F l o r e n t i n e M S . H o w e v e r ,

m a n y p a s s a g e s o f A g a p i u s , i n c l u d i n g t h e o n e w i t h w h i c h w e ar e c o n

c e r n e d , a re q u o t e d b y t h e t h i r t ee n t h - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n C o p t i c h i s t o r i a n

J û rj is a l - M a k î n I b n a l -

e

A m ü d i n h i s Universal History ( o f w h i c h o n l y t h es e c o n d p a r t , t r e a t in g o f I s l a m i c h i s t o r y , h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d ) . T h e s e

p a s s a g e s h a v e b e e n c o l l e c te d b y C h e i k h o ( w h o c o n s u l t e d M S P a r i s

A r . 1 2 9 4 ) i n t h e v o l u m e c o n t a i n i n g th e e d i t i o n o f A g a p i u s . A s e c o n d

M S o f a l - M a k î n ( P a r i s 2 9 4 , f o i l . 1 6 2 v - 1 6 3 r ) h a s b e e n u s e d b y m e f o r

t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r . T h e q u o t a t i o n o f a l - M a k ï n i s o f

g r e a t h e l p i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e t e x t o f A g a p i u s ' p a s s a g e .

7 T h e w o r d s i n p a r e n t h e s e s , w h i c h a r e m i s s i n g i n A g a p i u s ' w o r k , a re

t a k e n f r o m a l - M a k ï n ' s t e xt ( q u o t e d i n C h e i k h o ' s e d i t i o n , p p . 3 9 0 - 3 9 1 ) .

A l - M a n b i j j r e fe r s t o A g a p i u s ( se e a b o v e , n . 3 ) .

8 Iflätün i s t h e u s u a l A r a b i c f o r m o f P l a t o . H e r e P h l e g o ( P h l e g o n ) o f

T r a l l e s a p p e a r s t o b e m e a n t ; c f. b e l o w p . 5 2 . W e m a y s u p p o s e t h a t a

s c r i b e h a s c o n f u s e d s o m e f o r m o f t h e r a r e n a m e P h l e g o n w i t h Iflätün,

w h i c h w a s f a m i l i a r .

9 L i k e A g a p i u s , E u s e b i u s s t at e s i n h i s Chronicon t h a t t h e p a s s a g e i n

q u e s t i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h e t h i r t e en t h b o o k o f P h l e g o ' s w o r k . E u s e b i u s '

Chronicon i s p r e se r v e d i n : ( 1 ) a n A r m e n i a n t r a n s l a t i o n ; cf. Eusebius 9

Werke, V '.Die Chronik des Eusebius aus dem Armenischen übersetzt, t r a n s

l a t e d b y J . K a r s t (Die griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten

drei Jahrhunderte = GC S), L e i p z i g 1 9 1 1 , p . 2 1 3 ; a n d ( 2 ) i n S t . J e r o m e ' s

L a t i n v e r s i o n ; c f. Eusebius 1 Werke, V I I : Hieronymi Chronicon, e d .

R . H e l m , GCS, B e r l i n 1 9 5 6 , p p . 1 7 4 - 1 7 5 . O r i g e n i s n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n

w h e t h e r t h i s p a s s a g e w a s f o u n d i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h o r i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h

b o o k ; s e e Contra Celsum, I I , 3 3 .

1 0 Fi tis' sa ät\ l i t e r a l l y : in nine hours. T h e u s e o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n ft i n

t h i s c o n t e x t is a w k w a r d . A c c o r d i n g t o E u s e b i u s ' Chronicon ( A r m e n i a n

v e r s i o n , loc. cit.; S t . J e r o m e ' s v e r s i o n , loc. cit.) P h l e g o n s t a t e s t h a t

t h e r e w a s n i g h t i n t h e s i x t h h o u r . A c c o r d i n g t o a p a s s a g e f r o m J u l i u s

A f r i c a n u s q u o t e d b y S y n c e l l u s (c f. P . d e L a b r i o l l e , La réaction païenne,

P a r i s 1 9 5 0 , p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 ) , th e e c l i p s e , w h i c h w a s s u p p o s e d t o a c c o u n t



hours; and the stars appeared. And there was a great and violent

earthquake in Nicea and in all the towns tha t surround it. And

strange things happened.'*

Ü r . s . y . w . s . , 1 1 the philosopher, says in the fifth chapter of the book

he has written concerning the ways and life of the kings as

[follows] :6A great calamity and prolonged anguish have befallen

us. The sun was darkened and the earth [a l -a rd] quaked, and

many terrifying things are stated to have happened in the country

[a rd ] of the Hebrews 12 [ a l - e i b r â n i y y î n ] . We learnt the cause of

this from letters, written by Pilate [F . l ä t . s . ] , the judge,12 from

Palestine to Tiberius Caesar. [For] he said in them that all thesethings happened at the death of a man whom the Jews have

crucified. When Caesar 14 heard this, he sent [an order] dismissing

Pilate from judgeship over the Jews for having obeyed them. And

he threatened and menaced the Jews who had crucified him.'

Similarly Josephus [Yüsi fus] , the Hebrew. For he says in the

treatises that he has written on the governance [?] 15 of the Jews:

f o r t h e d a r k n e s s t h a t c o v e r e d t h e e a r t h a t t h e t i m e o f t h e c r u c i f i x i o n ,

l a s t e d f r o m t h e s i x t h t o t h e n i n t h h o u r .

1 1 O r : Ür.s.n.w.s.; o r Ür.s.b.s.; s e e b e l o w , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 .

1 2 A l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n f r o m A g a p i u s o m i t s t h e w o r d s and many terri

fying things are stated to have happened in the country. H i s t e xt m a y b e

r e n d e r e d : and the country of the Hebrews trembled. T h e o m i s s i o n i s

p r o b a b l y d u e t o a s c r i b a l e r r o r o c c a s i o n e d b y t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e

w o r d ard.

1 3 Al-qädi.

1 4 T i b e r i u s .

1 5 T h e M S o f A g a p i u s , a s r e a d b o t h b y C h e i k h o a n d b y V a s i l ie v , h a s ft

sharr al- Yahüd - On the E vil of the Jews, w h i c h i s c e r t a i n l y i n c o r r e c t .

A l - M a k i n , i n h i s q u o t a t i o n f r o m A g a p i u s p u b l i s h e d b y C h e i k h o ( p . 3 9 1 ) ,

m e r e l y s a y s : in the treatises that he has written about the Jews -

'alal-Yahüd; V a s i l i e v ( p . 4 7 1 ) h a s n o n o t e o n sharr, b u t t r a n s l a t e s

dans ses ouvrages quHl a écrits sur les guerres des Juifs. T h i s m e a n s t h a th e e m e n d e d sharr i n t o burüb, w h i c h i s n o t v e r y d i f f i c u l t , a s f a r a s t h e

A r a b i c s c r ip t i s c o n c e r n e d . A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e e m e n d a t i o n i s harb - war,

i n t h e s i n g u l a r , w h i c h m a y c a l l t o m i n d Bellum Judaicum. I t i s n o t

w h o l l y i m p o s s i b l e , b u t i n m y o p i n i o n v e r y i m p r o b a b l e , t h a t o n e o f



6At this time there was a wise man who was called Jesus}6 His

conduct was good,11 and [he] was known to be virtuous.1*

And many people from among the Jews and the other nations19

became his disciples. Pilate 20 condemned him to be crucified and

t h e s e f o r m s i s t h e c o r r e c t e m e n d a t i o n . I h a v e c h o s e n t o e m e n d sharr

i n t o tadbïr - governance, w h i c h s e e m s t o b e l i k e w i s e a d m i s s i b l e f r o m t h e

p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e A r a b i c sc r ip t . T h e w o r d tadbïr ( a s w e l l a s t h e w o r d

hurüb) o c c u r s i n A g a p i u s ( e d . C h e i k h o , p . 2 5 5 ) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n

t e n c e : And he [Josephus] then composed twenty books concerning the

governance [ t a d b ï r ] of the Jews, their m igration [ o r tradition, o r transmit-

ter s of tradition', s e e b e l o w ] , their high priests and the wars [ h u r ü b ] of theRom ans and their capture of Jerusalem. T h e p a ss a g e c o n t i n u e s : And

sixty-two letters of Agrippa were in existence in which he praised Jose

phus' works, great knowledge and excellent execution. T h e s e c o n d s e n

t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d s t o a p a s s a g e i n J o s e p h u s ' Vita, 3 6 4 , w h i c h a p p e a r s

t o r e f e r t o Bellum Judaicum. B u t t h i s p a s s a g e i s q u o t e d i n E u s e b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica, I I I , 1 0 : 1 1 , a n d m a y h a v e b e e n q u o t e d b y

A g a p i u s f r o m t h e l a tt e r s o u r c e . T h e f a c t t h a t A g r i p p a ' s le t t er s r ef er

t o Bellum Judaicum i s n o t v e r y c o n s p i c u o u s i n E u s e b i u s ' t e x t . I n t h e first

s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s q u o t e d i n t h i s f o o t n o t e t h e w o r k c o n c e r n i n g t h e

g o v e r n a n c e (tadbïr) o f t h e J e w s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a s J o s e p h u s ' Anti

quitates, w h i c h h a s t w e n t y b o o k s , t h e n u m b e r m e n t i o n e d b y A g a p i u s .

M y p r e f e r e n c e f o r tadbïr i n t h e p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s i n t r o d u c i n g t h e T e s t i

m o n i u m a r i s e s i n p a r t ( o t h e r r e a s o n s a r e g i v e n e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s p a p e r )

f r o m t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h i s p a s s a g e w i t h a t e x t o f t h e S y r i a c Chronicle

o f M i c h a e l ; a s w e s h a l l s e e b e l o w , t h e t w o p a s s a g e s a r e d e f i n i t e l y c o n

n e c t e d , t h o u g h i n a s o m e w h a t c u r i o u s w a y . T h e S y r i a c t e x t, w h i c h

l i k e w i s e i n t r o d u c e s th e T e s t i m o n i u m ( i n a v e r s i o n w h o s e d i v e rg e n c ie s

f r o m t h e v u l g a t e te x t a r e l e s s c o n s i d e r a b l e t h a n t h o s e f o u n d i n A g a p i u s '

r e c e n s i o n , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t ) , r ef e rs i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

w o r d s t o t h e w o r k o f J o s e p h u s i n w h i c h t h i s T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s :

bemä de-al dübhärä de-yûdayë - in what relates to the governance of the

Jews. T h e w o r d dübhärä, w h i c h i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s a m e r o o t a s tadbïr,

c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e A r a b i c w o r d . A

t r a n s l a t o r w i s h i n g t o r e n d e r dübhärä i n t o A r a b i c w o u l d p r o b a b ly

c h o o s e tadbïr.

I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t ( 1 ) C h a b o t t r a n s l a t e d t h e w o r d dübhärä i n t h e

a b o v e p h r a s e a s histoire, w h i c h i s i n a c c u r a t e ; ( 2 ) t h e w o r d m i g h t a l s o

b e r e a d i n t h e p l u r a l , dübhäre, w h i c h m i g h t m e a n usages. B u t t h i s w o u l d

n o t m a t e r i a l l y a f f e ct t h e b e a r i n g o f t h e p h r a s e o n t h e te x t o f A g a p i u s



to die.11 But22 those who had become his disciples did not abandon

his discipleship.23 They reported 24" that he had appeared to them

three days after his crucifixion, and that he was alive; accord-

ingly 25 he was perhaps the Messiah 26 concerning whom the

prophets have recounted21 wonders.'2*

w i t h w h i c h w e ar e c o n c e r n e d . T h e f a c t t h a t i n a r e l a t e d S y r i a c t e x t t h e

w o r k o f J o s e p h u s c o n t a i n i n g t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s d e s c r i b e d a s t r e a ti n g

o f t h e dübhärä o f t h e J e w s s e e m s t o r e n d e r i t v e r y p r o b a b l e t h a t A g a p i u s

i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m m e n t i o n e d th a t t h e w o r k o f

J o s e p h u s d e a l t w i t h t h e tadbïr o f t h e J e w s ; s e e a l s o b e l o w , p p . 4 4 if.

1 6 hu, a S y r i ac f o r m o f t h e n a m e . A l - M a k î n h a s Ishu.1 7 O r : way of life - sir a.

1 8 O r : outstanding. F o r wa-'ulima annahu fädil a l - M a k î n h a s wa-käna

lahu sira fyasana wa-'ilm fadil ( C h e i k h o , p . 3 9 1 ) - his conduct was good

and his learning [ o r : knowledge] outstanding. I n A l - M a k ï n ' s te xt an

nahu i s o m i t t e d . T h i s m a y b e d u e t o a sc r i b a l e r r o r.

1 9 Sä'ir al-shu üb.

2 0 Filät.s

2 1 Qaddä 'alayh bi l-salb wa l-mawt.

22 L i t e r a l l y : and.

2 3 Lam yatrukü talmadhatahu. T h i s i s t h e v a r i an t f o u n d i n a l - M a k ï n ' s

q u o t a t i o n f r o m A g a p i u s ( C h e i k h o , p . 2 3 9 ) . F o r r e a s o n s t h a t w i l l b e

s t a t e d b e l o w , t h i s v a r i a n t s e e m s , o n t h e w h o l e , t o b e p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e

o n e o c c u r i n g i n t h e M S o f A g a p i u s u se d b y C h e i k h o a n d V a s i l i e v :

yad'ü talmadihatahu, w h i c h m a y m e a n preached the doctrine; talmadha

m a y r e n d e r t h e S y r i a c tülmädhä - doctrine.

2 4 Dhakarü.

2 5 I f o l l o w t h e M S o f A g a p i u s , w h i c h h a s fa-la'allahu. A l - M a k ï n ' s q u o

t a t i o n h a s wa-la'alla hädhä - and perhaps this [man],

2 6 O r : Christ.

2 7 L i t e r a l l y : said.

2 8 Fa-la'allahu ftuwa al-masih allädhi qälat 'anhu al-anbiya al-ajaib.

T h e w a y i n w h i c h t h i s s e n t e n c e f o l l o w s t h e o n e c o n c l u d i n g w i t h wa-

innahu 'äsha - and he was alive s e e m s t o s u g g e s t — i f o n e c o n s i d e r s

A r a b i c s y n t a c t i c u s a g e — t h a t t h e o p i n i o n a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h J e s u s

w a s , p e r h a p s , t h e M e s s i a h i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i s c i p l e s a n d i s n o t a

p e r s o n a l r e f l e c ti o n o f J o s e p h u s . T h i s i s a l s o t h e v i e w o f V a s i l i e v , e x

p r e s s e d b y t h e p l a c i n g o f t h e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f

a l - M a k ï n . Prima facie, t h e r e a r e t h e s e t w o w a y s o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s

s e n t e n c e — t h e o p i n i o n t h a t J e s u s w a s p e r h a p s t h e M e s s i a h i s e i t h e r



This is what is said by Josephus and his companions29 of our

Lord the Messiah, may he be glorified. And he also says30 that

all the public activity31 of our Lord Christ, may he be glorified,

[all] that he did32 occurred under the high priesthood 33 of Hannän 3*

and Qayäfä.35 For [the two] were high priests 36 in those years;

I mean [to say that his public activity occurred] from the high

priesthood of Hannän till the beginning of the high priesthood of

Qayäfä. The time between these two [dates] does not amount to

four years. For when Herod had charge of them, he burnt the

genealogies of their tribes, in order that it should not be known

that he [was descended] from undistinguished people. He [also]took the priestly vestmen t and put it under his seal. And he did

not allow anyone of the high priests 31 to officiate as such for

a p e r s o n a l r e f l e c t i o n o f J o s e p h u s , o r i t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s .

T h e fi rs t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e m s t o b e i n d i c a t e d i f t h e t e x t i s c o n s i d e r e d

a s a p i e c e o f o r d i n a r y A r a b i c p r o s e , b u t t h i s i s n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n ; i n

a n y c a s e , n o d e c i s i v e r u l i n g c a n b e m a d e o n t h i s p o i n t o n s y n t a c t i c o r

o t h e r g r o u n d s , e s p e c i a l l y a s t h e s e n t e n c e i s t r a n s l a t e d f r o m a n o t h e r

l a n g u a g e . O n a S y r i a c r e n d e r i n g o f t h i s s e n t e n c e o r o f a s i m i l a r o n e ,

s e e b e l o w , p p . 2 2 , 2 6 , 4 6 .

2 9 wa-asfiäbihi. V a s i l i e v t r a n s l a t e s et de ses coreligionnaires, w h i c h i s a

p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t n o t t h e o n l y o n e .

3 0 T h e A r a b i c t ex t h a s yaqülu. F r o m t h e g r a m m a t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w t h e

s u b j e c t o f t h i s v e r b s h o u l d h a v e b e e n J o s e p h u s , b u t t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y

n o t t h e c a s e . T h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e i s i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s s i m i l a r t o ,

t h o u g h b y n o m e a n s i d e n t i c a l w i t h , a t e x t o f E u s e b i u s . P o s s i b l y t h i s

c h u r c h f a t h e r i s t h e s u b j e c t o f yaqülu; o n t h i s h y p o t h e s i s a n d i t s i m

p l i c a t i o n s a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s s e e b e l o w , p p . 5 4 f f .

3 1 P u b l i c a c t i v i ty r e n d e r s tadbïr, a w o r d w h i c h h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d a b o v e

b y governance.

3 2 Taqallubuhu.

3 3 Ri'äsa; l i t e r a l l y : domination, o r : leadership.

3 4 I . e . A n n a s .

3 5 I . e . C a i a p h a s ; c f. L u k e i i i : 2 .

3 6 Rtfisal-kahana.

3 7 T h e M S h a s li-rtfïsal-kahana, i . e . a d u a l f o r m - the two high priests.

C h e i k h o e m e n d s U-ru'asäU-kahana, a p l u r a l f o r m . T h i s e m e n d a t i o n

i s p l a u s i b l e , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o r r e c t .



more than one year 3* For this [reason] there came up four

high [priests] in the [interval of time] between the high priest

hood39 of Han nän and that of Qayäfä. For after the dismissal of

Hannän, Ismâ'îl the son of Yahyä 40 took his place. W hen he 41

had finished his year and quitted42 his [office], Eliezer,43 the son

of Hannän the high priest, replaced him. After he 44 had terminated

his year, Simon ,45 son of Qamïhûd 46 succeeded him. Then came

3 8 L i t e r al l y: except for one year only.3 9 Ri'äsa; l i t e r a l l y : domination, o r leadership.

4 0 T h i s i s d o u b t l e s s t h e e r r o r o f a s c r i b e w h o s u b s t i t u t e d t h e f a m i l i a r

n a m e Y a h y ä f o r P h a b ï , w h i c h i s i n c i d e n t a l l y f o u n d i n t h e S y r i a c v e r

s i o n o f E u s e b i u s * Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 4 ; s ee The Ecclesiastical

History of Eusebius in Syriac, e d . W r i g h t & M c L e a n , p . 4 5 . T h e p a r

t i c u l a r i t ie s o f t h e A r a b i c s c r ip t r e n d e r t h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n p o s s i b l e , t h o u g h

o n t h e f a c e o f i t o n e w o u l d n o t c o n s i d e r i t a v e r y l i k e l y e m e n d a t i o n .

4 1 Ismail.

4 2 L i t e r a l l y : and had gone out - kharaja.

4 3 T h e n a m e i s w r i tt e n Y.l.'äz.r. T h e S y r ia c t r a n s la t i on o f E u s e b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica h a s 'Li'z.r.

4 4 E l i e z e r .

4 5 Sham'ün.

4 6 T h e n a m e o f S i m o n , t h e h i g h - p r i e s t' s f a th e r , i s g i v e n b y J o s e p h u s

(Antiquitates, X V I I I , 3 4 ) a s Kamithou, i n t h e g e n i t i v e , w h i c h s u g g e s t s

t h e n o m i n a t i v e Kamithes. T h e M S S o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I ,

1 0 : 5 g i v e v a r i o u s f o r m s f o r t h e g e n i t i v e : Kamithou, Kamiphou a n d Ka-

thimou, t h e n o m i n a t i v e s b e i n g p r o b a b l y Kamithos, Kamiphos a n d

Kathimos. E u s e b i u s ' Demonstratio, V I I I , 2 : 9 9 h a s i n t h e g e n i t iv e t h e

f o r m Kathimou. T h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e p a s s a g e o f E u s e b i u s '

Historica Ecclesiastica q u o t e d a b o v e h a s t h e f o r m Qamïhûd.

I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t J o s e p h u s ' τ ο ν Κ α μ ίθ ο υ , w h i c h s e e m s t o r e f e r

t o t h e h i g h p r i e s t' s f a t h e r , i s , i n f a c t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e v i d e n c e , a G r e e k

t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f h i s m o t h e r . T h e h i g h p r i e s t r v r iB p p ptffctP

i s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e T a l m u d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ; c f., f o r i n s t a n c e , TB Yoma

4 7 a ; s e e th e ar t i c l e rp r iD p i n : J . L e vy , Wörterbuch über die Talmudim

und Midraschim, I V , B e r l i n 1 9 2 4 , p p . 3 2 4 - 3 2 5 . I n t h e H e b r e w t r a n s

l a t i o n o f Antiquitates ( η Η Ί Γ Γ Π nrrmp, Π Ι , J e r u sa l e m 1 9 6 3 , p . 2 8 4 )

A . S c h a l i t h a s c o r r e c t l y g i v e n t h e h i g h p r i e s t 's n a m e a s rvnfcp p pstotf



after him [and in his place] Qayäfä, on whose order 47 and under

whose high priesthood 4* our Lord, the M essiah, may he be

glorified, was crucified. Thus the time between Hannän and

Qayäfä does not [amount] to less [? aqa l l ] than four years. 49

W e h a v e c o m e t o a p o i n t w h e r e i t s e e m s a d v i s a b l e t o c o m p a r e

i n d e t a i l A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l G r e e k t e x t , a s g i v e n i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates a n d

i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica a n d h i s Demonstratio. V a r i

a n t s , f o u n d i n a l - M a k ï n ' s H i s t o r y , w i l l b e u se d i n e s t a b l i sh i n g

t h e A r a b i c t e x t , a n d v e r s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m f o u n d i n

B y z a n t i n e c h r o n i c l e s w i l l b e q u o t e d i n t h e c r i t i c a l a p p a r a t u s o f

t h e G r e e k t e x t . 5 0

4 7 'Ahd; t h i s s e e m s t o b e t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d i n t h i s c o n t e x t . *Ahd

a l s o m e a n s time.

4 8 Ri'äsa; s e e a b o v e , n . 3 9 .

4 9 T h i s s e n t e n c e i s c e r t a i n l y c o r r u p t , s i n c e i t s e e m s t o c o n t r a d i c t a s e n

t e n c e i n t h e s a m e p a s s a g e r e f e r r i n g t o t h e i n t e r v a l o f t i m e b e t w e e n t h e

h i g h p r i e s t h o o d o f I J a n n ä n a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e h i g h p r i e s t h o o d

o f Q a y ä f ä . A s r e n d e r e d a b o v e , t h i s s e n t e n c e s i g n i f i e s : The time between

these two [dates] does not amoun t to four years. I t i s v e r y u n l i k e l y t h a t

t h e s e n t e n c e w e a r e d i s c u s s i n g n o w r e f er s t o t h e e n d o f Q a y ä f ä ' s h i g h

p r i e s t h o o d r a t h e r t h a n t o i t s b e g i n n i n g . T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n a s c r ib a l

e r ro r . O n e s h o u l d p e r h a p s e m e n d aqall t o akthar a n d t r a n s l a t e :

Thus the time between Hann än and Qayäfä does not [amount] to more

than four years.

5 0 M i c h a e l ' s S y r i a c a n d S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s i o n s w i l l b e q u o t e d a n d

d i s c u s s e d l a t e r o n . I n t h e c r i t i c a l a p p a r a t u s o f t h e G r e e k t e x t , s o m e o ft h e d a t a g i v e n b y E i s le r i n h i s e d i t i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ( I , p p . 8 5 - 8 6 )

h a v e b e e n u s e d . O t h e r d a t a m e n t i o n e d b y E i sl e r a n d o t h e r sc h o l a r s d i d

n o t s e e m r e l e v a n t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r a n d h a v e b e e n

o m i t t e d .



A g a p i u s ' A r a b i e T e x t T h e V u l g a t e G r e e k T e x t

Γ ίν ε τ α ι60

δ ε κ α τ ά τ ο ύ τ ο ν το ν

χ ρ ό ν ο ν5

Ι η σ ο ύ ς σ ο φ ό ς α ν ή ρ61

ε ϊγ ε ά ν δ ρ α α υ τ ό ν λ έ γ ε ιν χ ρ ή

62

η ν γ α ρ π α ρ α δ ό ξ ω ν έ ρ γ ω ν π ο ιη

τ ή ς , δ ιδ ά σ κ α λ ο ς α ν θ ρ ώ π ω ν τ ω ν

ή δ ο ν η τ ά λ η θ ή δ ε χ ό μ ε ν ω ν63

κ α ι

π ο λ λ ο ύ ς μ ε ν Ι ο υ δ α ί ο υ ς ,6

* π ο λ

λ ο ύ ς ôè κ α ι το υ Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ ε π -

η γ ά γ ε τ ο . ό χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς ο ύ τ ο ς ή ν65

κ α ι α υ τ ό ν ε ν δ ε ίξ ε ι τ ω ν π ρ ώ τ ω ν α ν δ ρ ώ ν π α ρ ' ή μ ϊ ν σ τ α υ ρ ω

ε π ι τ ε τ ι μ η κ ό τ ο ς Π ιλ ά τ ο υ ο υ κ

ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο6 6

ο ΐ τ ό π ρ ώ τ ο ν ά γ α -

π ή σ α ν τ ε ς . έ φ ά ν η γ α ρ α ύ τ ο ί ς

τ ρ ί τ η ν ε χ ω ν61

ή μ έ ρ α ν π ά λ ιν

ζ ώ ν τ ώ ν θ ε ί ω ν π ρ ο φ η τ ώ ν τ α ϋ τ ά

τ ε κ α ι ά λ λ α μ υ ρ ί α π ε ρ ι α ύ τ ο ϋ

θ α υ μ ά σ ι α68

ε ίρ η κ ό τ ω ν . ε ι ς ε τ ι

τ ε ν υ ν69

τ ώ ν Χ ρ ι σ τ ια ν ώ ν α π ό

τ ο ϋ δ ε ώ ν ο μ α σ μ έ ν ο ν ο υ κ ε π έ λ ιπ ε

τ ο φ ϋ λ ο ν {A ntiquitates, X V I I I ,

63-64) .

5 1 A l - M a k ï n , ed. C h e i k h o , p. 3 9 1 : ( o ^ . U ) J o^j^ji ^

5 2 A g a p i u s ' MS: i ^ J I ^ J P ; a l - M a k ï n , loc. cit. J P L ^ T ^JUI

5 3 A l - M a k ï n , loc. cit.: J - ^ U

5 4 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e x t r e a d s J Uix jj

5 5 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e xt r e a d s I j j f

5 6 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e x t r e a d s JU

5 7 uXJS \J>J± \ is the v a r i a n t g i v e n in a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n . The MS of

A g a p i u s , ed i t ed by C h e i k h o and V a s i l i e v , r e a d s A J U J \ y \ \ see a b o v e ,

n . 2 3 , and b e l o w , n. 7 5 .

5 8 A l - M a k ï n ' s te x t r e ad s 1 1 * J * J j . The r e a d i n g IJL* J * l i i s s m o o t h e r t h a n

t h e one f o u n d in the A g a p i u s ' MS .



T h e following translations are meant to facilitate a first com-

parison between the two versions of the Test imonium with

which for the moment we are concerned. The words written

in Roman type in either of the two renderings have a counter-

part of some sort in the other version.7 0

H . Fel dma n's trans lat ion of the Greek vulgate recension of the

Testimonium has been used; occasionally it has been slightly

modified in order to render it more literal.

59 Al -Makïn's text reads A > » L J V I <S^\. In his version c ^ U V I is

missing.

60 Cedrenus' vers ion reads ή ν ; see Eisler, p. 85, n. 8.

61 Acc ord in g to Mala las, Josephu s describes Jesus as ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ς α γα θ ό ς

κ α ι δ ίκ α ιο ς . How eve r, there is s om e re ason to believe that a passage

other th an the Test im oniu m may be referred to . The last part of Mala

l a s ' sentence (Ioannes Malalas, Chronographia, ed. B. G. Niebu hr,

Bo nn 1831, pp. 247- 248) m ay be rendered as fol lows : . . . Just as Jose-

phus the philosopher of the Hebrews has written this; he has also said

that since the time when the Jews had crucified Jesus, who was a good

and just man, if he is to be called a man and not a god, there had been

no surcease of grief in the country of Judaea (cf. also below, n. 220).

62 Th e word s ε ϊγ ε ά ν δ ρ α α υ τ ό ν λ έ γ ε ιν χ ρ ή have no equivalent in a Latin

versi on of th e Tes ti mon iu m that occurs in a M S written before the

eighth century; see Eisler, p. 85, n. 13.

63 Sozomenos, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. J. Bidez, Berlin 1960, Lib. I,

C a p . 1, p. 7, reads δ ιδ ά σ κ α λ ο ν λ ώ γ ω ν α λ η θ ώ ν .

64 Eusebius' Demonstratio reads τ ο υ Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ο ύ ; see Eisler, p. 85, η . 16.

65 Thi s sentence is omi tt ed by Cedren us; see Eisler, p. 86, η . 1.

66 Cedren us has ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο κ η ρ ύ σ σ ο ν τ ε ς π ε ρ ί α ύ τ ο ϋ ; see Eisler, p. 86, η . 5.

67 ε χ ω ν is omitted in Eusebius' Demonstratio; see Eisler, p. 86, n. 8.

68 π ε ρ ί α ύ τ ο ϋ θ α υ μ ά σ ια is omitted in Eusebius' Demonstratio; see Eisler,

p . 86, n. 10.

69 Other varian ts: ε ισ έ τ ι κ α ι; ε ις hi κ α ι ν υ ν ; ε ισ έ τ ι τ ε ν υ ν ; σ έ τ ι (in one

M S τ ε is written above the line); δ θ ε ν ε ισ έ τ ι (Eusebius' Demon-

stratio); εϊς τ ε ν ϋ ν (Suidas); ε ις δ έ τ ο ν υ ν , or, accordi ng to another

version, îôè τ ο ί ν υ ν (Isidorus Pelusianus); ο ύ κ έ τ ι ν υ ν (Sermo Macarii,

i n : Acta Sanctorum); see Eisler, p. 80, n. 3 ; p. 86, n. 11.

70 Or in the variant s quo ted in the no te s.



Render ing o f the Arab ic T e x t 7 1

Similarly Josephus the Hebrew.

For he says in the treatises that

he has written on the governance 12 of the Jews:

A t t h i s t i m e there was a wise

m a n who was called J e s u s .

And his conduct1* was good,

and [he] was known to be

virtuous.14 And m a n y p e o p l e

from among t h e J e w s and theother nations became his

disciples. P i l a t e c o n d e m n e d

him to be c ruc i f ied and to die.

And those who had become his

disciples did n o t a b a n d o n his

discipleship.15 They reported

that h e h a d a p p e a r e d t o t h e m

three days after his crucifixion

and that he was a l i v e ; ac

cordingly 16 h e w a s perhaps

t h e M e s s i a h c o n c e r n i n g w h o m

t h e p r o p h e t s have recounted

w o n d e r s . 7 7

Rendering of the Greek Text

A b o u t t h i s t i m e there lived1

*

J e s u s , a w i s e m a n , 7 9 if indeed

one ought to call him a man.For he was one who wrought

surprising feats and was a

teacher of such people as accept

the truth gladly. He won

over m a n y J e w s a n d m a n y of

the Greeks. H e w a s t h e

M e s s i a h . When P i l a t e , uponhearing him accused by men of

the highest standing among us,

h a d c o n d e m n e d h i m t o b e

crucif ied , those who had in

the first place come to love

[him] did not c e a s e . 8 0 On the

third day h e a p p e a r e d t o t h e m

restored to life. For t h e

p r o p h e t s of God had prophesied

these and myriads of other

m a r v e l l o u s [things] a b o u t

h i m . And the tribe of t h e

Christians, so called after

him, has still up to now , not

disappeared.

7 1 T h i s r e n d e r i n g i s s o m e w h a t m o r e l it e r a l t h a n t h e o n e g i v e n a b o v e .

7 2 S e e a b o v e , n . 1 5 , a n d b e l o w , p p . 4 6 ff.

7 3 O r : way of life.

7 4 O r , a c c o r d i n g t o a l - M a k î n : his conduct was good and his learningoutstanding.

7 5 A l - M a k ï n ' s t e x t. T h e M S o f A g a p i u s r e a d s preached his doctrine. T h e

s a m e w o r d , n a m e l y , talmadha, i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t h e r e n d e r i n g o f a l -

M a k ï n ' s t e x t a s discipleship, a n d i n t h e r e n d e r i n g o f t h e M S o f A g a p i u s

a s doctrine.



I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t b o t h t h e d i v e r g e n c i e s a n d t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s

o f t h e t w o v e r s i o n s a r e i n s t r u c t i v e . H o w e v e r , prima facie, S L

n u m b e r o f d i v e r g e n t c o n c l u s i o n s c o u l d b e d r a w n f r o m t h e s e

d a t a . I t w i l l b e o u r t a sk t o a s se s s t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t y .

W e sh a l l s t a r t w i t h t h e p o i n t s o f s i m i l a r i t y . S o m e o f t h e se a r e

o b v i o u s a n d p r e c l u d e a n y d o u b t a s t o t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n

t h e G r e e k a n d t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n . T h i s r e l a t i o n i s v e r y m u c h

i n e v i d e n c e , i f o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e o p e n i n g r e f e r e n c e t o J e su s ,

a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g h i s w i n n i n g d i s c i p l e s , h i s b e i n g

th e M es s i ah , h i s be ing sen tenc ed by P i l a t e , t he fidelity o f h i s

d i s c i p l e s , w h o s u r v i v e d h i s d e a t h , a n d h i s h a v i n g a p p e a r e d t ot h e m o n t h e t h i r d d a y . 8 1

A d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e t e x t l e a d s t o t h e l e s s o b v i o u s

d i s c o v e r y t h a t i n s o m e p o i n t s t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n a g r e e s w i t h

c e r t a i n v a r i a n t s o f t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n t h a t d o n o t a p p e a r i n t h e

p r e d o m i n a n t t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n .

T h u s , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t e x t t h e A r a b i c käna a p p e a r s t o

7 6 O r , a c c o r d i n g t o a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n , and.

7 7 A c c o r d i n g t o a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n : concerning wh om the prophets

have spoken. T h e s a m e v e rb , n a m e l y , qälü, o c c u r s b o t h i n t h e M S o f

A g a p i u s , i n w h i c h c o n t e x t i t h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d related, a n d i n a l - M a

k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n , i n w h i c h c o n t e x t i t h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d spoken.

7 8 L i t e r a l ly : became ; v a r i a n t : was ( C e d r e n u s ) , w h i c h a g r ee s w i t h A g a p i u s '

t e x t ; c f. a l s o b e l o w , S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s i o n .

7 9 M a l a l a s ' t e x t r e a d s a good and just man; b u t h i s q u o t a t i o n m a y n o t b e

d e r i v e d f r o m t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ; se e a b o v e , n . 6 1 .

8 0 C e d r e n u s h a s t h e v a r i a n t did not cease to preach concerning him.

8 1 S o m e o f t h e s e p o i n t s o f r e s e m b l a n c e a r e b r o u g h t o u t b y t h e w o r d s i n

r o m a n t y p e . W h e n s i m i l a r st a t e m e n t s a r e w o r d e d d if f er e n tl y i n t h e

t w o v e r s i o n s , o r w h e n o n e o f t h e v e r s i o n s o f f e r s a s t a t e m e n t t h a t h a s

n o p a r a l l e l i n t h e s e c o n d v e r s i o n , t h e w o r d s a r e p r i n t e d i n i t a l i c s . T o

c i t e a n e x a m p l e f o r d if f er e n c e o f w o r d i n g , t h e A r a b i c t e x t r e a d s

became his disciples, w h e r e a s t h e G r e e k m a y b e r e n d e r e d he won over.

A s w e s h a l l s e e , t h i s m a y b e d u e t o a n e a r ly d i v e r g e n c e o f t w o

r e c e n s i o n s , a n d n o t m e r e l y t o a t r a n s l a t o r s ' s l i c e n c e .



a g r e e w i t h ή ν , w h i c h o c c u r s i n C e d r e n u s , 8 2 r a t h e r t h a n w i t h

γ ί ν ε τ α ι .83

T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a l l e l i s m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d p e r h a p s a l s o

m o r e s t r i k i n g :

A s h a s b e e n s t a t e d a b o v e , a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n r e a d s lam

yatrukü talmadhatahu - did not abandon his doctrine. Lam ya-

trukü a p p e a r s t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e G r e e k ο υ κ ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο84

- did

not cease, an d ha s fo r th i s r eas on be en p re fe r red t o the va r i an t

o f A g a p i u s ' M S yade

U talmadhatahu-preached his doctrine.

A n e a t s o l u t i o n o f t h i s t e x t u a l p r o b l e m w o u l d , h o w e v e r , h a v e

t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e x is t e n c e o f t h e l a t t e r v a r i a n t . C e d r e n u s 'v e r s i o n s u g g e s t s s u c h a s o l u t i o n . I t r e a d s : ο υ κ ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο

κ η ρ ύ σ σ ο ν τ ε ς π ε ρ ί α ύ τ ο ϋ - they did not cease to preach con

cerning him. T h e l a s t t w o w o r d s h a v e n o c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e

M S o f A g a p i u s , a s i n a l - M a k ï n ' s v e r s i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e i n t e r

e s t i n g p o i n t a b o u t t h e s e n t e n c e i n C e d r e n u s ' v e r s i o n i s t h e t w o

v e r b s , the f i rs t of which , ο ύ κ ε π α ύ σ α ν τ ο - did not cease,

c o r r e s p o n d s t o lam yatrukü i n a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n , w h e r e a st h e s e c o n d , κ η ρ ύ σ σ ο ν τ ε ς - to preach, a g r e e s w i t h yad'ü i n the

M S o f A g a p i u s . T h i s su g g e s t s t h a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t s o f b o t h v e r b s

o c c u r r i n g i n C e d r e n u s ' v e r s i o n m a y h a v e o r i g i n a l l y a p p e a r e d

8 2 Pa r a l l e l s to th i s rjv m a y b e f o u n d i n L a t i n a n d S y r i a c v e r s i o n s o f t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m ; t h e s e v e r s i o n s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t ot h i s a n d o t h e r p o i n t s .

8 3 I t c o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e a r g u e d t h a t i t i s n o t o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n f o r

γ ίν ε τ α ι t o h a v e b e e n r e n d e r e d b y käna. W i t h r e ga r d t o t h e i m m e d i a t e

l y f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e i n t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n , i t c o u l d p e r h a p s b e

s u s p e c t e d t h a t t h e w o r d s his conduct was good and he was known to

be virtuous ( t h i s i s t h e t e x t o f t h e M S o f A g a p i u s , w h i c h d i ff e rs f r o m

t h a t o f a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n ) m i g h t h a v e s o m e r e l a t i o n t o M a l a l a s '

α ν θ ρ ω π ο ν α γ α θ ό ν κ α ι δ ί κ α ιο ν . B u t t h i s s e e m s t o m e t o b e d o u b t f u l ( s e e

a b o v e , n . 6 1 ) . His conduct was good m ay , a s w e s h a l l s e e l a t e r , b e r e

l a t e d t o a n e x p r e s s i o n d i f f e ri n g f r o m M a l a l a s ' , w h i c h o c c u r s i n S y r i a c

v e r s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . F u r t h e r m o r e , fatjil - virtuous i s b y n o

m e a n s e q u i v a l e n t t o δ ί κ α ι ο ς .

8 4 A c e r t a i n a w k w a r d n e s s a t t a c h e s t o t h e s e w o r d s i n t h e p r e d o m i n a n t



i n t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n . T h e f a c t t h a t o n l y t h e f i r s t o f t h e m

r e m a i n e d i n a l - M a k ï n ' s q u o t a t i o n a n d o n l y t h e s e c o n d i n t h e

M S o f A g a p i u s m a y b e d u e t o s c r i b a l e r r o r s . T h e r e a r e t h u s

so m e g r o u n d s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t o n so m e p o i n t s a p a r t o f

C e d r e n u s ' v e r s i o n — t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t a w e l l - d e f i n e d b r a n c h

o f t h e G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t t r a d i t i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m — c o m e s

c l o s e t o A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c v e r s i o n .

A t t h i s p o i n t t h e d iv e r g e n c ie s b e t w e e n t h i s v e r s i o n a n d t h e G r e e k

tex t have to be d i scussed . Some o f these d ive rgenc ie s a r e

c lea r ly s ign i f i can t :

1. A g a p i u s d o e s n o t q u e s t i o n J e s u s ' b e i n g a m a n .2 . A g a p i u s d o e s n o t r e f e r t o J e su s ' w o r k i n g m i r a c l e s ; i n s t e a d h e

d e s c r i b e s h i m a s b e i n g o f g o o d c o n d u c t a n d v i r t u o u s . 8 5

3 . T h e r o l e p l a y e d b y J e w i s h n o t a b l e s i n J e s u s ' c o n d e m n a t i o n

i s n o t m e n t i o n e d .

4 . In the Greek t ex t Je sus ' appea rance to h i s d i sc ip le s a f t e r h i s

c r u c i fi x i o n i s t r e a t e d a s a f a c t r e c o u n t e d b y t h e a u t h o r ; i n

A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n t h i s a p p e a r a n c e i s s a i d t o h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e db y h i s d i s c i p l e s . T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h i s s t o r y i s b a se d o n

h e a r sa y e v i d e n c e s t a n d s o u t v e r y c l e a r l y .

5 . I n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e G r e e k t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s

t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g s t a t e m e n t He was the Messiah. T h e

p a r a l l e l s t a t e m e n t i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o c c u r s a t t h e e n d o f t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m , a n d i t is d u b i t a t i v e : he was perhaps the Messiah? 6

I t c a n b e a s se r t e d w i t h a sh o w o f t r u t h t h a t i t i s t h e C h r i s t i a n

M S S t r a d i t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e y s e e m t o r e q u i re a c o m p l e m e n t , w h i c h

i n t h i s t r a d i t i o n i s l a c k i n g .

8 5 O r , i f w e f o l l o w a l - M a k ï n : exceedingly learned.

8 6 A s h a s b e e n st a t e d a b o v e , t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y , b u t o n l y a s l i g h t o n e ,

t h a t i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n t h i s d u b i t a t i v e p o s i t i o n w a s a tt r i b u te d t o

J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s . A s w e s h a l l s e e b e l o w , a S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o

n i u m l e g i t i m a t e s t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l f o r m o f t h e d u b i t a t i v e

s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e M e s s i a h h o o d o f J e s u s w a s sl i g h t ly d i ff er e n t

a n d w a s m o d i f i e d i n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o A r a b i c . L i k e A g a p i u s ' p h r a s e ,

t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g c o n t a i n e d n o a s s e r t i o n s u p p o s e d l y

m a d e b y J o s e p h u s a s t o J e s u s ' b e i n g t h e M e s s i a h .



t e n d e n c y i n t h e p r e se n t a t i o n o f f o u r o r , p e r h a p s , t h r e e o f t h e se

d i ff e rences f in th i s con tex t po in t 3 i s i r r e l eva n t , an d po in t 2

m a y p e r h a p s a p p e a r t o b e m u c h l es s i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e

r e m a i n i n g t h r e e ) t h a t i s i n t h e m a i n r e sp o n s i b l e f o r t h e p o s i t i o n

t a k e n u p b y t h o s e s c h o l a r s ( t h e y a r e p r o b a b l y t h e m a j o r i ty )

w h o d e n y t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a n d r e g a r d i t ,

o r p a r t s o f i t , a s C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n . T h e y r e a so n t h a t i f

J o s e p h u s t e n d e d t o t h i n k t h a t J e s u s w a s s u p e r h u m a n , i f h e

s p o k e o f h i s w o r k i n g m i r a c l e s , 8 7 i f h e p r o c l a i m e d h i m t o b e t h e

Mess iah , and i f he r e l a t ed a s a f ac t h i s appea rance to h i s d i s

c i p l e s a f t e r h i s d e a t h — h e m u s t h a v e b e e n a C h r i s t i a n , o r h a v ec o m e c l o se t o b e i n g o n e , a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a p p e a r s t o r u n

c o u n t e r t o w h a t w e k n o w o f h i m f r o m h i s w o r k s . I t a l so r u n s

c o u n t e r t o O r i g e n ' s a s s e r t i o n 8 8 t h a t Jo se p h u s d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n

J e s u s .

A c c o r d i n g l y , t h r e e m a i n s c h o o l s of o p i n i o n c a n b e d i s t i n g u i sh e d :

1. T h o se w h o m a i n t a i n , i n sp i t e o f a l l a r g u m e n t s t o t h e c o n t r a r y ,

t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .8 9

2 . T h o se w h o c o n s i d e r t h a t a l l o f i t i s a C h r i s t i a n f a b r i c a t i o n . 9 0

8 7 T a k e n b y itself, t h e r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s d o e s n o t , o f c o u r s e ,

c o n s t i t u t e a p r o o f o f J o s e p h u s ' c o m m i t m e n t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t , i n

c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r r e l e v a n t p o i n t s e n u m e r a t e d i n t h e t e x t , i t

s t r e n g t h e n s t h e g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n t h a t i f h e w a s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e

v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , h e m u s t h a v e h a d , o r h a v e c o m e c l o s e t o , s u c h a

c o m m i t m e n t .

8 8 S e e b e l o w , p . 6 5 .

8 9 T h i s w a s t h e p o s i t i o n o f, a m o n g o t h e r s , F . C B u r k i t t a n d A . G . H a r -

n a c k . A r e c e n t e x a m p l e o f t h i s a t t i t u d e i s p r o v i d e d b y a n a r t i c l e o f

F . D o r n s e i f f , e Z u m T e s t a m e n t u m F l a v i a n u m ' , Zeitschrift für die N eu-

testamentliche Wissenschaft, X L V I ( 19 5 6 ) , p p . 2 4 5 - 2 5 0 . A b i b l i o

g r a p h i c a l s u r v e y o f r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s o n t h i s q u e s t i o n ( u p t o 1 9 6 2 )

m a y b e f o u n d i n t h e b o o k l e t b y L . H . F e l d m a n , Recent Scholarship

on Philo and Josephus (1937-1962), N e w Y o r k 1 9 6 4 .

9 0 E i s l e r ( p p . 1 9 f f. ) s e t s f o r t h s o m e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s p u t f o r w a r d b y t h e

s c h o l a r s w h o m a i n t a i n e d t h i s o p i n i o n , w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n

f o r m u l a t e d i n 1 5 3 4 b y H u b e r t v a n G i f f e n ( G i p h a n i u s ) . I t w a s h e l d ,

a m o n g o t h e r s , b y E . N o r d e n a n d E . M e y e r . I m a y a d d t h a t a l l t h e



3 . T h o s e w h o b e l i e v e t h a t J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates c o n t a i n e d a

p a s s a g e c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s , b u t t h a t i t w a s n o t t h e o n e k n o w n t o

u s a s t h e G r e e k T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s

v i e w , t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a d a p t a t i o n s a n d

a l t e r a t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f Jo se p h u s w a s su b j e c t e d

b y z e a l o u s C h r i s t i a n s . T h i s o p i n i o n l e d t o s e v e ra l a t t e m p t s b e i n g

m a d e t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l o r i g i n a l t e x t . S o m e o f

t h e m w e r e v e r y e l a b o r a t e , a n d t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s p r o p o s e d w e r e

n u m e r o u s a n d i n c i s i v e . E i s l e r ' s 9 1 r e c o n s t r u c t i o n d o e s n o t h a v e

m a n y t r a i t s i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e textus receptus of the Tes t i

m o n i u m . I n a n o t h e r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e a l t e r a t i o n s a n de m e n d a t i o n s w e r e k e p t d o w n t o w h a t w a s r e g a r d e d a s a

m i n i m u m . 9 2 T h e d i s c o u r a g i n g f a ct a b o u t a l l t h e se a t t e m p t s i s

t h a t t h e s c h o l a r s w h o m a d e t h e m w e r e g u i d e d i n t h e m a i n

( t h o u g h n o t i n a l l c a se s e x c l u s i v e l y ; so m e o f t h e m u se d v a r i o u s

se c o n d a r y so u r c e s t o g o o d p u r p o se ) b y t h e i r p e r so n a l su b j e c t i v e

v i e w o f t h e p r o b a b l e p o s i t i o n o f Jo se p h u s w i t h r e g a r d t o J e su s

a n d o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e w a s m o s t l i k e l y t o h a v e s e t f o r t ht h i s p o s i t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a d , b y a n d

la rge , on ly a sub jec t ive va l id i ty .

F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w t h e e v i d e n t i a l s t a t u s o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n

o f th e T es t im on iu m i s w ho l ly d if fe r en t fo r th e fo l lowing r ea so ns :

T h i s v e r s i o n h a s n o t b e e n r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d t a i l o r e d t o su i t

t h e i d e a s o f m o d e r n s c h o l a r s a s t o w h a t i s p r o b a b l e a n d w h a t i s

n o t . I t i s q u o t e d b y a C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r t o w h o m i t c e r t a i n l y

w o u l d n o t h a v e o c c u r r e d t o o m i t o r w a t e r d o w n r e fe r en c e s t o , a n d

d e sc r i p t i o n s o f , J e su s , w h i c h , b e c a u se o f t h e i r a g r e e m e n t w i t h

a u t h o r s w h o c o n s i d e r t h a t J e s u s w a s a m y t h i c a l r a t h e r t h a n a h i s t o r

i c a l p e r s o n r e g a r d t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s a C h r i s t i a n f o r g e r y .

9 1 Op. cit., p p . 8 7 - 8 8 .

9 2 C . M a r t i n ' s a r t ic l e , ' L e T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m — V e r s u n e s o l u t i o n

déf in i t ive* , Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire, X X ( 1 9 4 1 ), p p .

4 0 9 - 4 6 5 , m a y b e c i t e d a s a n e x a m p l e o f t h i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e T e s t i

m o n i u m . M a n y o t h e r s c h o l a r s c o u l d b e q u o t e d .



t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s n o t v e r y l ik e l y t o

h a v e b e e n m a d e b y J o s e p h u s . 9 3

W e m a y a l s o s u p p o s e t h a t e a r li e r C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s ( f ro m w h o m ,

a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n — n o t q u i t e c o n c l u s i v e — i n d i c a t i o n s ,

A g a p i u s t o o k o v e r h i s v e r s i o n ) t a m p e r e d n o m o r e t h a n h e d i d

w i t h t h e t e x t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e n o g r o u n d s w h a t e v e r

f o r s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h i s v e r s i o n w a s a t s o m e t i m e o r o t h e r

m a n i p u l a t e d a n d a d a p t e d b y J e w s o r b y P a g a n s f o r t h e i r a n t i -

C h r i s t i a n p u r p o s e s . T h e d e c i s i v e a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h i s s u p p o s i

t i o n i s t h a t t h i s v e r s i o n i s i n n o w a y h o s t i l e t o J e s u s o r t o

C h r i s t i a n i t y .On the o the r hand , the ob jec t ion tha t has been e f f ec t ive ly

b r o u g h t t o b e a r a g a i n s t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m

d o e s n o t a p p l y t o A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . T h e l a t t e r d o e s n o t e x p r e s s

a n y d o u b t a s t o t h e p r o p r i e t y o f d e s i g n a t i n g J e s u s a s a m a n .

H i s a p p e a r a n c e a f t e r d e a t h i s r e f e r r e d t o a s s o m e t h i n g r e p o r t e d

b y t h e d i s c i p l e s ; i t i s n o t s t a t e d t h a t t h i s a p p e a r a n c e w a s a f a c t .

T h e s e n t e n c e t h a t m e n t i o n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e w a s t h e

M e s s i a h f o r e t o l d b y t h e p r o p h e t s c o n t a i n s t h e d u b i t a t i v e a d v e r b

perhaps - Id alia, w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n , a s w e s h a l l s e e , t h e n o t

q u i t e a d e q u a t e r e n d e r i n g o f a S y r i a c w o r d .

I n i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m t h e s e n t e n c e m a y h a v e r e a d : He was thought

to be the M essiah concerning whom the prophets have related

wonders. A l l t h e s e t r a i t s a p p e a r t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f

t h i s v e r s i o n n e e d n o t h a v e b e e n a C h r i s t i a n . 9 4 Indeed , i t i s

h a r d l y c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a C h r i s t i a n , e v e n i f h e s e t o u t t o c o m p o s e

a p i e c e o f w r i t i n g t h a t w a s t o b e p a s s e d o ff a s J o s e p h u s ' , w o u l d

h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y r e f e r re d t o J e s u s w i t h t h e l u k e w a r m a d m i r a t i o n

9 3 A t a m p e r i n g w i t h t h e v u l g a t e t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i n o r d e r t o

l e s s e n — a d m i t t e d l y o n l y i n a s l i g h t m e a s u r e — t h e i m p r o b a b i l i t y o f

i ts h a v i n g b e e n w r i t t e n b y J o s e p h u s h a s b e e n a s c r i b e d b y s o m e s c h o l a r s

t o S t . J e r o m e ( cf . b e l o w , p . 4 3 ) . I n h i s c a s e , t o o , t h i s s u g g e s t i o n s e e m s

t o b e m o s t u n l i k e l y .

9 4 T h o u g h i t m a y h a v e b e e n t a m p e r e d w i t h b y a C h r i s t i a n .



a n d t h e l a c k o f s u p e r l a t i v e s 9 5 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n

a n d w o u l d h a v e t a k e n c a r e ( a s t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s v e r s i o n

e v i d e n t l y h a s d o n e ) t o a v o i d a n y s t a t e m e n t i n w h i c h t h e

a p p e a r a n c e o f J e s u s a f t e r h i s d e a t h a n d h i s M e s s i a h s h i p a r e

un equ ivo ca l ly r e f e r r ed to a s f ac t s 9 6 I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m a i n ,

o r t h e p h i l o l o g i c a l l y m o s t v a l i d , o b j e c t i o n t o t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y

o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m d o e s n o t a p p l y t o A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . A g a p i u s '

A r a b i c t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y t r a n s l a t e d

f r o m a S y r ia c v e r s i o n o f t h e G r e e k o r i g i n a l . 9 7 I t i s h igh ly

p r o b a b l e t h a t i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s , a n d a l s o a s a

r e s u l t o f s c r i b a l e r r o r s , s o m e a l t e r a t i o n s , n o t d u e t o a d e l i b e r a t ea t t e m p t a t d i s t o r t i o n , w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e t e x t . R e f e re n c e

h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e t o a S y ri a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ,

w h i c h s e e m s t o p r o v i d e s o m e p o i n t e r s t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h

a l t e r a t i o n s i n A g a p i u s ' t e x t . T h i s v e r s i o n o c c u r s i n M i c h a e l t h e

S y r i a n ' s c h r o n i c l e . 9 8 T h i s a u t h o r w a s b o r n i n 1 12 6 a n d w a s

P a t r i a r c h o f A n t i o c h fr o m 1 16 6 t o 1 1 9 9 ; h e t h u s l i v ed m o r e

t h a n t h r e e c e n t u r i e s a f t e r A g a p i u s . B e c a u s e o f t h e p o i n t s o f

s i m i l a r i t y a s w e l l a s d i v e r g e n c y i t se e m s n e c e s s a r y t o c o m p a r e

h i s v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h t h e o n e f o u n d i n t h e

S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica.

9 5 E x c e p t , p e r h a p s , i n p r a i s e o f J e s u s ' l e a r n i n g ; s e e a b o v e , n . 7 4 .

9 6 T h i s d o e s n o t , o f c o u r s e , m e a n t h a t a C h r i s t i a n m a y n o t h a v e a l t e r e d

t h i s v e r s i o n , w h i c h i n i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m m a y h a v e b e e n l e s s f a v o u r a b l e

t o J e s u s t h a n i s t h e t e x t k n o w n t o u s ; s e e b e l o w , p . 6 9 .

9 7 T h i s S y r i a c v e r s i o n m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d i n t h e h i s t o r i ca l w o r k o f t h e

S y r i a c a u t h o r T h e o p h i l o s , w h o m a y h a v e b e e n A g a p i u s ' m a i n s o u r c e ;

s e e a b o v e , n . 5 .

9 8 T h e S y r i a c t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s i n J . B . C h a b o t ' s p u b l i c a

t i o n i n f a c s i m i l e a n d t r a n s l a t i o n , V o l . I V , P a r i s 1 9 1 0 , p . 9 1 ; t h e F r e n c h

t r a n s l a t i o n m a y b e f o u n d i n V o l . I , P a r i s 1 8 9 9 , p p . 1 4 4 - 1 4 5 .



Michael the Syrian 99 The Syriac Translat ion

of Historia Ecclesiastica100

9 9 T h e t e x t ( p u b l i s h e d i n f a c s i m i l e ) i s r a t h e r a p o o r o n e , a s m a y b e s e e n

b y c o m p a r i n g i t w i t h t h e v e r s i o n o f t h e S y r i a c Historia Ecclesiastica,

w h i c h , a s f ar a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f th e T e s t i m o n i u m i s c o n c e r n e d , i s l a r g e l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h i s t e x t .

1 0 0 The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius in Syriac, e d . W r i g h t & M c L e a n ,

p . 4 8 ; c f . Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 1 1 : 7 - 8 .

1 0 1 J o s e p h u s ; s e e W r i g h t & M c L e a n , p . 4 7 , 1 . 5 .

1 0 2 O n e M S r e a d s

1 0 3 O n e M S r ea d s

1 0 4 O n e M S r e a d s ^

1 0 5 O n e M S readsvAXU 1

1 0 6 A t h ir d S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , d i ff e r in g f r o m t h e t w o

o t h e r s , o c c u r s i n t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Theophania, t h e

G r e e k o r i g i n a l o f w h i c h i s l o s t . T h i s v e r s i o n r e a d s :

( e d . S . L e e , L o n d o n 1 8 4 2 , V , 4 4 )

T h i s t e x t m a y b e r e n d e r e d a s f o l l o w s :

From Joseph on the Messiah:

At that time there was a wise man b n m = ά ν ή ρ ] named Jesus, if it



is fitting to call him a man fow iK p r o b a b l y m e a n s ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ς ]. For he

was a worker of marvellous deeds and a teacher of men— [that is] of those

who in truth accept grace [ o r : pleasure; the t e x t s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be

e m e n d e d ; G r e s s m a n n in his G e r m a n t r a n s l a t io n ( s e e b e l o w ) r e p l a c e s t h i s

s e n t e n c e by the p a r a l l e l s e n t e n c e o f t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , g i v i n ga r e n d e r i n g of the S y r i a c p h r a s e in a f o o t n o t e ] — and he gathered to-

gether many of the Jews and many of the Pagans, And he was the Messiah,

When, according to the example [ G r e s s m a n n a g a i n s u b s t i t u t e s , fo r the

S y r i a c p h r a s e w h i c h he t r a n s l a t e s in a f o o t n o t e , the p h r a s e o f t h e G r e e k

v u l g a t e ; he b e l i e v e s p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t l y t h a t the d i v e r g e n c e of the S y r i a c

t e x t f r o m the G r e e k is du e to a m i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f έ ν δ ε ί ξ ε ι ] of our chief

[and] principal [men], Pilate crucified him, those who had previously

loved him were not silent. For he appeared to them on the third day alive;the divine prophets having said about him this and many other [things].

From then till now the sect of the Christians has not been wanting,

H . G r e s s m a n n ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e S y r i a c Theophania h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d

i n the s e r i e s Die griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei

Jahrhunderte: Eusebius' Werke, Vol . III, P a r t 2 , L e i p z i g 1904. C o m

p a r i n g the S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Theophania w i t h t h a t o f t h e Historia

Ecclesiastica, G r e s s m a n n n o t e s t h a t the f o r m e r , in c o n t r a s t to the

l a t t e r , s l a v i s h l y f o l l o w s the G r e e k t e x t . T he T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s in hi s

t r a n s l a t i o n on p. 2 5 0 * . H e r e n d e r s KS^ pî O l B ^ D nœnn D O ID - Als

Pilatus ihn,,, zu kreuzigen sich in den Kopf gesetzt hatte. In m y o p i n i o n

t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g of the p h r a s e , w h i c h is p r o b a b l y s o m e w h a t c o r

r u p t , m ay be a s c e r t a i n e d f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the p a r a l l e l and

s i m i l a r p h r a s e o c c u r i n g in the S y r i a c v e r s i o n of the Historia Eccle

siastica a n d in t h a t of M i c h a e l : K n ^ S T iWnn DOD1

? Dltt^D m n \ T h i s

p a r a l l e l s e e m s to i n d i c a t e t h a t the p h r a s e o c c u r i n g in the Theophania

v e r s i o n o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t W hen Pilate crucified him; t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s ,

b y and l a r g e , to the s i g n i f i c a t i o n of the S y r i a c w o r d s , w h i c h m e a n

l i t e r a l l y When Pilate put a cross in his head.



Rendering of Michael 's Text

The writer Josephus also says

in his work on the institutions

of the Jews: In these times

there was a wise man named

Jesus, if it is fitting for us to

call him a man. For he was

a worker of glorious107

deeds

and a teacher of truth.108

Many from among the Jewsand the nations became his

disciples. H e was thought to

be the Messiah.109

But not110

according to the testimony of

the principal [men] of [our]

nation. Because of this, Pilate

condemned him to the cross,

and he died. For those who

had loved him did not cease

to love him. He appeared to

them alive after three days.

For the prophets of God had

spoken with regard to him of

such marvellous things [as

these111

]. And the people of

the Christians, nam ed after

him, has not disappeared till

[this] day.

Rendering of the Syriac Transla

tion of Historia Ecclesiastica

For he [Josephus] also speaks

thus in the book of his

History112

about our Saviour:

In that time there was one

wise man named Jesus — if

[indeed] it is fitting to call

him a man. For he was a worker

of glorious113

deeds and a

teacher of men: [that is] ofthose who accept truth with

desire. And he turned many

of the Jews and likewise many

from among the other nations

into his disciples. For he was

the Messiah. [But] upon the

testimony 114 of the principal

men of our nation, Pilate

condemned him to the cross.

Those who had loved him

did not cease to love him.

For he appeared to them

alive again after three days.

For the prophets of God had

spoken with regard to him of

this and myriads of other

marvellous things of this [kind].

And the people of the

Christians, named after him,

has not disappeared till our day.

1 0 7 O r : praiseworthy, o r : fine.

1 0 8 O n e i s t e m p t e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g c o r r e s p o n d e d t o

t h a t o f E u s e b i u s ' v e r s i o n : a teacher of men [i.e.] of those who receive

truth with desire. O n t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n M i c h a e l ' s p h r a s e a s g i v e n i n t h e



In a co m pa r i s on o f t he tw o Syr iac ve rs ions w i th wh ich we a re

m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d , t h a t o f M i c h a e l a n d t h a t o f t h e

S y r i ac t r a n s l a t i o n o f Historia Ecclesiastica ( a t h i r d one be ing

th e recen s ion th a t occu rs i n t h e Syr i ac ve rs ion o f E use b iu s '

Theophania115

), on e fac t s ta nd s ou t ve ry c lea r ly : a s fa r a s th e

gre a te r p a r t of th e tex t i s con cern ed, th ese vers ions a re ve ry

s imi l a r a nd ref le ct t he sam e t ran s l a t i on . Th i s i s i nd ica t ed no t

on ly by the use o f t he same word ing in sen tences tha t r ende r

l i t e ra l ly the Greek vulga te recens ion , but a l so by the use of the

M S c o u l d , p e r h a p s , h a v e b e e n d u e t o t h e p r o b a b l y a c c i d e n t a l o m i s s i o n

o f a f e w w o r d s .

1 0 9 T h e s e n t e n c e m a y a l s o b e t r a n s l a t e d Perhaps he was the Messiah.

1 1 0 law. T h i s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e r e a d i n g i n t h e t e x t k n o w n t o M i c h a e l .

I t i s a l s o f o u n d i n o n e o f th e M S S o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f Historia

Ecclesiastica, i n s t e a d o f leh, w h i c h p e r h a p s i s t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g .

S e e t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S y r i a c t e x t o f

E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica.

1 1 1 P r o b a b l y M i c h a e l h a d b e f o r e h i m t h e S y r i a c t e x t o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia

Ecclesiastica a s q u o t e d a b o v e . T h e o m i s s i o n o f t h e w o r d s n i l ^bn

f r o m t h e M S o f M i c h a e l i s p r o b a b l y d u e t o sc r ib a l n e g l i g e n c e .

1 1 2 L i t e r a l l y : in the book of his narrative-niVWin I n t h e S y r i a c

t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates

a re re f erred t o by t h i s n a m e o r a re s im ply des ig n a t ed a s n rV OTJ i ; f o r

t h e l a t t e r d e s i g n a t i o n , s e e : The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius in

Syriac, p . 4 3 , 1 . 5 , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e q u o t a t i o n i n Historia

Ecclesiastica, I , 9 : 2 . n n w i Κ 3Γ Ο o c c u r s o n p . 4 5 , 1 . 7 , w h i c h

p a r a l l e l s t h e q u o t a t i o n i n t h e G r e e k Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 9 : 4 .

Bellum Judaicum i s referred to in The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius

in Syriac, p . 2 7 , 1 . 2 0 ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e q u o t a t i o n i n Historia

Ecclesiastica, I , 5 : 6 ) a s ί Ρ Τ Ι Π Ή * Ο Ί ρ τ Κ Γ Ρ 57Ρ η . O n p . 4 0 , 1 . 1 1

( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 9 ) , Bellum Judaicum

i s po s s ib ly re f erred t o a s Nrrnrm Krvswn. O n p . 2 7 , 1 1. 2 - 3 , t h e

w o r d s jy»a m m K I V W O T Ν Ι Π Γ Ο Ο ρ Κ Ϊ Ρ Ύ » m a i o w w orfra

r e n d e r ό τ ω ν π α ρ * Έ β ρ α ίο ι ς ε π ι σ η μ ό τ α τ ο ς Ι σ τ ο ρ ι κ ώ ν (Historia

Ecclesiastica, I , 5 : 3 ) .

1 1 3 O r : praiseworthy; o r : fine.

1 1 4 S e e n . 1 1 0 t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h r a s e i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .

1 1 5 S e e a b o v e , n . 1 0 6 .



s a m e e x p r e s s i o n in t h r e e c a s e s in w h i c h the r e n d e r i n g is not

q u i t e l i t e r a l and, an e v e n s t r o n g e r a r g u m e n t , by the f a c t t h a t

i n one s e n t e n c e b o t h v e r s i o n s d e v i a t e in e x a c t l y the s a m e

m a n n e r f r o m t h i s v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n .

T h e i n s t a n c e s of a not q u i t e l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n o c c u r in:

1. The t h i r d s e n t e n c e of the T e s t i m o n i u m , in w h i c h b o t h

S y r i a c v e r s i o n s t r a n s l a t e α π ό τ ο ν Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ - ρ - from

the nations.

2. The f i f th sentence, inw h i c h t h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n s t r a n s l a t e π α ρ *

ή μ ϊ ν - or psn - of the nation, or of our nation.

3 . The l a s t s e n t e n c e , in w h i c h εις ετι τε vvv is r e n d e r e dHaart TO, or Kör*? m TS7 - till our day, or //// [this] day.

I t m a y , of c o u r s e , be a r g u e d t h a t in the first and se c o n d c a se a

l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n s l i g h t l y a w k w a r d , and t h a t

i n the t h i r d l i t e r a l n e s s is a l m o s t p r e s e r v e d . H o w e v e r , we sh a l l

s e e l a t e r t h a t two of t hese s l igh t d ive rgenc ie s f rom the G r e e k

v u l g a t e m a y c a r r y so m e s i g n i f i c a n c e .

A s u b s t a n t i v e d e v i a t i o n f r o m the G r e e k v u l g a t e f o u n d in the

t w o S y r i a c v e r s i o n s o c c u r s in the se n t e n c e \Ύ Ο Π *Π1 1 6

p7 pam

Π 31Π p V^W tf? - For117

those who had loved him did not cease

to love him. As far as I k n o w , the w o r d s nain p ( t r a n s l a t e d

a b o v e to love him) or t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t o c c u r in no o t h e r v e r

s i o n of the T e s t i m o n i u m .

A s a g a i n s t t h i s , t h r e e p o i n t s of d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n the two

S y r i a c v e r s i o n s s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d : 1 1 8

1. In the s e c o n d s e n t e n c e of the T e s t i m o n i u m , M i c h a e l ' s t e x t

r e a d s M * W T iWö^öl-tf teacher of truth, w h e r e a s E u s e b i u s ' t e x t

r e a d s XTXtih 7h ptapö κ η λ Ί ίΠ pan Ht&ttK M D ^ ö I - a teacher of

men, [i.e.] of those who accept truth with desire. As has b e e n

i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , t h i s d i v e r g e n c e m a y be d u e to the o m i s s i o n by

1 1 6 T h i s w o r d a p p e a r s o n l y in M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n ,

1 1 7 T h i s w o r d o c c u r s o n l y i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .

1 1 8 O t h e r p o i n t s of d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n the t w o v e r s i o n s are t oo s l i g h t a n d

u n i m p o r t a n t to be l i s t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h our e n q u i r y .



a scribe of a number of words, but since it is paralleled in a

Greek Byzantine version, it may also indicate a différent

tradition.

Even in the latter case, the divergence does not seem to be due

t o a different view of the historical facts or to doctrinal differ-

ences. The two other points of divergence to which we shall

refer are of greater significance.

2 . The fourth sentence of the Testimonium as given by Michael

reads Kin XRHFTFT manOfc- He was thought (or : He seemed) to

be the Messiah. In the Syriac translation of Eusebius' Historia

Ecclesiastica the sentence reads Κ 3Π THIVK γ η WW - For hewas the Messiah. Michael's version mentions that some people

thought that Jesus was the Christ, but does not commit the

author. No pronouncement is made as to the t ruth of this

belief. In Eusebius' version, on the other hand, Jesus' Messiah-

ship is asserted to be a fact.

3 . In Michael's version the last part of the fifth sentence reads:1 1 9 IKrtyr iwma ÖOÖ*? Ö I B ^ D narr - Pilate condemned him to

the cross and he died. Eusebius' version does not have the word

- and he died; it agrees on this point with the Greek vulgate.

Both the statement that Jesus died on the cross and the failure

to make such a statement may quite evidently be due to theo-

logical reasons and have theological implications.

Various hypotheses may be brought forward in order to account

for the existence of the divergences 2 and 3. One may suppose

that the Syriac translation of Eusebius' version of the Testi-

monium as it is known to us has at sometime been brought into

line with the Greek text of Eusebius, having been originally

different, and that Michael's version reflects the original text.

One may mention in this connection A. Merx's view that the

Greek original of the Syriac version was the earliest recension [ofthe Historia Ecclesiastica], afterwards to some extent modified and

119 The reading Ktrmn OOöV is made quite certain by a comparison

wi th the Syriac Historia Ecclesiastica.



so brought into the form which is now preserved in the Greek

manuscripts} 20 O r o n e m a y s u p p o s e — a n d t h i s m a y , prima

facie, b e a m o r e p l a u s i b l e h y p o t h e s i s — t h a t M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n ,

w h i c h m o s t l y a g r e e s w i t h , a n d a p p e a r s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m , t h e

r e c e n s i o n o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u se b i u s ' Historia Eccle

siastica, h a s b e e n c o n t a m i n a t e d b y s o m e o t h e r r e c e n s i o n ,

w h i c h o c c u r r e d i n a n o t h e r s o u r c e .

O n e c a n a l so e n v i s a g e a t h i r d — i n m y o p i n i o n , a v e r y u n

l i k e l y — h y p o t h e s i s , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h d i v e r g e n c i e s 2 a n d 3

b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n a n d t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f

E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica a r e d u e t o t h e f o r m e r t e x t ' sh a v i n g b e e n t a m p e r e d w i t h f o r d o c t r i n a l r e a s o n s , o r i n o r d e r

t o l e n d c o l o u r t o t h e c l a i m t h a t Jo se p h u s i s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m . T o m y m i n d i t i s v e r y i m p r o b a b l e t h a t a S y r i a c

a u t h o r o f t h e p e r i o d e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e f o u r t h o r t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f the f i f th cen tu ry (when Euseb ius ' Historia Ecclesiastica w a s

t r a n s l a t e d i n t o S y r i a c ) t o t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y ( w h e n M i c h a e l

l i v e d ) sh o u l d f o r v a g u e , p r e su m a b l y d o c t r i n a l , r e a so n s h a v ei n s e r te d i n t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m t h e w o r d r P ö l - and he died.

I t i s pe rh ap s even m or e un l ike ly th a t th i s hy po the t i ca l Sy r i ac

a u t h o r s h o u l d h a v e m o d i f i e d t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a s s e r t i o n o f

J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p f o u n d i n t h e v u l g a t e o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ,

b e c a u se t h i s a s s e r t i o n m i g h t n o t b e i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t

Jo se p h u s w a s a J e w , a n d m i g h t t h e r e f o r e l e a d t o a d o u b t

c o n c e r n i n g J o s e p h u s ' a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . A s f a r a s

w e k n o w , J o s e p h u s ' a u t h o r s h i p o f t h i s d o c u m e n t w a s n o t

q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e S y r i a c m i l i e u d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d ; t h e r e w a s

a c c o r d i n g l y n o r e a s o n t o b u t t r e s s h i s c la i m b y m o d i f y in g t h e

t e x t . A p h i l o l o g i c a l , a n d t h e r e f o r e p e r h a p s a m o r e t e l l i n g ,

a r g u m e n t m a y a l s o b e d r a w n f r o m S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s io n

( see be low, p . 40 ) .

1 2 0 G i v e n i n h i s ' N o t e s o n t h e A r m e n i a n v e r s i o n ' , p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e d i t i o n

o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica b y W r i g h t

a n d M c L e a n , p . x v i i .



Befo re we go i n t o t h i s , we s h a l l c o m p a r e , in p a r t , M i c h a e l ' s

S y r i a c v e r s i o n of the T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c

r e c e n s i o n . We h a v e r e f e r r e d a b o v e to two po in t s (d ive rgenc ie s

2 and 3) on w h i c h t h e r e s e e m to be signif icant d if ferences

b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s t e x t and the S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n of E u s e b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica. On b o t h t h e s e p o i n t s , the Syr iac t ex t of

w h i c h A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n i s a t r a n s l a t i o n a p p e a r s ( t h o u g h p e r h a p s

n o t at the first glance) to h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r t o , or i d e n t i c a l w i t h ,

M i c h a e l ' s t e x t . 1 2 1

1 . M i c h a e l ' s t e x t r e a d s Κ ΊΠ ΊΓ Ρ Κ MTOftn manoö - He was thought

to be the Messiah; t h e r e is a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n : Itseemed that he was the Messiah, for m a n O B may m e a n it

seemed.122

A g a p i u s ' t e x t r e a d s fa-la*alla huwa al-maslh - Accordingly123

he was perhaps the Messiah.12* The m e a n i n g of t h i s s e n t e n c e

a p p r o x i m a t e s c l o s e l y to t h a t of the Syr iac sen tence if the sec

o n d r e n d e r i n g is a d o p t e d .

T h e r e is, in my o p i n i o n , a d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w h o e v e rt r a n s l a t e d the T e s t i m o n i u m f r o m the S y r i a c i n t o A r a b i c , be it

A g a p i u s h i m s e l f or s o m e b o d y e l s e , f o u n d in the Syr iac t ex t a

p h r a s e i d e n t i c a l w i t h , or v e r y c l o se to, M i c h a e l ' s p h r a s e q u o t e d

a b o v e , and t h a t he r e n d e r e d ananoö by Id alia - perhaps.

2. M i c h a e l ' s t e x t r e a d s : rpöl Κ !Ρ ^2Π w n a DOö1

? OTöV* narr -

Pilate condemned him to the cross and he died.

A g a p i u s ' p a r a l l e l s e n t e n c e r e a d s : c ^ i lj ^ i s J U ^ o\fj -

Pilate condemned him to be crucified and to die.

121 It is s i m i l a r b o t h to M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n and to t h a t of the S y r i a c t r a n s

l a t i o n of E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica in h a v i n g in the t h i r d s e n t e n c e

o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m from . . . the other nations as c o m p a r e d w i t h τ ο ν

Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ of the v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n .

1 2 2 Se e R. P a y n e - S m i t h , Thesaurus Syriacus, s.v.

1 2 3 Or: and.

1 2 4 T h e r e f e re n c e to J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p is p l a c e d in A g a p i u s ' v e r s io n at the

e n d o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , w h e r e a s it o c c u r s in all th e o t h e r v e r s i o n s , in

c l u d i n g M i c h a e l ' s , in the m i d d l e of the t e x t ; o n t h i s p o i n t , see b e l o w ,

n . 145.



T h u s , b o t h S y r i a c and A r a b i c r e c e n s i o n s c o n t a i n , c o n t r a r y to

o t h e r v e r s i o n s , 1 2 5an expl ic i t r e ference to J e s u s ' d e a t h . The

d i f f e r ence be tween them may be due to a m i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the

Syr iac tex t re f lec ted in A g a p i u s ' p h r a s e .

T h e r e can be no c e r t a i n t y , but the fo l lowing con jec tu re seems

t o be r a t h e r p r o b a b l e and to i n v o l v e o n l y a m i n i m a l a l t e r a t i o n

o f the t e x t . We may s u p p o s e t h a t the A r a b i c t r a n s l a t o r r e a d ,

p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e of a sc r i b a l e r r o r , awna Dorf? Olö^ö nam

m »1 Kir^m ( i n s t e a d of jyö); t h i s c o u l d be r e n d e r e d Pilate

condemned him to be crucified and to die,126 w h i c h is the se n t e n c e

f o u n d in A g a p i u s .T h i s r e c o n s t i t u t i o n is b a s e d on M i c h a e l ' s t e x t , as the s t a t e m e n t

i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h J e su s was c o n d e m n e d

b o t h to be crucif ied and to die, s e e m s not on ly to run c o u n t e r

t o a l l t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s of t h e se n te n c e p r o n o u n c e d by

P i l a t e , but a l s o to be r e d u n d a n t .

M i c h a e l ' s t e x t , on the o t h e r h a n d , m e n t i o n s a c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t

i s e ssen t i a l to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s t o r y , but is on ly a l ludedt o b y i m p l i c a t i o n in the G r e e k v u l g a t e , for έ φ ά ν η γ α ρ α ν τ ο ϊ ς ...

π ά λ ι ν ζ ώ ν - . . . he appeared to them restored to life c e r t a i n l y

i m p l i e s t h a t J e s u s had d i e d ; but, as far as I k n o w , A g a p i u s '

r e c e n s i o n is the o n l y one in w h i c h the fac t is s t a t e d ex

p l i c i t l y . 1 2 7

I r e p e a t t h a t t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n is by no m e a n s c e r t a i n , n e v e r -

1 2 5 E x c e p t the r e c e n s i o n of the s o - c a l le d E g e s i p p u s ' L a t i n v e r s i o n , w h i c h ,

h o w e v e r , r e f e r s to it in a s e n t e n c e t h a t o c c u r s in the T e s t i m o n i u m

af te r the on e w i t h w h i c h w e are d e a l i n g .

1 2 6 T h e f a c t t h a t the f o r m mö is of r a r e o c c u r r e n c e (the u s u a l f o r m b e i n g

Ν mfc) w o u l d n o t , of c o u r s e , be a r e a s o n for a t r a n s l a t o r , who t h o u g h t

t h a t he e n c o u n t e r e d it in a t e x t , to f o r g o r e n d e r i n g it in A r a b i c .

1 2 7 T h e r e is a r e f e r e n c e to it ( w h i c h d o e s n o t a m o u n t to a d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t )

i n the s o - c a l l e d E g e s i p p u s ' L a t i n v e r s i o n (see a b o v e , n. 125, and

b e l o w , n. 156). An e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t t h a t J e s u s d i e d may h a v e b e e n

i n c l u d e d in the o r i g i n a l T e s t i m o n i u m ( w h a t e v e r th e l a tt e r 's o r i g i n and

e x a c t w o r d i n g may h a v e b e e n ) , for w i t h o u t it the r e f e r e n c e to his

a p p e a r i n g r e s t o r e d to l i fe is so a b r u p t as to be a l m o s t u n i n t e l l i g i b l e .



t h e l e s s i t s e e m s w o r t h w h i l e t r a n s l a t i n g A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s io n

m o d i f i e d i n t h e l i g h t o f M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n : 1 2 8 Similarly Josephus

the Hebrew. For he says in the treatises that he has written on

the governance of the Jews: At this time there w as a man who

was called Jesus. His conduct was good, and he was known to be

virtuous.129

And many people from among the Jews and the other

nations becam e his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified,

and he died.130

And those who had become his disciples did not

abandon his discipleship. They reported that he had appeared to

them three days after his crucifixion and that he was alive.

Accordingly he was thought131

to be the M essiah, concerningwhom the prophets have related wonders.

D e s p i t e t h e n o t e w o r t h y p o i n t s o f r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s

S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a n d A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c

r e c e n s i o n , t h e t w o c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g t w o s p e c i m e n s

o f the same r ecens ion . No t a l l o f the d i f f e r ences be tween the

t w o c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s s c r i b a l e r r o r s o r m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s ,

h a b i t u a l l y p r o d u c e d b y t r a n s p o s i t i o n fr o m o n e l a n g u a g e t o

ano the r o r by o the r causes ; some o f these d i f f e r ences a r e ve ry

s ign i f ican t indeed . I sha l l no te four d ivergencies o f vary ing

d e g r e e s o f i m p o r t a n c e .

1. I n t h e fi rs t s e n t e n c e o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , A g a p i u s o m i t s

t h e w o r d s f o u n d i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n i n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e a n d

i n o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s if it is fitting to call him a man. T h i s m a y b e

an omiss ion due to sc r iba l neg l igence , bu t th i s i s by no means

c e r t a i n . Pace E i s l e r , 1 3 2 t h e w o r d s i n q u e s t i o n c e r t a i n l y s u g g e s t

1 2 8 P e r h a p s i t w o u l d b e m o r e a c c u r a t e t o s a y t h a t t h i s r e n d e r i n g a i m s a t

r e c o n s t r u c t i n g s o m e p a s s a g e s o f t h e S y r i a c t e x t t r a n s l a t e d b y A g a p i u s

i n t o A r a b i c . S e e a l s o t h e n o t e s t o o u r f ir st t r a n s l a t i o n o f A g a p i u s ' t e x t .

1 2 9 O r : His conduct was good and his learning was outstanding.

1 3 0 T h e t r a n s l a t i o n h a s b e e n m o d i f i e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .

1 3 1 O r : / / seemed that he was the Messiah. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n c o n f o r m s t o

M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n i n a g r e e m e n t o n t h i s p o i n t

w i t h A g a p i u s ' S y r i a c s o u r c e .

1 3 2 Op. cit., pp. 55 f f .



that the author of the phrase tended to believe that Jesus

transcended ordinary humanity, whereas the author of Agapius'

recension gives no indication in any passage of the Testimonium

that he personally was inclined to favour such a view.

2 . In the second sentence there is the following difference:

Agapius' Text

And his conduct was good and

he was known to be virtuous.

Or, according to al-Makin's

quotat ion:And his conduct was good and

his learning was outstanding.

Michael's Version

For he was a worker of

glorious deeds and a teacher of

truth

which may b e1 3 3

a somewhatabridged version of that of

the Syriac text of Eusebius.

The words and his conduct was good - wa-kanat lahu slra hasana

might be interpreted — though perhaps not very convincing

ly — as not being essentially very different from the Syriac

words arrntP*nnsn KTWO Τ Α Kin vnrPK, which may be translated

not as above, but for he was a worker of fine deeds.134

Indeed,

it might be argued (though the contention does not seem to be

very probable) that the Arabic words in question are a free

paraphrase of the Syriac text. There can, however, be no doubt

that whereas the words Κ Γ Ή ΐΡ *Π 35Π Κ Ί1570, like the paral

l e l Greek1 3 5

π α ρ α δ ό ξ ω ν136

έ ρ γ ω ν π ο ι η τ ή ς , possibly refer to

133 This is not certain.

134 T h e rendering of the phrase in the Syriac version of the Testimonium

occuring in the Theophania is — in contradistinction to the versions o f

the Syriac translation o f Historia Ecclesiastica and o f Michael — quite

u n e q u i v o c a l . It has Nmiö^m n n S T K H T D » Τ Ι Κ 1Π - for he was a

doer of marvellous deeds.

135 T he Syriac words do not render with any accuracy the connotation

of the Greek text.

136 Cf. H . G . Liddell & R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford 1961,

s.v.; Eisler, pp. 61 if. In Luke v:2 , π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α appears to denote a mir-

a c l e . It is an interesting fact that Celsus, quoted by Origen (Contra



e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e e d s p e r f o r m e d b y J e s u s , t h e A r a b i c w o r d s

q u o t e d a b o v e c a n n o t h a v e t h i s m e a n i n g . T h e y d o n o t i n a n y

w a y c o n n o t e m a r v e l l o u s o r e v e n u n u s u a l c o n d u c t o r d e e d s .

T h e l a s t w o r d s i n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o f t h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e h a v e

even g rea te r s ign i f i cance i f t hey a r e compared wi th the pa ra l l e l

w o r d s i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .

M i c h a e l ' s t e x t r e a d s : and he was... a teacher of truth - Kiö^öl

Κ Ί Ί ΐΐΠ . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e a u t h o r o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m r e c

ogn ized , acco rd ing to th i s r ecens ion , the t each ing o f Je sus a s

t h e t r u t h . 1 3 7 A s a g a i n s t t h i s , t h e p a r a l l e l w o r d s i n A g a p i u s '

v e r s i o n d o n o t i m p l y i n a n y w a y a n a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e C h r i s t i a np o s i t i o n — i n d e e d , t h e r e i s n o p a s s a g e i n t h i s v e r s i o n t h a t

e x p r e s s e s a s e n t i m e n t o f s o l i d a r i t y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a u t h o r

w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e w o r d s i n q u e s t i o n m e r e l y

a d d a n o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e l o w - k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f J e s u s '

p r a i s e w o r t h y q u a l i t i e s , t h e f irst p a r t o f w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y

d i s c u s s e d : and he was known to be virtuous - wa-ulima annahu

fädil. 138

3 . C o n t r a r y t o M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n a n d t o m o s t , o r a l l , o t h e r s ,

A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n d o e s n o t r e f e r i n i t s f o u r t h s e n t e n c e ( o r

a n y w h e r e e l s e ) t o t h e p a r t p l a y e d b y t h e p r i n c i p a l m e n a m o n g

t h e J e w s i n P i l a t e ' s c o n d e m n a t i o n o f J e su s . T h i s i s p e r h a p s a n

omiss ion due to sc r iba l neg l igence , bu t i t m igh t a l so be a t r a i t

t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h i s r e c e n s i o n f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g .

Celsum, I , 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 ) , a s s e r t s t h a t J e s u s was able to work by magic the

π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α that he seemed to perform - ώ ς γ ο η τ ε ία δ υ ν η θ έ ν τ ο ς ä ε δ ο ξ ε

π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α π ε π ο ι η κ έ ν α ι. T h e e x p r e s s i o n π α ρ ά δ ο ξ α π ε π ο ι η κ έ ν α ι a p p l i e d

t o J e s u s i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e w o r d s π α ρ α δ ό ξ ω ν έ ρ γ ω ν π ο ι η τ ή ς i n t h e

v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .

1 3 7 T h i s i s a l s o p r e s u p p o s e d i n t h e S y r i a c v e r s i o n o f t h e Historia Eccle

siastica, w h i c h r e a d s he was . . . a teacher of men who accept truth with

desire, a s w e l l a s i n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n δ ιδ ά σ κ α λ ο ς α ν θ ρ ώ π ω ν

τ ω ν ή δ ο ν η τ ά λ η θ ή δ ε χ ό μ ε ν ω ν .

1 3 8 O r , a s i n a l - M a k î n s ' v a r i a n t , his learning wa s outstanding - wa-'ilm



4 . T h e f i f t h s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m

r e a d s : They [the disciples] reported that he appeared to them

three days after the crucifixion .- dhakam annahu zahara lahum

ba'da thaläthat ayyam m in çalbihi.

T h u s , i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n a n d t o a l l

o t h e r s , 1 3 9 Jesus ' appea rance a f t e r the c ruc i f ix ion i s r e f e r r ed to

i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n a s a m a t t e r o f r e p o r t a n d n o t a s a n

i n d u b i t a b l e f a c t . I n t h i s c a se , t o o , t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s r e c e n s i o n

d o e s n o t c o m m i t h i m se l f a n d s t a t e h i s o w n o p i n i o n a s t o t h e

t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r .

A n o t h e r m u c h l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l p e r t a i n i n g t o t h i s s e n t e n c esh o u l d a l so b e m e n t i o n e d . I n r e f e r r i n g t o t h e d a t e o f J e su s '

a p p e a r a n c e t o h i s d i s c i p l e s , M i c h a e l a n d t h e S y r i a c r e c e n s i o n o f

Historia Ecclesiastica e m p l o y t h e w o r d s after three days} 40

A g a p i u s ' t e x t r e a d s : three days after his crucifixion. T h i s w o r d i n g

i s m u c h c l e a r e r , a n d t h e d i v e r g e n c y m a y h a v e r e su l t e d f r o m a n

a t t e m p t b y w h o e v e r t r a n s l a t e d t h e s e n t e n c e f r o m t h e S y r i a c i n t o

A r a b i c t o a v o i d v a g u e n e s s . H o w e v e r , t h i s i s n o t c e r t a i n , a n di t m a y b e r e l e v a n t t o o b se r v e t h a t E g e s i p p u s u se s a so m e w h a t

s i m i l a r p h r a se ( s e e b e l o w , n . 1 5 6 ) .

5 . I t h a s b e e n su g g e s t e d a b o v e t h a t t h e l a s t s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s '

r ecens ion has a po in t o f s imi la r i ty wi th the pa ra l l e l sen tence in

M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n , a n d t h a t i t s t r a n s l a t i o n sh o u l d b e m o d i f i e d

i n o n e p a r t i c u l a r b e c a u se o f t h e p o i n t e r p r o v i d e d b y t h e l a t t e r

v e r s i o n a s t o t h e o r i g i n a l S y r i a c t e x t o f A g a p i u s ' A r a b i c s e n t e n c e .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e d i v e r g e n c y b e t w e e n t h i s s e n t e n c e a n d t h e o n e

1 3 9 E x c e p t s o m e o f t h o s e t h a t h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d b y m o d e r n s c h o l a r s ,

w h o h a v e a l t e r e d t h e t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r o w n

i d e a o f w h a t w a s p r o b a b l e . M ü l l e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , r e m a r k s : Die logische

Disposition macht es wahrscheinlich, dass Josephus schrieb: sie blieben

ihm treu, denn sie gaben vor, Jesus sei ihnen am dritten Tag aufs neue

lebend erschienen, wie die Propheten es vorhergesagt', s e e G . Α . M ü l l e r ,

Christus bei Josephus Flavius, I n n s b r u c k 1 8 9 5 , p . 1 4 2 ( q u o t e d b y E i s l e r ,

p . 7 8 ) .

1 4 0 T h e G r e e k v u l g a t e v e r s i o n r e a d s τ ρ ίτ η ν ε χ ω ν ή μ έ ρ α ν .



t h a t c o r r e s p o n d s t o i t i n M i c h a e l ' s S y r ia c v e r s i o n 1 4 1 is of

c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t .

A g a p i u s ' s e n t e n c e r e a d s : accordingly 142 he was perhaps [ o r :

he was thought to be 1* 3] the M essiah, concerning whom the

prophets have recounted wonders - fa-la allahu al-masïh alïàdhï

qalat eanhu al-anbiya' al-ajaib. T h i s o n e s e n t e n c e a t t h e

e n d o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o t w o s e n t e n c e s , o n e

i n t h e m i d d l e a n d o n e n e a r t h e e n d , i n M i c h a e l ' s a n d o t h e r

r e c e n s i o n s ( t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia

Ecclesiastica, t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e , a n d s o o n ) .

T h e s e t w o s e n t e n c e s a r e :1. He was thought to be the M essiah ( the fou r th sen tence in

M i c h a e l ' s a n d S t . J e r o m e ' s v e r s i o n s ) ; o r : He was the M essiah

( t h e f o u r t h s e n t e n c e i n o t h e r v e r s i o n s ) .

2 . For the prophets of God had spoken with regard to him of

such marvellous things [as these] ( n i n t h s e n t e n c e i n M i c h a e l ' s

v e r s i o n ) ; o r : For the prophets of God had prophesied these and

myriads of other marvellous [things] about him ( seven th sen tencei n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e a n d o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s ) .

T h i s o n e - t o - t w o c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o b v i o u s l y c al ls f o r a n e x p l a n a

t i o n . A s f a r a s I c a n s e e , t w o a l t e r n a t i v e so l u t i o n s m a y b e

e n v i s a g e d :

a . T h e l a s t s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n i s t h e r e su l t o f t h e

a m a l g a m a t i o n a t s o m e p e r i o d o f t h e t w o s e n t e n c e s q u o t e d

a b o v e , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o i t .

b . T h e s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n ( o r a s e n t e n c e t h a t i n

essen t i a l s was s imi la r to i t ) was pa r t o f the o r ig ina l , o r a t l ea s t

1 4 1 T h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n i n M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n h a s t h e w o r d manOD,

r e n d e r e d a b o v e a s [he was] thought. W i t h r e g a r d t o o t h e r p a r t ic u l a r s ,

w h i c h w i l l n o w b e d i s c u s s e d , i t i s c l o s e t o , t h o u g h n o t q u i t e i d e n t i c a l

w i t h , t h e S y r i a c te x t o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, t h e G r e e k

v u l g a t e a n d o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s .

1 4 2 O r : And.

1 4 3 A s st a t e d a b o v e ( p . 3 1 ) , t h i s c h a n g e i n t h e t r a n s l a ti o n , w h i c h p r o b a b l y

w o u l d h a v e b e e n v a l i d a t e d b y t h e l o s t S y r i a c te x t o f t h i s r e c e n s i o n ,

h a s b e e n m a d e i n t h e l i g h t o f M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n .



o f a n e a r l y , t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , 1 4 4 t ha t i s , a t ex t tha t

a n t e d a t e d t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n . E i t h e r d e l i b e r a t e l y o r b y

so m e a c c i d e n t t h e s e n t e n c e w a s d i sm e m b e r e d , a n d o n e o f i t s

p a r t s s h i f t e d t o w a r d s t h e m i d d l e o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .

O n p u r e l y t e x t u a l g r o u n d s , t h e s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n s e e m s t o b e

t h e m o r e p r o b a b l e o n e . T h e r e i s n o d i f f i c u l t y i n i m a g i n i n g a

w a y i n w h i c h A g a p i u s ' s e n t e n c e s c o u l d h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o

t w o p h r a s e s , o n e o f w h i c h w a s d is p l a c e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e

f i r s t e x p l a n a t i o n su p p o se s t h a t t w o w h o l l y s e p a r a t e s e n t e n c e s

o c c u r r i n g i n d i f f é r e n t p a r t s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w e r e sm o o t h l y

a n d m e a n i n g f u l l y a m a l g a m a t e d s o a s t o p r o d u c e t h e l u c i d a n ds y n t a c t i c a l l y u n e x c e p t i o n a b l e s e n t e n c e t h a t c o n c l u d e s A g a p i u s '

recension . I f ind i t very d i f f icu l t to conce ive tha t th is was what

h a p p e n e d . 1 4 5 However , no f ina l answer can be g iven .

1 4 4 T h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r J o s e p h u s w a s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m

i s n o t i n v o l v e d . A n o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m m a y b e s u p p o s e d

t o h a v e e x i s t e d , e v e n i f w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a l i t e r a ry f o r g e r y .1 4 5 A n o t h e r l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g , su g g e s t e d b y D . F l u s s e r , w h i c h a p p e a r s

t o l e a d l i k e w i s e t o t h e s e c o n d c o n c l u s i o n o u t l i n e d a b o v e , i s p r e d i c a t e d

u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n th a t A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m o r i g

i n a l l y h a d a l a s t s e n t e n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h a t o f m o s t o t h e r v e r s i o n s .

A s w e k n o w , t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n i n M i c h a e l ' s v u l g a t e t e x t m a y b e

r e n d e r e d : And the people of the Christians, named after him, has n ot

disappea red till [this] day. T h i s a s s u m p t i o n s e e m s t o m e t o b e v e r y

p r o b a b l e . T h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h i s s e n t e n c e w a s , b y a c c i d e n t o r f o r

s o m e u n k n o w n r e a s o n , o m i t t e d i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n p r e s e n t s n o

d i f f i c u l t i e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e l a c k o f t h i s s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s '

r e c e n s i o n i s r e g a r d e d a s g o i n g b a c k t o t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i

m o n i u m , t h i s m e a n s t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e t h i s r e c e n s i o n

i s c o n s i d e r e d a s h a v i n g p r e s e r v e d t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t , f r e e f r o m a l a t e r

i n t e r p o l a t i o n . O n t h i s h y p o t h e s i s t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n m u s t b e r e

g a r d e d a s h a v i n g b e e n a d d e d d e l i b e r a t e l y , i n o r d e r t o l e n d a n a i r o f

a u t h e n t i c i t y t o t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .

L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s t i o n b e l o n g s t o t h e o r i g i n a l

t e x t , a n d a d d i t a t t h e e n d o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n . I n t h a t c a s e t h e l a s t

t w o s e n t e n c e s o f t h i s r e c e n s i o n w o u l d r e a d : Accordingly he was perhaps

[ o r : he was thought to be] the Messiah [χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς ], con cern in g w ho m th e

prophets have related won ders. And the people of the Christians, named



I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e l a s t s e n t e n c e i n A g a p i u s '

r e c e n s i o n r e f e r s t o t h e p r o p h e t s s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e M e s s i a h .

I t d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y a s s e r t t h a t t h e y s p o k e a b o u t J e s u s , b u t

m e r e l y s t a t e s i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t J e s u s w a s perhaps (o r a s we

c o n j e c t u r e d : was thought to be) t h e M e s s i a h . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

s e n t e n c e i n t h e o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s c o n t a i n s t h e u n e q u i v o c a l

s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s p r o p h e s i e d a b o u t J e s u s .

T h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s w i t h w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n d e a l i n g — i . e . t h e

p o i n t s o f d i f f e r e n c e a n d o f r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n A g a p i u s '

r e c e n s i o n a n d t h a t o f M i c h a e l , a n d n o t a b l y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

f o r m e r t a k e s u p a n o n - c o m m i t t a l p o s i t i o n b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t oJ e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p a n d t o h i s h a v i n g a p p e a r e d a f t e r t h e c r u c i

f ix ion to h i s d i sc ip le s , w here as th e l a t t e r t ak es up suc h a po s i t ion

o n l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e p o i n t s — s e e m 1 4 6 to f i t in

w i t h o n e o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , n a m e l y , t h a t

wh ich pos tu la te s the ex i s t ence in Sy r iac o f a t l ea s t th r ee ve ry

d if fe re n t r e c e n s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m :

1 . T h e S y r i a c r e c e n s i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Theophania, w h i c h d o e s

n o t s e e m t o h a v e a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r S y r i a c v e r s i o n s

u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .

2 . T h e S y r i ac t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica,

w hic h , in sp i t e o f i t s d ive rgence f ro m th e ve r s ion o f t he

Theophania, r e p r e s e n t s , b y a n d l a r g e , l i k e t h e l a t t e r , t h e G r e e k

v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n .

3 . T h e S y r i a c o r i g i n a l o f t h e v e r s i o n o f A g a p i u s .

after him, has not disappeared till [this] day. I n t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t e d

t e x t , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e n a m e o f t h e C h r i s t ia n s f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y

u p o n t h e r e f e r e n c e t o C h r i s t . I n t h e o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d

b y s e v e r a l s e n t e n c e s , a s t h e t e r m χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς i s m e n t i o n e d in t h e m i d d l e

o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s a n a r g u m e n t i n f a v o u r o f t h e

r e c o n s t r u c t e d t e x t . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , i t s t r e n g t h e n s t h e c a s e f o r w h a t

w a s c a l l e d a b o v e t h e s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n .

1 4 6 E s p e c i a l l y i f o n e t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n M i c h a e l ' s

r e c e n s i o n a n d t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia

Ecclesiastica.



A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n i s t h e r e s u l t o f

a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f o r m e r b y t h e l a t t e r .

A s f a r a s I ca n see , th i s hy po th es i s has f ewer ob v io us flaws

t h a n a n y o f t h e o t h e r s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s a m e f a c ts . H o w e v e r ,

i t m a y p e r h a p s b e q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e l i g h t o f S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n

v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . T h i s v e r s i o n , w h i c h o c c u r s i n

De Viris Illustribus, X I I I , 1 4 7 r e a d s a s f o l l o w s : Scripsit148

autem

de domino in hunc modum : 'Eodem tempore fuit Jesus vir sapiens,

si tarnen virum oportet eum dicere. Erat enim mirabilium patrator

operum et doctor eorum qui libenter vera suscipiunt. Plurimos

quoque tarnen de Judaeis quam de gentibus sui habuit sectatoreset credebatur esse Christus. Cum que invidia nostrorum principum

cruci eum Pilatus addixisset, nihilominus qui eum primum di-

lexerant, perseveraverunt in fide.149

Apparuit enim eis tertia die

vivens, haec et mu lta alia mirab ilia carm inibus prophetarum de eo

vaticinantibus. Et usque hodie Christianorum gens ab hoc sortita

vocabulum non deficit.

O n s o m e p o i n t s t h i s v e r s i o n c o m e s c l o s e r t o M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n ,

a n d t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e t o t w o o t h e r E a s t e r n r e c e n s i o n s w e h a v e

b e e n d i s c u s s i n g — n a m e l y , t h a t o f t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f

E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica a n d t h a t o f A g a p i u s — t h a n t o

t h e G r e e k r e c e n s i o n . T h e p o i n t s o f s i m i l a r i t y a r e :

1 . In the th i rd sen tence o f h i s r ecens ion S t . Je rome has de genti

bus, w h e r e a s t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n h a s τ ο ν *Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ν .

T h e S y r ia c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica,

1 4 7 T h e e f f ic i en c y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c e n s o r s h i p , w h i c h a l m o s t s u c c e e d e d i n

g e t t i n g r i d o f a l l t h e v e r s i o n s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m t h a t d i f f e r e d i n a

s i g n i f i c a n t m a n n e r f r o m t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t

t h a t t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n o f De Viris Illustrious c o n t a i n s t h i s v u l g a t e

r e c e n s i o n ; n o n e o f t h e t r a it s i n w h i c h S t . J e r o m e d i v e r g e s f r o m i t h a v e

b e e n r e t a i n e d ; s e e O . v o n G e b h a r d t , ' H i e r o n y m u s — D e V i r i s I n l u s tr i -

b u s i n g r i e c h i s c h e r Ü b e r s e t z u n g ' , Texte und Untersuchungen, X I V ,

L e i p z i g 1 8 9 6 .

1 4 8 J o s e p h u s .

1 4 9 In fide i s n o t f o u n d i n a l l t h e M S S .



Michael and Agapius use expressions that mean from the

nations, or from the other nations, i.e. correspond to de

gentibus.150

But this resemblance may possibly be due to the

awkwardness of a literal translation of το ν Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ into

Syriac or into Lat in.1 5 1

However, the recension of the Syriac

Theophania shows that ano the r trans lati on was possible, namely,

Κ 03Π ]» - from the pagans. In the period with which we are

dealing, "Ε λ λ η ν ε ς , Έ λ λ η ν ικ ό ν and so on usually denoted

pagans.

2 . In the same sentence St. Jerome has sui habuit sectatores,

which corresponds to the vulgate Greek ε π η γ ά γ ε τ ο . Themeaning of the two expressions does not differ appreciably,

and St. Jerome may have merely given a free rendering of the

Greek verb. However, his wording gains a certain significance

in view of the fact that the parallel expression in the Syriac

translation of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica is almost equiv

alent to the one he uses: Kin 7Qbr\-he turned into his disciples.

Michael apparently has the passive form vrrf?n - became his

disciples', tatalmadha lahu, used by Agapius, has the same

meaning. The Syriac Theophania has WD. In contradistinction

to the other translation quoted here, this seems to be an

attempt (albeit a not very successfully one) accurately to render

the Greek ε π η γ ά γ ε τ ο .

3 . Likewise, in the third sentence of his recension St. Jerome

has credebatur esse Christus, whereas the Greek vulgate

recension has δ χ ρ ισ τ ό ς ο ν τ ο ς ή ν . Credebatur corresponds to

inanöö in Michael's text; as we have seen, let alia in Agapius is

in all probability a not very felicitous translation of the some-

what ambiguous Syriac word.

150 The text of the so-called Egesipp us (Π , 12) reads gentilium plurimi.

151 To quote but one example, St. Jerome, in De Viris Illustribus, X X I X ,

translates the title of Tatian's work π ρ ο ς "Ε λ λ η ν α ς (usually known as

Oratio ad Graecos) as Contra Gentes.



4 . In the l a s t sen tence o f h i s r ecens ion S t . Je rome has usque

hodie, w h e r e a s t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n h a s ε ι ς ε τ ι τ ε

vvv.152 T h e S y r ia c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica

a n d M i c h a e l 1 5 3 have / / / / our day o r till this day, w h i c h c o r r e

s p o n d s t o usque hodie. Both in La t in and in Sy r iac i t i s poss ib le

t o t r a n s l a t e t h e G r e e k e x p r e s s i o n w i t h o u t re f e rr in g t o this day

o r t o our day. A s fa r a s Sy r iac i s con ce rn ed , th i s m ay be

i l lu s t r a t ed by th e r ende r ing o f th i s sen tence in th e Theophania.

O f thes e fou r p o i n t s on ly the th i r d i s in t r in s ica l ly s ign i fi can t. Bu t

t h e t h r e e t a k e n i n c o n j u n c t i o n t e n d t o s u g g e s t t h a t M i c h a e l ' s

r ecens ion , a t t e s t ed in the twe l f th cen tu ry , fo rms a so r t o fc o u n t e r p a r t t o w h a t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s S t . J e r o m e ' s ' s c e p

t i c a l ' 1 5 4 v e r s i o n .

A s S t . J e r o m e ' s L a t i n v e r s i o n c o u l d n o t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d

M i c h a e l ' s t e x t , t h i s r e s e m b l a n c e 1 5 5 m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h a t b o t h ,

in sp i te o f th e i r d i f fe rences , a r e , in th e las t ana lys is , de

r i v e d f r o m t h e s a m e G r e e k ( o r , l e s s p r o b a b l y , A r a m a i c )

r e c e n s i o n . 1 5 6 T h i s s u p p o s i t i o n w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , b e , inter alia,

1 5 2 T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l v a r i a n t s , b u t n o n e o f t h e m c o m e s c l o s e t o t h e e x

p r e s s i o n u s e d i n S t . J e r o m e ' s r e c e n s i o n .

1 5 3 I n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e i s m i s s i n g .

1 5 4 T h e a d j e ct i v e i s n o t q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e . A s h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t , t h e

p o s i t i o n o f t h i s v e r s i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p i s n o n - c o m

m i t t a l .

1 5 5 O n e s h o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , l o s e s i g h t o f t h e d i ff e re n c e s b e t w e e n t h e

t w o r e c e n s i o n s ; cf ., f o r i n s t a n c e , S t . J e r o m e ' s p h r a s e Cumque invidia

nostrorum principum cruci eum Pilatus a ddixisset w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d

i n g p a s s a g e i n M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n .

1 5 6 I t i s a c u r i o u s f a c t t h a t a n o t h e r r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y L a t i n v e r s i o n o f t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m — t h a t o f t h e s o - c a l l e d E g e s i p p u s — h a s p o i n t s o f r e

s e m b l a n c e t o M i c h a e l ' s a n d A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n s . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t

t h e first o f t h e s e r e c e n s i o n s i n d u b i t a b l y s t a t e s t h a t J e s u s d i e d , a n d t h a t

A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e e m e n d e d s o a s t o i n c l u d e t h i s

s t a t e m e n t , w h i c h i s m i s s i n g i n o t h e r r e c e n s i o n s . E g e s i p p u s ' r e c e n s i o n

d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n e x p r e s s s t a t e m e n t o n t h i s p o i n t , b u t i t d o e s r e f e r

e x p l i c i t l y t o J e s u s ' d e a t h : qui apparu erit discipulis suis post triduum

mortis vivens iter um ( I I , 1 2 ) . T h e f o r m o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n post triduum



t a n t a m o u n t t o a r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n p u t f o r w a r d b y T a n -

néguy Lefèv re , Η . Κ . Α . E ic hs t a d t, Ε . N o rd e n , Α . G o e t h a l s

a n d H . S . J . T h a c k e r a y , 1 5 7 t h a t t h e v e r b credebatur i n the

p h r a s e credebatur esse Christus w a s a d d e d b y S t . J e r o m e

h i m s e l f w i t h a v i e w t o r e n d e r i n g s o m e w h a t l e s s i m p r o b a b l e

J o s e p h u s ' p r o c la i m e d a u t h o r s h i p 1 5 8 o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s

f o u n d i n t h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n ; t o t h i s e x t e n t S t . J e r o m e ' s

v e r s i o n w o u l d b e r e h a b i l i t a t e d .

A s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n i s ,

b y a n d l a r g e , t h e r e s u l t o f a c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e v u l g a t e

r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n h a sm u c h t o r e c o m m e n d i t . I t c a n n o t , h o w e v e r ( o r a t l e a s t n o t

w i t h o u t s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n ) , a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t , p o i n t e d o u t

a b o v e , t h a t S t . J e r o m e ' s v e r s i o n is c l o s e r t o M i c h a e l ' s t h a n t o

A g a p i u s ' . C a n w e a c c o r d i n g l y d r a w t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t

M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n r e f l e c t s m o r e a c c u r a t e l y t h a n A g a p i u s ' t h e

h y p o t h e t i c a l o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e r e c e n s i o n i n q u e s t i o n ? I n t h e

co n te x t o f o u r d i s cu ss ion the m os t s ign if ican t d i ff e rences

be tween the two a re found in the f i r s t two sen tences o f the

T e s t i m o n i u m a n d i n t h e s e n t e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e

a f t e r t h e c r u c i f i x i o n : a s w e h a v e s e e n , A g a p i u s ' t e x t s t a t e s t h a t

t h e y ( i .e . t h e d i s c i p l e s ) r e p o r t e d t h a t h e h a d a p p e a r e d , i .e . t h e

a u t h o r d o e s n o t a ffirm t h a t t h i s a p p e a r a n c e r e a l l y d i d h a p p e n ;

t h e t e x t i s n o n - c o m m i t t a l . I n M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n t h e w o r d

reported - dhakarü d o e s n o t o c c u r .

A s t h e r e i s a c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n a n d

M i c h a e l ' s , t h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e l a t te r a n d S t . J e r o m e ' s

t ex t migh t , i f one t r i ed ou t a l l poss ib le so lu t ions , l ead to the

mortis i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h r a s e i n A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n :

Bet da thaläthat ayyäm min salbihi - three days after his crucifixion

( l i t e r a l l y : after three days from his crucifixion). T h e G r e e k v u l g a t e r e

c e n s i o n r e a d s τ ρ ίτ η ν ε χ ω ν ή μ έ ρ α ν ; t h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f Historia

Ecclesiastica a n d M i c h a e l r e a d par» snVn Ί Π 3 p - after three days.

1 5 7 S e e E i s l e r , p . 6 8 , n . 2 .

1 5 8 W h i c h t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d s c h o l a rs d o n o t b e l i e v e i n .



c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t r a i t s o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n m i g h t

h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d i n t h e S y r i a c o r A r a b i c p e r i o d . H o w e v e r ,

d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w a s b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d b y

C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s . A g a p i u s a n d a l s o , a s f a r a s w e c a n

judge , h i s sou rces accep t in a ve ry devou t sp i r i t a l l t he l egendary

s to r i e s conce rn ing the l i f e o f Je sus . To me i t i s inconce ivab le

t h a t h e o r t h e y c o u l d o f t h e i r o w n a c c o r d h a v e a d d e d t h e

s c e p t i c a l o r n o n - c o m m i t t a l n o t e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e w o r d

reported, o r w e a k e n e d t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o J e s u s ' e x t r a o r d i n a r y

qua l i t i e s and ac t ions occu r r ing in the f i r s t two sen tences o f the

v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n . T h e y m u s t h a v e f o u n d t h e d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f A g a p i u s ' r e c e n s i o n i n t h e te x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m

h a n d e d d o w n t o t h e m .

P o s s i b l y , b o t h S t . J e r o m e ' s a n d M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n s a r e t h e

r e s u l t o f t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t h e v u l g a t e

t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h t h e n o n - c o m m i t t a l t e x t r e p r e s e n t e d

b y A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . T h e r e m i g h t a l s o b e o t h e r , e v e n m o r e

c o m p l i c a t e d , s o l u t i o n s . B u t a l l t h i s i s m e r e g u e s s w o r k . O n e

p o i n t i s , h o w e v e r , c e r t a i n . A s f a r a s t h e e n q u i r y c o n c e r n i n g t h e

o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f w h a t u s e d t o b e r e g a r d e d a s S t . J e r o m e ' s f r e a k r e c e n s i o n

a n d o f t h e O r i e n t a l r e c e n s i o n s , t h a t o f A g a p i u s a n d t h a t o f

M i c h a e l , i s e n h a n c e d b y t h e i r p o i n t s o f r e s e m b l a n c e . 1 5 9

F r o m w h a t w o r k o f J o s e p h u s i s t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s q u o t e d b yA g a p i u s s u p p o s e d t o b e e x t r a c t e d a n d w h a t w e r e t h e i n t e r

m e d i a t e l i n k s , i f a n y , i n t h e c h a i n o f t r a n s m i s s i o n ? T h e f i r s t

q u e s t i o n h a s b e e n t o u c h e d u p o n i n a n o t e a b o v e , b u t c e r t a i n

o f i t s a s p e c t s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n e x a m i n e d . A s w e k n o w , t h e

v u l g a t e G r e e k t e x t o c c u r s i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, X V I I I , 6 3 - 6 4 ;

i t a l s o a p p e a r s i n s o m e M S S o f Bellum Judaicum. I n t h e o r y ,

a t l ea s t , t he poss ib i l i ty tha t i t was found in o the r lo s t o r

1 5 9 I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d t h a t t h e r e c a n b e n o q u e s t i o n o f S t . J e r o m e ' s

L a t i n t e x t h a v i n g i n f l u e n c e d t h e s e O r i e n t a l r e c e n s i o n s .



a p o c r y p h a l w o r k s o f Jo se p h u s c a n n o t b e r e j e c t e d o u t o f

h a n d .

W e h a v e s e e n t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e M S o f A g a p i u s t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m i s e x t r a c t e d f r o m a w o r k o f Jo se p h u s r e f e r r e d t o

a s h i s t re a t i s e s , w r i t t e n a b o u t the evil of the Jews-sharr al-Yahüd.

Sharr - evil i s c l e a r l y c o r r u p t a n d sh o u l d b e e m e n d e d . V a s i l i e v

t r a n s l a t e s 1 6 0

les guerres des Juifs ; a p p a r e n t l y h e e m e n d e d

sharr t o hurub. I f a c c e p t e d , t h i s m i g h t m e a n t h a t t h e T e s t i

m o n i u m i s s a i d b y A g a p i u s t o b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m Jo se p h u s '

Bellum Judaicum. H o w e v e r , t h i s e m e n d a t i o n i s , t o m y m i n d ,

u n a c c e p t a b l e f o r t w o r e a so n s , o n e o f w h i c h c a r r i e s m u c h l e s sw e i g h t t h a n t h e o t h e r . T h i s su b s i d i a r y a r g u m e n t d e p e n d s o n

t h e f a c t t h a t J o s e p h u s ' h i s t o r i c a l w o r k Bellum Judaicum d o e s n o t

s e e m t o b e k n o w n t o A g a p i u s u n d e r t h i s n a m e . H e r e f e r s t o

i t 1 6 1 a s the book that he [Josephus] wrote about the destruction

of Jerusalem - 'alä kharab Urshalim }62 T h e m a i n a r g u m e n t ,

p a r t o f w h i c h h a s b e e n a l r e a d y s e t f o r t h a b o v e , i s m o r e c o m p l e x

a n d s e e m s t o m e t o sh o w v e r y c l e a r l y t h a t o n t h e b a l a n c e o fp o s s i b i l i t i e s t h e c o r r u p t t i t l e o f a w o r k o f Jo se p h u s m e n t i o n e d

1 6 0 Op. cit., p . 4 7 1 ; s e e a b o v e , n . 1 5 .

1 6 1 S e e e d . C h e i k h o , p . 2 5 4 .

1 6 2 T h i s n a m e i s t o s o m e e x t e n t r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e t i t l e s : τ η ς1

Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ή ς

α λ ώ σ ε ω ς -Of Jewish Captivity; π ε ρ ί α λ ώ σ ε ω ς Ι ο υ δ α ία ς κ α ι τ η ς μ ε γ ά λ η ς

π ό L ·ω ς - About the Captiv ity o f Judah and o f the Great City , 'Ι ο υ δ α ϊ κ ή ς

ισ τ ο ρ ί α ς π ε ρ ί α λ ώ σ ε ω ς - O f Jew ish H istory about th e C aptivity; s e e

N i e s e ' s e d i t i o n o f Bellum Judaicum, p p . x i v - x v , x v n . I t i s e v e n

m o r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e L a t i n s u p e r s c r i p t i o n , Judaicae Historiae de

Destructione, f o u n d i n a M S b e a r i n g t h e G r e e k t it l e m e n t i o n e d l a s t

( s e e N i e s e , op. cit., p . x r v ) .

T h e t i t l e m e n t i o n e d b y A g a p i u s i s , b y a n d la r g e , i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t

o f t h e s o - c a l l e d E g e s i p p u s ' L a t i n a d a p t a t i o n o f J o s e p h u s ' w o r k , n a m e l y ,

De Excidio Jerusalem (On the Destruction of Jerusalem); t h e r e a r e a l s o

m i n o r v a r i a n t s o f t h i s L a t i n t i t l e . T h e t i t l e o f t h e O l d R u s s i a n t r a n s l a

t i o n o f J o s e p h u s ' Bellum Judaicum p r o b a b l y b e l o n g s t o t h e s a m e

t r a d i t i o n a s t h e G r e e k t i tl e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ; s e e N . A . M e s c e r s k i y ,

Istoriya Yudeyskoy Voyny ν Drevnerusskom Perevode, M o s c o w - L e n i n

g r a d 1 9 5 8 , p . 3 6 ; p . 3 7 , n . 4 5 .



by Agapius in the introduction to the Testimonium refers to

Josephus' Antiquitates. The argument is based on the following

considerations:

1 . In another passage of Agapius, which will be presently

quoted and which unmistakably refers to Josephus' Antiquitates,

the first two words of the title1 6 3

of this work are tadbîr al-

Yahüd - governance of the Jews.

2. The corruption of tadbîr to sharr (in the title sharr al-Yahüd

in Agapius' introduction to the Testimonium) is graphically

conceivable.

3 . According to Michael's Syriac version of the Testimonium,which, as we have seen, has some sort of connection with

Agapius' version, the quota tion is said to be extracted from a

work of Josephus entitled J P T P I Κ Ί η τ τ (rendered above

Institution, or Institutions, of the Jews). As has been noted, the

word is very obviously derived from the same verbal root as

the Arabic tadbîr. The latter word may very easily be supposed

to have been used to translate anaVT. The conclusion to be

drawn from the last two points is that sharr al-Yahüd in Agapi us'

MS should probably be emended to tadbîr al-Yahüd.

The passage of Agapius referred to in consideration ( 1 ) reads as

follows: When the Romans were [about to] conquer Jerusalem,

Josephus exhorted his people before the destruction (kharäb)

of Jerusalem, saying to them: 'Submit to the Romans and give

obedience164

to their kings. You will [then] praise your future

state of [affairs].' [The Jews] despised and reviled him [so much]

that they tried many times to strike him, and they cast stones

at him. The Romans were informed with reference to him of

these [happenings]. When they got hold of him, they gave him a

post165

at the king's gate. He then composed twenty books on the

163 Or: description of the contents.

164 Literally: enter into the obedience.

165 Th e tran slati on is n o t qu ite certain. Th e Ara bic wo rd is alzamühu; lit

erally: attached.



governance of the Jews [ t a d b ï r al-Yahüd], their migra tion 166 and

their high priests, and about the wars of the Rom ans and their

capture [ghazw] of Jerusalem . Sixty-two letters of Agrippa

[ G h . r ï f û s ] were in existence; in these he praised Josephus' works,

great knowledge and [excellent] execution. After his [Josephus* ]

death the Rom ans erected in his honour a statue in Rom e.167

T h e b r i e f m e n t i o n o f t h e e x h o r t a t i o n s o f Jo se p h u s a n d t h e

r e a c t i o n s o f t h e J e w s t o t h e m i n t h i s p a s sa g e c o r r e sp o n d s t o

Bellum Judaicum, V , 1 14 , 2 6 1 , 3 6 1 - 4 2 0 , 5 4 1 - 5 4 7 ; V I , 9 4 - 1 1 2 ,

118, 1 2 9 , 3 6 5 . H o w e v e r , A g a p i u s m a k e s a m i s t a k e : t h e r e

m o n s t r a n c e s o f Jo s e p h u s w e r e m a d e af te r h i s su r r e n d e r t o t h eR o m a n s , a n d A g a p i u s p l a c e s t h e m , a s w e h a v e s e e n , b e f o r e

J o s e p h u s ' c a p t u r e .

T h e l a s t p o r t i o n o f t h e p a s sa g e b e a r s t o so m e e x t e n t u p o n o u r

e n q u i r y . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o A g r i p p a ' s l e t t e r s c o r r e sp o n d s t o

J o s e p h u s ' Vita, 3 6 4 - 3 6 7 , a n d a l so t o a p a s sa g e i n E u se b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica, I I I , 9 . A c c o r d i n g t o E u se b i u s , t h e se

le t t e r s a r e r e f e r r ed to a t the end o f the Antiquitates. I n t h e s a m ec h a p t e r E u se b i u s m e n t i o n s t h e e r e c t i o n o f a s t a t u e i n R o m e i n

h o n o u r o f Jo se p h u s a n d a l so t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Antiquitates a r e

d i v i d e d i n t o t w e n t y b o o k s . 1 6 8 In f ac t , t h i s chap te r o f Euseb ius

migh t be r ega rded a s by and l a rge the on ly sou rce o f the l a s t

p o r t i o n o f A g a p i u s , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e w o r k

'Alä tadbïr al- Yahüdis n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . F o r c o n v e n i e n c e ' s

s a k e i t i s r e p e a t e d h e r e : He then composed twenty books on the

governance of the Jews [ t a d b ï r a l - Y a h ù d ] , their migration 169 and

their high priests and about the wars of the Rom ans and their

capture [ g h a z w ] of Jerusalem. T h i s m a y b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e

b r i e f r e f e r e n c e i n E u se b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I I I , 9 , w h i c h

1 6 6 O r : transm itters of traditions - n.q.la. I f t h e w o r d i s e m e n d e d t o naql,

i t m i g h t b e r e n d e r e d tradition, narration.

1 6 7 A g a p i u s , e d . C h e i k h o , p p . 2 5 4 - 2 5 5 . I t h a s b e e n p a rt ly t ra n sl at e d a b o v e .

1 6 8 T h i s fa c t c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , b e a s c e r ta i n e d b y w h o e v e r h a d a c c e s s t o

t h e f u l l t e x t o f t h e w o r k a s w e k n o w i t .

1 6 9 O r : transm itter of tradition; o r : tradition.



reads in the Syriac t r an sl a t io n1 7 0

as follows: Μ Ί ΐΡ Κ 3Π im

nn»ra mm möirrn Kmjrr TOITI .Π Ο Ο p a o po sa rnnrm rnöip

KSDtPS - ife [ / Ö ^ / ? A W ^ ] compiled the whole ancient history of the

Jews in twenty books, and the story of the wars of the Romans,which occurred in his days, in seven.

Another relevant passage occurs at the beginning of Josephus'

Antiquitates, I, 2: Τ α ν τ η ν ôè τ η ν ε ν ε ιτ ώ σ α ν ε γ κ ε χ ε ίρ ι σ μ α ι

π ρ α γ μ ά τ ε ια ν ν ο μ ίζ ω ν α π α σ ι φ α ν ε ϊσ θ α ι τ ο ις "Ε λ λ η σ ιν α ξ ία ν

σ π ο ν δ ή ς μ έ λ λ ε ι γ α ρ π ε ρ ιέ ξ ε ιν ά π α σ α ν π α ρ ή μ ΐν ά ρ χ α ω λ ο γ ία ν κ α ι

δ ιά τ α ξ ιν το ν π ο λ ι τ ε ύ μ α τ ο ς ε κ τω ν * β ρ α ϊκ ώ ν μ ε θ η ρ μ η ν ε ν μ έ ν ε ν

γ ρ α μ μ ά τ ω ν , "ή δ η μ ε ν ο ν ν κ α ι π ρ ό τ ε ρ ο ν δ ιε ν ο ή θ η ν , δ τ ε το ν π ό λ ε μ ο νσ ν ν έ γ ρ α φ ο ν δ η μ ώ σ α ι τ ίν ε ς δ ν τ ε ς ε ξ α ρ χ ή ς

9

Ι ο υ δ α ί ο ι κ α ι τ ίσ ι

χ ρ η σ ά μ ε ν ο ι τ ν χ α ϊς , ν φ ' ο ΐω τ ε π α ιδ ε ν θ έ ν τ ε ς ν ο μ ο θ έ τη τ α π ρ ο ς

ε ν σ έ β ε ι α ν κ α ι τ ή ν α λ λ η ν α σ κ η σ ιν α ρ ε τ ή ς , π ό σ ο ν ς τε π ο λ ε μ ο ν ς

ε ν μ α κ ρ ο ϊς π ο λ ε μ ή σ α ν τ ε ς χ ρ ό ν ο ι ς ε ις τ ο ν τ ε λ ε ν τ α ϊ ο ν ά κ ο ν τ ε ς

π ρ ο ς *Ρ ω μ α ίο ν ς κ α τ έ σ τ η σ α ν . α λ λ9

ε π ε ιδ ή μ ε ίζ ω ν ή ν ή τ ο ν -

δ ε τ ο ν λ ό γ ο ν π ε ρ ιβ ο λ ή , κ α θ9

α ν τ ο ν ε κ ε ίν ο ν χ ω ρ ίσ α ς τ α ϊς

Ι δ ί α ις ά ρ χ α ϊς α ν τ ο ν κ α ι τω τ έ λ ε ι τ ή ν γ ρ α φ ή ν σ ν ν ε μ έ τ ρ η σ α .-

And now I have undertaken this present work in the belief that

all the Greeks will find it worthy of attention; for it will embrace

our entire ancient history and political constitution translated

from the Hebrew records. I had, indeed, ere now, when writing

the history of the war, already contemplated describing the origin

of the Hebrews, the fortunes that befell them, the great lawgiver

under whom they were trained in piety and the exercise of the

other virtues,111

and all those wars waged by them during lengthy

periods before this last, in which they were involuntarily engaged

against the Romans. However, since the compass of such a

170 Which i n this case is on the whole quite accurate. T he Greek original

reads: ο ύ τ ο ς δ ή π α σ α ν τ ή ν Ί ο ν δ α ικ ή ν ά ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ν ε ν ο λ ο ι ς ε ίκ ο σ ι

κ α τ α τ έ θ ε ιτ α ι σ υ γ γ ρ ά μ μ α σ ιν , τ ή ν δ9

ί σ τ ο ρ ί α ν τ ο ν κ α τ * α υ τ ό ν 'Ρ ω μ α ικ ο ϋ

π ο λ έ μ ο υ ε ν §π τ α .

171 T h e Greek has the singular.



theme was excessive, I made the war into a separate work with

its own beginning and end, thus duly proportioning my work. 112

T h e m e n t i o n b y A g a p i u s o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w o r k o n tadbîr

al-Yahüd c o n s i s t s o f t w e n t y b o o k s d o e s n o t l e a v e m u c h r o o m

f o r d o u b t t h a t J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates i s m e a n t . T h e q u e s t i o n a s

t o t h e u l t i m a t e so u r c e s o f A g a p i u s ' d e sc r i p t i o n o f t h i s w o r k

r e m a i n s , h o w e v e r , u n r e s o l v e d . T h e a c c o u n t i n t h i s w o r k o f t h e

w a r s o f t h e R o m a n s a n d t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m m i g h t

poss ib ly be de r ived f rom the f i r s t sen tence in the Greek passage

o f J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, t h a t h a s j u s t b e e n q u o t e d . S o m e

e x c e r p t e r m i g h t h a v e p a i d n o a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h ese n t e n c e t h a t f o l l o w s , Jo se p h u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e d e c i d e d

t o d e a l w i t h t h e su b j e c t s h e h a d i n m i n d i n t w o w o r k s r a t h e r

t h a n o n e , a n d t h a t t h e a n c i e n t h i s t o r y a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e

J e w s w o u l d n o t b e s e t f o r t h i n t h e v o l u m e d e s cr i b in g t h e R o m a n

W a r a n d t h e f i n a l c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m . 1 7 3

T h e f a c t t h a t t h e p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s r e f e r s t o d a t a c o n c e r n i n g

h i g h p r i e s t s f o u n d i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, w h e r e a s n e i t h e rJo se p h u s n o r E u se b i u s r e f e r t o t h e se d a t a i n t h e i r p o r t r a y a l o f

t h i s w o r k , d o e s n o t o f i t s e l f p e r m i t a f a r - r e a c h i n g c o n c l u s i o n ,

b u t i t d o e s su g g e s t t h a t A g a p i u s ' d e sc r i p t i o n d o e s n o t e n t i re l y

d e r i v e f r o m t h e se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

T h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s o f t h i s d e sc r i p t i o n a r e :

1 . I t c o n t a i n s n o c l e a r r e f e r e n c e t o Jo se p h u s ' Antiquitates, t h e3

Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ή α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία174

(o r , a s the Sy r iac r ecens ion o f Historia

Ecclesiastica r e a d s : Κ Ή Ι Τ Π *Γ Ζ Π ρ Κ Π Ί ΐΡ ), i .e . t h e su b jec t a f te r

w h i c h t h e w o r k w a s c a l l e d in m o s t k n o w n s o u r c e s . I t i s t r u e t h a t

t h e w o r d n.q.la. i n t h e p a s s a g e o f A g a p i u s , i f e m e n d e d t o naql

1 7 2 E x c e p t f o r sl i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n s , I h a v e f o l l o w e d T h a c k e r a y ' s t r a n s

l a t i o n .

1 7 3 I t i s , h o w e v e r , l i k e w i s e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e w o r d s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n i n

A g a p i u s ' p a s s a g e re fe r t o v a r i o u s w a r s o f t h e R o m a n s — i n c l u d i n g

t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m b y P o m p e y — d e a l t w i t h i n J o s e p h u s ' Anti

quitates.

1 7 4 O r : τ ι α ρ ' ή μ ίν ά ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ν .



a n d i n t e r p r e t e d a s m e a n i n g tradition, m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d , t h o u g h

ra the r doub t fu l ly , a s r e f l ec t ing α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ί α . But even i f th is

r a t h e r d u b i o u s s u p p o s i t i o n i s a c c e p t e d , t h e m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s

f a ct a b o u t A g a p i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Antiquitates i s — a n d t h i s

i s t h e s e c o n d p o i n t I w i s h t o m a k e — t h a t i t i s h e a d e d b y t h e

w o r d s 'alä tadbïr al- Yahüd, which look a s i f t hey were the t i t l e

o f the work . Th i s impress ion i s o f cou r se con f i rmed by the f ac t

t h a t M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n r e f e r s t o t h e w o r k i n w h i c h t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m o c c u r s a s ι ρ τ π Κ Ί 3Τ Τ . A s h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d , t h e

A r a b i c tadbïr c o r r e sp o n d s i n o u r c o n t e x t t o m a n and i s qu i t e

c e r t a i n l y a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s S y r i a c t e r m . A s w e h a v e s e e n ,t h e r e a r e a l s o g o o d g r o u n d s f o r e m e n d i n g t h e w o r d s ealä sharr

al-Yahüd, f o u n d i n A g a p i u s ' M S , a s t h e t i t l e o f t h e w o r k o f

J o s e p h u s f r o m w h i c h t h e T e s t i m o n i u m i s e x t r a c t e d t o 'alä

tadbïr al-Yahüd. lls

W e a r e t h u s f a c e d w i t h a t r a d i t i o n i n w h i c h J o s e p h u s ' An

tiquitates w a s c a l l e d On the Institutions of the Jews o r On the

Governance of the Jews.I n m y o p i n i o n , t h e S y r i a c m a n a n d t h e A r a b i c tadbïr, w h i c h

r e n d e r s i t , h a v e n o t b e e n c h o se n a r b i t r a r i l y t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a n d

n a m e t h i s w o r k o f J o s e p h u s ; i n t h e i r v a r i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s t h e s e

t e r m s c o r r e sp o n d f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y t o δ ι ά τ α ξ ι ς , w h i c h i s m e n

t i o n e d b y J o s e p h u s i n t h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d a b o v e , 1 7 6 w h e r e h e

s e t s f o r t h t h e m a i n t h e m e s o f h i s Antiquitates. I n t h i s p a s s a g e

δ ι ά τ α ξ ις τ ο υ π ο λ ιτ ε ύ μ α τ ο ς 177 f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n α ρ χ α ιο

λ ο γ ί α .

T h e t r a d i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e t i t l e o f J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates

t h a t i s f o l l o w e d b y A g a p i u s a n d M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n c a n t h u s

b e e x p l a i n e d , t h o u g h n o t l e g i t i m a t e d , b y a r e fe r en c e t o J o s e p h u s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s a s i n g u l a r t r a d i t i o n ; a s f a r a s I k n o w , n o

1 7 5 T h e r e c a n , o f c o u r s e , b e n o a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y i n t h i s m a t t e r .

1 7 6 Antiquitates, I , 2 .

1 7 7 A p a s s a g e i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates ( 1 , 1 0 ) s e e m s t o i m p l y t h a t δ ιά τ α ξ ις

τ η ς π ο λ ι τ ε ία ς w a s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e P e n t a t e u c h .



a u t h o r e x c e p t t h e t w o t h a t h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d r e f e r s t o

J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates by the t i t l e On the Institutions of the Jews

o r On the Governance of the Jews. J o s e p h u s 1 7 8 a n d E u s e b i u s 1 7 9

c e r t a in l y d o n o t d o s o , n o r d o e s O r i g e n . 1 8 0

A s w e k n o w , t h i s s i n g u l a r i t y i s p a r a l l e l e d b y a n o t h e r : A g a p i u s

a n d , t o s o m e e x t e n t , M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n p r e s e n t r e c e n s i o n s o f

t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w h i c h m a r k e d l y d iffe r f r o m t h e v u l g a t e v e r s i o n

a n d a r e s a i d t o b e c u l l e d 1 8 1 f rom On the Institutions of the Jews

o r 1 8 2 f r o m On the Governance of the Jews. T h u s , t h e u n u s u a l

t i t l e s g i v e n t o J o s e p h u s ' w o r k a n d t h e s e u n u s u a l r e c e n s i o n s

s e e m t o g o t o g e t h e r ; a p p a r e n t l y t h e y b e l o n g ( i n t h e c a s e o fM i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n t h i s m a y a p p l y o n ly t o it s d i v e rg e n c i es f r o m

t h e v u l g a t e ) t o t h e s a m e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n . N o w w e

k n o w t h a t t h i s t r a d i t i o n d o e s n o t de r iv e f r o m t h e k n o w n

r e c e n s i o n s o f J o s e p h u s ' w o r k s o r o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ec

clesiastica, i .e . f r o m t h e s o u r c e s t h a t a c c o u n t f o r m u c h o f

t h e h i s t o r i c a l d a t a c o n c e r n i n g , l o o s e l y s p e a k i n g , t h e p e r i o d o f

t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e , n o r i s i t , a s f a r a s w e k n o w , a t t e s t e d i n

o t h e r e x t a n t t e x t s . W e m a y a c c o r d i n g l y a s s u m e t h a t a n u n k n o w n

s o u r c e w a s u s e d b y A g a p i u s . P o s s i b l y a s t u d y o f t h e p o r t i o n o f h i s

w o r k c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n m a y t h r o w s o m e li g h t

o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s s o u r c e . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , w e m u s t

1 7 8 I n Contra Apionem, I , 1 ; I , 2 , J o s e p h u s m a k e s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e f e re n c e s

t o h i s Antiquitates'. . . . δ ι α τ η ς π ε ρ ί τ ή ν ά ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ν σ υ γ γ ρ α φ ή ς ..

π ε ν τ α κ ισ χ ι λ ίω ν ε τ α η > α ρ ι θ μ ό ν ισ τ ο ρ ία ν . . . σ υ ν ε γ ρ α ψ ά μ η ν ,... τ ο ι ς π ε ρ ί

τ ή ν ά ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ία ν ύ π ' ε μ ο ϋ γ ε γ ρ α μ μ έ ν ο ις ...

1 7 9 C f ., f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates i n E u s e b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 1 0 : 4 ; I , 1 1 : 4 ; t h e first o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s

c o n t a i n s t h e w o r d s κ α τ ά α υ τ ή ν τ η ς9

Α ρ χ α ι ο λ ο γ ία ς γ ρ α φ ή ν , a n d t h e s e c

o n d th e w o r d s ε ν ό κ τ ω κ α ιδ ε κ ά τ φ τ η ς α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ς .

1 8 0 C f . Contra Celsum, I , 4 7 , w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e f o l l o w i n g r ef e r en c e t o

J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates'. 'Ε ν γ α ρ τ φ ό κ τ ω κ α ιδ ε κ ά τ φ τ η ς Ι ο υ δ α ϊκ ή ς1

Α ρ

χ α ι ο λ ο γ ί α ς . T h i s t i t l e i s a l s o g e n e r a l l y u s e d b y l a t e r a u t h o r s .

1 8 1 I n t h e c a s e o f M i c h a e l .

1 8 2 I f w e a c c e p t t h e e m e n d a t i o n o f A g a p i u s ' t e x t p r o p o s e d a b o v e .



i n t h e m a i n c o n f i n e o u r se l v e s t o a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p a s sa g e

i n A g a p i u s t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w s u p o n t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .

H o w e v e r , a f e w r e m a r k s o n t h e p a s s a g e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g

t h e T e s t i m o n i u m se e m t o b e c a l l e d f o r . T h i s p a s sa g e , w h i c h

h a s b e e n q u o t e d a b o v e , d e a l s w i t h t h e p o r t e n t s t h a t w e r e

w i t n e s se d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e c r u c i f i x i o n , a n d , u p o n P i l a t e ' s

d i sm i s sa l , w e r e su p p o se d t o b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e c r u ci fi x io n .

Q u i t e c l e a r l y t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t d e r i v e e i t h e r f r o m

J o s e p h u s o r f ro m E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica. A reference

t o P h l e g o n , w h o s e n a m e i s c o r r u p t e d i n t h i s p a s s a g e t o Iflafin,

w a s , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,1 8 3

f o u n d i n E u s e b i u s ' Chronicon. H o w e v e r ,t h i s p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s a l so r e f e r s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e

t e s t i m o n y o f a ' p h i l o s o p h e r ' n a m e d Ür.s.y.w.s.18* N o p a r a l l e l

1 8 3 S e e a b o v e , n . 9 .

1 8 4 T h e n a m e , a s g i v e n b y A g a p i u s , m a y a l s o b e r ea d i n v a r i o u s o t h e r

w a y s ; c f. a b o v e , n . 1 1 , a n d C h a b o t ' s r e a d i n g o f t h e s a m e n a m e i n M i

c h a e l ' s t e x t . M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n a l s o b r a c k e t s t o g e t h e r t h e t e s t i m o n i e so f P h l e g o n a n d Or.s.y.w.s. C h a b o t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e

r e a d s a s f o l l o w s : Phlegon , philosophe profane, écrit ainsi: le soleil s'est

obscurci, et la terre a tremblé; les morts ont ressuscité, sont entrés à Jéru

salem et ont mau dit les Juifs. D ans V ouvrage qu'il écrivit sur les temps

des Olym piades, il dit dans le XH Ie livre: la quatrième année de la

IHe Olympiade, il y eut une obscurité à la sixième heure du jour, un ven

dredi, e t les étoiles apparuren t. Nicée et la région de Bithynie tout entière

furent ébranlées, et beauco up d'autres e ndroits furent renversés. Ursinus

dit aussi dans le livre V: Nous fûmes dans une grande angoisse quand

le soleil s'obscurcit et la terre trembla. On entendit des clameu rs terribles

dans les villes des Hébre ux; nous l'apprenons main tenant et nous le voyons

par la lettre que Pilate envoya de Palestine à l'empereur Tibère. Il dit:

*A la mort d'un homm e que les Juifs on crucifié il survint des choses

terrifiantes.' En apprena nt cela César destitua Pilate pour avoir fait la

volonté des Juifs, et il men aça ceux-ci ( M i c h e l l e S y r ie n , I , p p . 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 ) .

T h i s p a s s a g e i s cl e a rl y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p a r a l l el t e xt o f A g a p i u s ,

b u t d o e s n o t d e r i v e f r o m i t , a s i ts q u o t a t i o n f r o m P h l e g o n i s m u c h

l o n g e r . T h e r e f er e n c e i n M i c h a e l ' s q u o t a t i o n t o B i t h y n i a a n d N i c e a ,

n o t f o u n d i n t h e p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s , i s p a r a l l e l e d i n t h e q u o t a

t i o n f r o m P h l e g o n c o n t a i n e d i n E u s e b i u s ' Chronicon ( i n t h e A r m e n i a n

v e r s i o n , loc. cit., a s w e l l a s i n t h a t o f S t . J e r o m e , loc. cit.). B o t h



t o t h i s r e f e r e n c e o c c u r s i n E u se b i u s ' Chronicon. I t m a y b e n o t e d

t h a t S y n c e l l u s , q u o t i n g Ju l i u s A f r i c a n u s , r e f e r s , i n sp e a k i n g o f

t h e l i t e r a r y t e s t i m o n i e s t o t h e p o r t e n t s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e

c r u c i f i x i o n , n o t o n l y t o P h l e g o n , b u t a l so t o T h a l l u s . 1 8 5

H o w e v e r , e v e n i f o n e a b s t r a c t s f r o m t h e d if fe re n ce o f t h e n a m e s ,

t h e s t a t e m e n t a t t r i b u t e d t o T h a l l u s h a s n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t s

i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m Vr.s.y.w.s., w h i c h , inter

alia, purpo r t s to g ive a passage f rom a l e t t e r sen t by P i l a t e to

T i b e r i u s . O n e o f t h e p se u d e p i g r a p h i c a l l e t t e r s su p p o se d l y s e n t

b y P i l a t e t o t h e R o m a n e m p e r o r c o n t a i n s a r e m a r k t h a t a l s o

o c c u r s i n t h e p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s . I n b o t h t e x t s P i l a t e s t a t e st h a t J e su s w a s c r u c i f i e d b y t h e J e w s . 1 8 6

A l l t h i s i s i n c o n c l u s i v e . A s r e g a r d s t h e u l t i m a t e so u r c e o r

s o u r c e s 1 8 7 o f t h e p a s sa g e i n A g a p i u s t h a t c o m e s b e f o r e t h e

Tes t imon ium, the in su f f i c i ency o f the ev idence r ende r s i t

i m p o ss i b l e n o t o n l y t o p r o v e t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f a h y p o t h e s i s ,

b u t e v e n t o f o r m o n e . 1 8 8

A g a p i u s ' a n d M i c h a e l ' s q u o t a t i o n m a y d e r i v e f r o m a c o m m o n S y r i a c

s o u r c e , p o s s i b l y T h e o p h i l o s .

1 8 5 C f . L a b r i o l l e , op. cit. ( a b o v e , n . 1 0 ) , p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 .

1 8 6 H o w e v e r , t h e l e t t e r i n q u e s t i o n i s s a i d t o h a v e b e e n a d d r e s s e d b y

P i l a t e t o C l a u d i u s a n d n o t t o T i b e r i u s . I t i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e G r e l l e

Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha, e d i t e d b y R . A . L i p s i u s & M . B o n n e t ,

I : Acta Petri et Pauli, 4 0 - 4 2 , e d . L i p s i u s , D a r m s t a d t 1 9 5 9 , p p . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 ;

c f . W . B a u e r , Das Leben Jesu im Zeitalter der Neutestamentlichen

Apokryphen, D a r m s t a d t 1 9 6 7 , p . 1 9 0 .

1 8 7 T h e i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e m a y h a v e b e e n T h e o p h i l o s ' S y r ia c c h r o n i c l e .

1 8 8 T h e n a m e Ür.s.y.w.s. h a s a r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h a t o f O r o s i u s , t h e L a t i n

h i s t o r i a n , w h o s e w o r k w a s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o A r a b i c a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t

t h e t i m e w h e n A g a p i u s w r o t e h i s w o r k . H i s n a m e i s m o s t l y a l t e r e d i n

A r a b i c t o H.urüs . y .w . s . ,but a t l ea s t in o n e tex t i t i s w ri t ten Urus.y.w.s.;

s e e G . L e v i D e l i a V i d a , ' L a T r a d i z i o n e a r a b a d e l l e s t o r i e d i O r o -

s i o ' , Miscellanea G. Galbiati, Ι Π , M i l a n o 1 95 1 (Fontes Ambrosiani,

X X V I I ) , p . 1 8 8 ; p . 1 8 9 , n . 4 . M o r e o v e r , A g a p i u s d e s c ri b e s Ur.s.y.w.s. a s

a n h i s t o r i a n . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t s e e m t o p r e c l u d e

t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n : ( 1 ) A g a p i u s ' w o r k p r o b a b l y a n t e d a t e s t h e A r a b i c

t r a n s l a t i o n o f O r o s i u s ( se e L e v i D e l i a V i d a , op. cit., p p . 1 8 7 - 1 8 8 ) , a n d



T h e p o s i t i o n i s so m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p a s sa g e ,

l i k e w i s e q u o t e d a b o v e , t h a t f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n A g a p i u s '

v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . Q u i t e c l e a r l y t h i s p a s sa g e h a s a

c u r i o u s r e l a t i o n t o J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates a n d t o E u s e b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica. I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n w e m a y r e c a l l t h a t i t

i s i n c o n se q u e n c e o f a c o m p a r i so n o f t e x t s o f A g a p i u s w i t h

t h e se t w o w o r k s t h a t w e h a v e a s su m e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n

u n k n o w n s o u r c e , X .

A s h a s b e e n s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e p a s s a g e i n q u e s t i o n b e g i n s w i t h

t h e w o r d s : wa-yaqülu ay dan - And he also says. A s t h e s e w o r d s

f o l l o w i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n a q u o t a t i o n f r o m J o s e p h u s , n a m e l yt h e T e s t i m o n i u m , 1 8 9 t h e n a t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d b e t h a t

t h e y a r e m e a n t t o i n t r o d u c e a n o t h e r q u o t a t i o n f r o m J o s e p h u s .

H o w e v e r , a s w e sh a l l p r e se n t l y s e e , t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p a s sa g e

a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s s u p p o s i t i o n ; t h e a u t h o r o f t h e t e x t

w a s q u i t e o b v i o u s l y a C h r i s t i a n . I n d e e d , t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a so n s

f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e so u r c e o f t h e p a s sa g e m a y b e t h e

Historia Ecclesiastica of Euseb ius , who i s exp l i c i t ly quo ted in a

T h e o p h i l o s , w h o m , a s r e g a r d s t h e p a s s a g e i n q u e s t i o n , w e s u p p o s e t o

b e t h e c o m m o n s o u r c e o f A g a p i u s a n d M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n , a n t e d a t e s

i t t o a m u c h g r e a t e r e x t e n t . ( 2 ) T h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d b y A g a p i u s a n d

M i c h a e l o c c u r s n e i t h e r i n t h e L a t i n o r i g i n a l o f O r o s i u s ' w o r k n o r i n

t h e A r a b i c v e r s i o n , w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , c o n t a i n s m a n y i n t e r p o l a t i o n s .

I t m i g h t , o f c o u r s e , b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e m i g h t h a v e e x i s t e d a n e a r l i e r

A r a b i c o r S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n o f O r o s i u s , w h i c h m i g h t h a v e i n c l u d e d t h e

p a s s a g e i n q u e s t i o n , b u t , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y c o n f i r m a t o r y e v i d e n c e ,

t h i s w o u l d b e a v e r y f a r - f e t c h e d a n d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n . T h e r e i s

a l s o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t b o t h A g a p i u s ' a n d M i c h a e l ' s w r i t i n g o f t h e n a m e

Ür.s.y.w.s., o r s o m e v a r i a n t o f i t , i s w r o n g ; a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s h y p o

t h e s i s t h e n a m e o f t h e h i s t o r i a n s w h o m t h e s e t w o a u t h o r s q u o t e m i g h t

h a v e b e e n c o r r u p t e d t o Vr.s.y.w.s. b y s o m e o n e w h o w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h

t h e n a m e o f O r o s i u s . T h i s w o u l d p a r a l le l t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f P h l e g o n t o

Ifläfün ( P l a t o ) f o u n d i n A g a p i u s ( s e e a b o v e , n . 8 ) . O n t h e e v i d e n c e a t

o u r d i s p o s a l t h e r e i s n o w a y o f p r o v i n g o r d i s p r o v i n g t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .

1 8 9 A s w e h a v e s e e n , A g a p i u s e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s t h a t t h i s t e x t o c c u r s i n a

w o r k o f J o s e p h u s .



t e x t o f A g a p i u s d e a l i n g w i t h A b g a r , 1 9 0 w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y

f o l l o w s u p o n t h e p a s sa g e w i t h w h i c h w e a r e c o n c e r n e d . I n f a c t ,

t h e l a t t e r p a s s a g e — w h i c h i n A g a p i u s c o m e s i m m e d i a t e l y

a ft er t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a n d i s t r a n s l a t e d a b o v e — s h o w s b o t h a

marked s imi la r i ty to and s ign i f i can t d ive rgenc ie s f rom a t ex t

i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 1 0 . A c o m p a r i so n o f t h e

t w o t e x t s i s i n s t r u c t i v e .

Agapius (ed. Cheikho) , p . 239,1. 16 to p. 240, 1. 3 1 9 1

And he also says that all the

public activity of our Lord

Christ, may he be glorified, ...

occurred under the high

priesthood of Hannän and

Qayäfä. For [the two]

were high priests in those

years; I mean [to say that hispublic activity occurred] from

the high priesthood of

Qayäfä. The time between

Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica,

1 , 1 0 : 2 - 6 1 9 2

The divine Scripture says that

he [Jesus] com pleted the w hole

time of his teaching while

Annas and Caiaphas were

high priests, showing that the

whole time of his teaching

was bounded by the years

which cover their adm inistration. Since, then, he began in

the high priesthood of Annas

and continued to the reign of

1 9 0 T h i s t e x t ( A g a p i u s , e d . C h e i k h o , p . 2 4 0 , 1 . 4 , t o p . 2 4 2 , 1 . 4 . ) d e a l s w i t h

t h e e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s b e t w e e n A b g a r , k i n g o f E d e s s a , a n d J e s u s ; a n d

w i t h A b g a r ' s su b s e q u e n t c o n v e r s i o n , t h e l e tt e r h e w r o t e t o t h e E m p e r o rT i b e r i u s a n d T i b e r i u s ' a n s w e r . I t i s i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e w o r d s : Eusebius

[Üsäb.yüs], the bishop of Caesarea, has said. T h e t e x t r o u g h l y c o r r e

s p o n d s t o t h e t a l e o f A b g a r r e c o u n t e d i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica,

1 , 1 3 . H o w e v e r , t h e d i v e r g e n c i e s a r e v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e . T h e m a n n e r o f

t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o t e x t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e Historia

Ecclesiastica d o e s n o t r e f e r t o t h e e x c h a n g e o f l e t t e r s b e t w e e n A b g a r

a n d T i b e r i u s . I n h i s l e t t e r t o J e s u s , A b g a r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Historia

Ecclesiastica, a d d r e s s e s h i m a s Ί η σ ο ϋ σ ω τ ή ρ ι ά γ α θ φ ά ν α φ α ν έ ν τ ι ε ν τ ό π φ

Ί ε ρ ο σ ο λ ν μ ί ο ν . I n A g a p i u s ' t e x t t h e f o r m o f a d d r e s s i s to Jesus,

practiser of medicine [ a l - m u t a t a b b i b ] , who has appeared in Jerusalem.

M a n y e x a m p l e s o f s u c h d i v e r g e n c i e s c o u l d b e c i t e d .

1 9 1 T h e t e x t h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d a n d a n n o t a t e d a b o v e .

1 9 2 K i r s o p p L a k e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n .



these two [dates] does not

amount to four years. For

when Herod had charge of

them, he burnt the genealogies

of their tribes, in order that

it should no t be known that

he [was descended] from

undistinguished people. He

[also] took the priestly vest

men t and put it under his

seal. And he did not allowanyone of the high priests to

officiate as such for more than

one year. For this [reason]

there came up four high

[priests] in the [interval of

time] between the high

priesthood of Hannân andthat of Qayâfâ. For after the

dismissal of Hannän, Ismail,

the son of Yahyâ,193 took

his place. W hen he had

finished his year and quitted

his [office], Eliezer, the son of

Hannân the high priest,

replaced him. After he had

terminated h is year, Simon,

the son of Qamîhûd,194 ' suc

ceeded him. Then came after

him [and in his place]

Qayâfâ, on whose order andunder whose high priesthood

Caiaphas, the intervening

time does not extend to a full

four years. For since the

regulations were at that time

already in process of

destruction, the rule had been

relaxed by which the duties of

the service of God were held

for life and by inherited

succession, and the Rom an

governors entrusted the highpriesthood at different times

to different men, who did not

hold this office for more than

one year. M oreover, Josephus

relates that four high priests

intervened in succession

between Annas and Caiaphasand speaks as follows in the

text of the Antiquities

[XVIII, 34-35]: 'Valerius

Gratus, having deprived

Ananus of the priesthood,

appoints as high priest

Ishmael, the son of Phab i.

Him, too, he removes shortly

and nominates as high priest

Eliezer, the son of Ananus the

high priest. But when a year

had passed he removes him

also and hands over the highpriesthood to Simon , the son

1 9 3 T h i s n a m e i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r s o m e f o r m o f P h a b i ; s e e a b o v e , n . 4 0 .

1 9 4 F o r t h e c o r r e c t f o r m o f t h e n a m e se e a b o v e , n . 4 6 .



our Lord the Messiah, may he

be glorified, was crucified. Thus

the time between Hannän and

Qayäfä does not [amount] to

more 195 than four years.

of Cam ithus. But neither did

his tenure of office last for

more than a year, and

Josephus, who is also [called]

Caiaphas, was his successor'

Thus the whole time of the

teaching of our Saviour is

shown to be not even a full

four years; since from Annas

to the appointment of

Caiaphas in four years fourhigh priests held the yearly

office.

A s t h i s c o m p a r i s o n s h o w s , t h e r e i s a n e v i d e n t c o n n e c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e t w o t e x t s , f o r t h e i r c e n t r a l t h e m e i s o n e a n d t h e

sa m e . B o t h seek to p r ov e , by r e f e r r ing to an iden t i ca l l i s t o f fo u r

s u c c e s s i v e h i g h p r i e s t s , 1 9 6 each o f whom i s sa id to have been

a p p o i n t e d f o r o n e y e a r o n l y , t h a t J e su s ' p u b l i c a c t i v i t y d i d n o tl a s t f u l l f ou r yea r s .

T h i s c o n n e c t i o n c a n a l s o b e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

f i r s t sen tence in the passage f rom Euseb ius so lves the d i f f icu l ty

p resen ted in the f i r s t sen tence o f the passage f rom Agap ius .

T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e t w o s e n t e n c e s i s su b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e ,

e x c e p t f o r o n e p o i n t : E u se b i u s i n t r o d u c e s t h e s e n t e n c e w i t h t h e

w o r d s The divine Scripture says, w h e r e a s A g a p i u s b e g i n s t h e

p a s s a g e w i t h t h e w o r d s And he also says, w h i c h , a s n o t e d a b o v e ,

d o n o t m a k e s e n se i n t h e c o n t e x t . T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t , I

t h i n k , t h a t o r i g i n a l ly t h e s e n t e n c e b e g a n , a s i n E u s e b i u s ' t e x t ,

w i t h t h e w o r d s The divine [ o r holy] Scripture says,191 a n d t h a t

a t so m e s t a g e i n t h e t r a n sm i s s i o n — o w i n g t o t h e e r r o r o f a

1 9 5 A s s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e M S h a s aqall - less, w h i c h i s a n o b v i o u s e r r o r .

1 9 6 K n o w n t o E u s e b i u s f r o m J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, t o w h i c h h e r e f e r s .

1 9 7 T h e G r e e k t e x t h a s φ η σ ϊ ν δ ε α υ τ ό ν ή Θ ε ία γ ρ α φ ή . T h e S y r i a c t r a n s l a

t i o n o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica r e a d s For the holy Scripture

says ( p . 4 4 ) .



c o m p i l e r o r a s c r i b e — t h e w o r d s The divine Scripture w e r e

o m i t t e d . O n t h i s su p p o s i t i o n a l so t h e w o r d aydan w a s i n se r t e d

i n t h e p h r a se wa-qala aydan, i n o rde r to g ive the mu t i l a t ed

p h r a se a s e m b l a n c e o f m e a n i n g . I n t h e l i g h t o f E u se b i u s ' t e x t ,

A g a p i u s ' first s e n t e n c e i n t h e p a s s a g e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n sh o u l d

r e a d The holy 196 Scripture says that all the public activity of our

Lord Christ, may he be glorified, occurred under the high

priesthood of Hannän and Qayäfä.

T w o p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s

d o n o t a p p e a r i n t h e c o r r e sp o n d i n g t e x t o f E u se b i u s , b u t o c c u r

e l sewhere in the Historia Ecclesiastica, f r o m w h e r e t h e y w e r ed o u b t l e s s t a k e n o v e r e i t h e r b y A g a p i u s , o r , m o r e p r o b a b l y , b y

t h e a u t h o r o f t h e S y r i a c Chronicle w h i c h h e u s e d . T h u s , t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e A r a b i c p a s s a g e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n

c a n n o t b y a n y m e a n s s e r v e a s a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e v i e w t h a t

t h e p a s sa g e i s e s s e n t i a l l y b a se d u p o n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica.

T h e s e t w o p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a r e :

1. Herod... burnt the genealogies of their tribes in order that it

should not be known that he was descended from undistinguished

people. T h i s i n c i d e n t i s m e n t i o n e d b y E u s e b i u s , w h o q u o t e s

A f r i c a n u s ; s e e Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 7 : 1 3 .

2 . [Herod] took the priestly vestment and put it under his seal.

T h i s a c t i o n o f H e r o d i s l i k e w i se r e c o u n t e d b y E u se b i u s {Historia

Ecclesiastica, I , 6 : 1 0 ) , w h o q u o t e s J o s e p h u s . 1 9 9

O n o n e p o i n t , a n d o n e o n l y , A g a p i u s r e f e r s , i n t h e p a s sa g e i n

ques t ion , to a f ac t tha t i s no t found e i the r in the Historia

Ecclesiastica o r i n J o s e p h u s . F r o m J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates,

X V I I I , 3 3 - 3 5 , i t m a y b e se en t h a t t h e h i g h p r i e s t s a p p o i n t e d

b y t h e R o m a n p r o c u r a t o r G r a t u s d i d n o t h o l d t h e i r o f f i c e f o r

m o r e t h a n a y e a r . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s t e x t E u se b i u s s t a t e s i n

t h e p a s sa g e o f t h e Historia Ecclesiastica q u o t e d a b o v e t h a t the

1 9 8 O r : divine.

199 Cf . Antiquitates, X V I I I , 9 2 - 9 3 . I t i s c l e a r t h a t i n t h i s c a s e A g a p i u s ( o r

h i s S y r i a c s o u r c e ) q u o t e s E u s e b i u s r a t h e r t h a n J o s e p h u s d i r e c t l y .



Rom an governors entrusted the high priesthood at different times

to different men , who did not hold this office for more than one

year. N e i t h e r J o s e p h u s n o r t h e Historia Ecclesiastica i n the

r e c e n s i o n k n o w n t o u s s t a t e s t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e t o a p p o i n t h i g h

p r i e s t s f o r o n e y e a r o n l y w a s a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d b y H e r o d , 2 0 0

a s i s e x p l i c i t l y a s se r t e d b y A g a p i u s : And he did not allow any

one of the high priests to officiate as such for more than one year.

W e a r e a c c o r d i n g l y f a c e d w i t h a c o n u n d r u m , f o r s o m e p l a u s i b l e

e x p l a n a t i o n m u s t b e f o u n d f o r t h e f a c t t h a t o n e s i n g l e s t a t e m e n t

i n t h e p a s sa g e i n A g a p i u s d o e s n o t u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e f r o m t h e

Historia Ecclesiastica as i t i s known to u s . Bu t fo r the ex i s t enceo f t h i s s t a t e m e n t , t h i s w o r k o f E u se b i u s c o u l d h a v e b e e n

r e g a r d e d a s t h e o b v i o u s s o u r c e o f t h e w h o l e p a s s a g e . 2 0 1

2 0 0 J o s e p h u s , w h e n s p e a k i n g o f H e r o d ' s p o l i c y w i t h re g ar d t o t h e a p p o i n t

m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s , s t a t e s t h a t t h i s p o l i c y w a s a l s o f o l l o w e d b y t h e

R o m a n s , b u t h e d o e s n o t r e f er i n t h i s t e x t t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e h i g h

p r i e s t s ' t e n u r e o f o ff ic e t o o n e y e a r . S e e Antiquitates, X X , 2 4 7 - 2 5 0 :

Herod, when the kingdom was comm itted to him by the Rom ans, aban

doned the practice of appointing those of Asamon aean lineage as high

priests, and, with the exception of Aristobulus, alone assigned the office

to some insignificant persons who were merely of priestly descent...

After Aristobulus* death Herod ceased to entrust the high priesthood

to the descendants of the sons of Asamon aios. Herod's son Archelaus

also followed a similar policy in the appointment of high priests, as did

the Rom ans after him when they took over the government of the Jews.

Now those who held the high priesthood from the times of Herod up to

the day on which Titus captured and set fire to the temple and the city

numb ered twenty-eight in all, covering a period of one hundred an d seven

years ( t r a n s i. L . H . F e l d m a n ) . T h e f ac t t h a t n e w h i g h p r i es t s w e r e

a p p o i n t e d e v e r y y e a r i s a l s o r e f er r e d t o i n t h e T a l m u d i c l i t e r a t u r e ; t h e

p a s s a g e s a r e q u o t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d i n G . A l o n , bïCW* n n V i n a D n p n a{Studies in Jewish History), I , J e r u s a l e m 1 9 5 7 , p p . 4 8 if. T h i s f a c t a l s o

a c c o u n t s f o r t h e r e f er e n c e s i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n to the high priest of

that year: ά ρ χ ιε ρ ε ύ ς ώ ν τ ο υ ε ν ια ν τ ο ϋ ε κ ε ίν ο υ ( x i : 4 9 ) ; ά λ λ α ά ρ χ ι ε ρ ε ύ ς

ώ ν τ ο υ ε ν ια ν τ ο ϋ ε κ ε ίν ο ν ( x i : 5 1 ) ; δ ς ή ν ά ρ χ ι ε ρ ε ύ ς τ ο υ ε ν ια υ τ ο ϋ ε κ ε ίν ο υ

( x v i i i : 1 3 ) .

2 0 1 T h e f a c t t h a t t h e Historia Ecclesiastica w a s i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y n o t t h e

i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e o f t h e p a s s a g e t h a t m a y h a v e b e e n t a k e n f r o m t h e



I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t a s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g H e r o d ' s

p o l i c y o c c u r s i n M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n ' s Chronicle.202

I n J . B . C h a b o t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n i t r e a d s : / / y eut trois grands-

prêtres après Hannan jusqu'à Caïphe: Ismaël, Eléazar et Simeon.

Puis vint Josephe qui est Caïphe . Hérode, en effet, ne laissait

chacun d'eux en fonction que pendan t un an.

T h i s s t a t e m e n t se e m s t o s u g g e s t t h a t H e r o d w a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y

o f t h e t h r e e h i g h p r i e s t s w h o a r e n a m e d ; t h i s c o u l d b e d u e

e i t h e r t o c o n f u s i o n o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t w i t h h i s n a m e s a k e , w h o

r e i g n e d a t t h e t i m e o f J e su s ' p u b l i c a c t i v i t y , o r t o t h e

c h r o n i c l e r ' s u n t h i n k i n g l y c o p y i n g h i s so u r c e s w i t h o u t a n ye f f o r t t o m a k e so m e se n se o u t o f t h e m .

T h e p a s sa g e o f A g a p i u s i s , I t h i n k , l e s s c o n f u se d , o r , a t l e a s t ,

t he con fus ion i s l e ss ev iden t . Never the le ss , bu t fo r one f ac to r ,

i t c o u l d e a s i l y b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t H e r o d d i d n o t

pe rmi t h igh p r i e s t s to ho ld the i r o f f i ce fo r more than one yea r

sh o u l d b e i m p u t e d t o a s c r i b e ' s e r r o r o r t o a c o m p i l e r ' s o r

t r a n s l a t o r ' s m i s t a k e a n d t h a t , in t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , i t r e su l t e d f r o ma c o r r u p t i o n o r m i su n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l e v a n t p a s sa g e s o f

E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica. T h e f a c t o r t h a t d o e s n o t

p e r m i t t h i s f a c i l e so l u t i o n i s a p a s sa g e o f a n o t h e r w o r k o f

E u s e b i u s , Demonstratio, V I I I , 2 : 9 9 . I n t h i s p a s s a g e E u s e b i u s

exp l i c i t ly s t a t e s 2 0 3 t h a t H e r o d w a s t h e f i r s t — t h e R o m a n s

f o l l o w i n g h i s e x a m p l e — t o a p p o i n t h i g h p r i e s t s , 2 0 4 c o n t r a r y

to the Law, and to t r a f f i c in the o f f i ce , g iv ing i t t o common

a n d u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d m e n a n d c h a n g i n g t h e i n c u m b e n t s e v e r y

S y r i a c c h r o n i c l e u s e d b y A g a p i u s h a r d l y a f fe c t s t h e d i ff ic u l ty m e n t i o n e d

a b o v e . W h o e v e r i n t h e first p l a c e c o m p i l e d t h e p a s s a g e a p p e a r s t o

h a v e d e r i v e d a l l s t a t e m e n t s b u t o n e f r o m t h e Historia Ecclesiastica.

2 0 2 I , p . 1 4 3 .

2 0 3 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e s h o u l d b e c o n s t r u e d

a c c o r d i n g t o o r d i n a r y s y n t a c t i c r u l e s .

2 0 4 T h e t ex t h a s ι ε ρ ε ί ς - p riests , b u t i n t h e c o n t e x t o n l y high priests m a k e s

s e n s e .



y e a r . 2 0 5 A f e w l i n e s f u r t h e r o n E u s e b i u s q u o t e s t h e p a s s a g e o f

J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates9 X V I I I , 3 4 - 3 5 , a l s o f o u n d i n t h e t e x t o f

t h e Historia Ecclesiastica c i t e d a b o v e , c o n c e r n i n g t h e a p p o i n t

m e n t s a n d d i s m i s s a l s o f h i g h p r i e s t s b y V a l e r i u s G r a t u s .

A c a s e c o u l d b e m a d e o u t f o r t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t s

i n t h i s p a s s a g e c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o l i c y , w h i c h a r e n o t f o u n d i n

o u r r e c e n s i o n o f J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, ar e in ferences f rom

Antiquitates, X X , 2 4 7 , w h e r e J o s e p h u s a s s er t s t h a t t h e R o m a n s

f o l l o w e d H e r o d ' s p o l i c y i n t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s ,

c o m b i n e d w i t h Antiquitates, X V I I I , 3 4 - 3 5 , w h e r e J o s e p h u s

d e s c r i b e s V a l e r i u s G r a t u s ' p r a c t i c e s i n t h i s m a t t e r . I t m a y ,h o w e v e r , a l s o b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p a s s a g e s h o w s t h a t , w h e n

w r i t i n g t h i s p a s s a g e o f t h e Demonstratio, E u s e b i u s u s e d s o m e

h i s t o r i c a l t e x t 2 0 6 u n k n o w n t o u s , w h e r e h e f o u n d , inter alia,

t h e ex p l ic i t s t a t e m e n t t h a t H e r o d , l ik e t h e R o m a n s , a p p o i n t e d

a h i g h p r i e s t f o r o n e y e a r o n l y ; a s t a t e m e n t w h i c h , a s w e h a v e

2 0 5 . . . π ρ ώ τ ο ς μ ε ν Η ρ ώ δ η ς , έ π ε ιτ α δ ε κ α ι ' Ρ ω μ α ίο ι μ ε τ ά τ ο ύ τ ο ν ά κ ρ ίτ ω ςκ α ι ο ύ κ α τ ά τ ο ν ν ό μ ο ν τ ο υ ς Ι ε ρ ε ίς κ α β ί ο τ ω ν , ο ϋ ς ε δ ό κ ε ι α ύ τ ο ϊ ς

δ η μ ο τ ι κ ο ΐ ς τ ισ ι κ α ι ά σ ή μ ο ι ς ά ν δ ρ ά σ ι τ ή ν τ ιμ ή ν χ α ρ ιζ ό μ ε ν ο ι, ε π ί -

π ρ α σ κ ο ν τ ε κ α ι ε κ α π ή λ ε ο ν τ ο ϋ ν ο μ α , ά λ λ ο τ ε ά λ λ ο ις έ ν ι α σ ια ΐο ν τ α

α ξ ίω μ α δ ω ρ ο ύ μ ε ν ο ι.

A l o n {pp. cit., η . 2 0 0 , p . 5 8 , η . 3 7 ) c o n s i d e r s th a t E u s e b i u s ' o p i n i o n , a s

e x p r e s s e d i n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica i n r e g a r d t o t h e t i m e w h e n

h i g h p r i e s t s b e g a n t o b e a p p o i n t e d f o r o n e y e a r o n l y , i s i n c o r r e c t .

H e c o n s i d e r s t h a t H e r o d , r a t h er t h a n a n y o n e e l s e , m u s t h a v e b e e n

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s i n n o v a t i o n , a n d q u o t e s , i n o r d e r t o c o r r o b o r a t e

h i s v i e w , A g a p i u s a n d B a r H e b r a e u s ' Chronicon Ecclesiasticum a n d

Chronicon Syriacum. I t s e e m s t o h a v e e s c a p e d h i s n o t i c e t h a t i n h i s

Demonstratio a l s o E u s e b i u s s u b s c r i b e s t o t h i s o p i n i o n . T h e t ra f fi ck in g

i n t h e h i g h p r i e s t ' s o f f i c e m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s p a s s a g e o f t h e Demonstratio

i s a l s o r e f e r r e d t o i n T a l m u d i c l i t e r a t u r e ; s e e A l o n , op. cit., p p . 4 8 f f .

T h e r e i s a l s o a n a l l u s i o n t o i t i n J o h n C h r y s o s t o m , In Inscriptione

Altaris ( M i g n e , Patrologia Graeca, L I , C o l . 7 3 ) , q u o t e d b y A l o n , op .

cit., p . 5 8 .

2 0 6 T h i s c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e b e e n a s l i g h t l y d i ff e r en t t e x t o f J o s e p h u s '

Antiquitates', o r E u s e b i u s m i g h t h a v e d r a w n u p o n J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s ,

w h o , i n h i s t u r n , m a y , a s s u g g e s t e d b y H . G e l z e r ( s e e b e l o w , n . 2 0 8 ) ,

h a v e o c c a s i o n a l l y m a d e u s e o f J u s t u s o f T i b e r i a s .



s e e n , d o e s n o t o c c u r i n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica. But a l l t h i s

i s , o f c o u r s e , m e r e s p e c u l a t i o n . T h e p a s s a g e i n E u s e b i u s '

Demonstratio d o e s , h o w e v e r , l e a d t o a n i n d u b i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n :

t h e s t a t e m e n t o f A g a p i u s a n d M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n 2 0 7 t h a t H e r o d

l imi ted the t enu re o f the o f f i ce o f the h igh p r i e s t s he appo in ted

c a n n o t b e d u e t o t h e m i s t a k e o f a n o r i e n t a l c o m p i l e r , t r a n s l a t o r

o r s c r i b e , s i n c e t h i s s t a t e m e n t i s a l r e a d y m a d e b y E u s e b i u s ;

t h e s u g g e s t i o n m o o t e d a b o v e i s t h u s p r e c l u d e d . O n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , i t i s i m p r o b a b l e t h a t A g a p i u s , M i c h a e l a n d t h e S y r i a c

c h r o n i c l e r s t h e y u s e d t o o k o v e r t h e s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g

H e r o d ' s a p p o i n t m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s f r o m E u s e b i u s ' Demonstratio, w h i c h i s n o t a h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k ; t h e r e a r e , I

t h i n k , s t r o n g g r o u n d s f o r s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e y t o o k t h e i r

i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s a n d n o t f r o m t h e o l o g i c a l

t r e a t i s e s . M o r e o v e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s

w h e r e t h e s t a t e m e n t i n q u e s t i o n o c c u r s d e r i v e s i n a l l o t h e r

r e s p e c t s f r o m t h e Historia Ecclesiastica. T h i s m i g h t l e g i t i m a t e

t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t i n q u e s t i o n w a s a l s o f o u n d

i n t h i s w o r k : i t m i g h t h a v e a p p e a r e d i n a l o s t r e c e n s i o n o f i t .

T h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s c l e a r l y s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t a

s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g H e r o d ' s p o l i c y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e

a p p o i n t m e n t o f h i g h p r i e s t s w a s i n s e r t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n t o

a n o t h e r w o r k : t h e Demonstratio; t h e e x t a n t r e c e n s i o n o f t h e

Historia Ecclesiastica i s o n t h i s p o i n t i n c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e

Demonstratio, b u t t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l l o s t r e c e n s i o n m i g h t h a v e

b e e n i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e l a t t e r .

T h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g c a n b e f o l l o w e d u p : I f t h e r e a r e s t r o n g

a r g u m e n t s i n f a v o u r o f t h e s u r m i s e t h a t a n u n k n o w n r e c e n s i o n

o f t h e Historia Ecclesiastica was the sou rce o f a p iece o f

i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g H e r o d f o u n d i n A g a p i u s a n d i n M i c h a e l ,

i t c o u l d a l s o b e a r g u e d t h a t t h i s r e c e n s i o n m i g h t b e s o u r c e Xw h o s e e x i s t e n c e w a s p o s t u l a t e d a b o v e ; i t m i g h t b e s u p p o s e d

t h a t a t s o m e s t a g e i n i t s r e d a c t i o n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica

2 0 7 A s a l s o o f B a r H e b r a e u s ; s e e a b o v e , n . 2 0 5 .



m i g h t h a v e c o n t a i n e d a n u n c h r i s t i a n i z e d v e r s i o n o f t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m — o r o n e l e s s C h r i s t i a n i z e d t h a n t h a t o f t h e

v u l g a t e ( p o p u l a r i z e d b y E u se b i u s ) — a n d t h a t t h a t v e r s i o n w a s

u se d b y A g a p i u s , a n d t o so m e e x t e n t b y M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n .

Th i s i s , o f cou r se , on ly a g l immer o f a poss ib le so lu t ion — a

v e r y h y p o t h e t i c a l o n e — t o o n e o f s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s p o se d b y

A g a p i u s ' v e r si o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . 2 0 8

2 0 8 T h e f a c t t h a t A g a p i u s i n h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e p e r i o d o f t h e S e c o n d

T e m p l e u s e d o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n m a t e r i a l m a y b e v e r i f i e d b y a n e x a m

i n a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y o f t h e k i l l i n g o f H e r o d ' s w i f e a s r e l a t e d b y h i m :Herod died [w hile suffering] from great and bitter pain. A nd it is said that

he killed his wife, w hile she was sleeping in a bed with him. In fact, a quarrel

broke out between them. The exchange of angry words w ent on and on.

Finally she started to rail at him. T hereupon he went out of his mind,

took a cushion, put it upon her face, sat upon it, and did not stand up until

she was dead. After that he killed his own son [ I e m e n d ibnatohu t o ib~

nahu] and some of his relatives ( e d . C h e i k h o , p . 1 4 0 ) .

T h i s s t o r y i s f o l l o w e d b y a n a c c o u n t o f H e r o d ' s l a s t i l l n e s s , w h i c h i s

c l e a r l y d e r i v e d f r o m J o s e p h u s ' t w o a c c o u n t s o f t h i s i ll n e s s (Bellum

Judaicum, I , 6 5 6 ; Antiquitates, X V I I , 1 6 8 - 1 6 9 ) , b o t h o f w h i c h a r e

q u o t e d i n E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 5 - 9 . A g a p i u s a l s o m e n

t i o n s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n H e r o d ' s a t t e m p t t o k i l l h i m s e l f r e c o u n t e d i n

Bellum Judaicum, I , 6 6 2 , q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n h i s Historia Ecclesi

astica, I , 8 : 1 4 , a n d h i s o r d e r t o h i s s i s t e r S a l o m e (Shälüm) t o k i l l

a f t e r h i s d e a t h t h e J e w s a s s e m b l e d a t t h e p l a c e w h e r e h e l a y d y i n g .

T h i s i s c l e a r l y d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s t o r y t o l d i n Bellum Judaicum, I ,

660 (c f . Antiquitates, X V I I , 1 7 4 - 1 7 7 ) a n d q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n h i s

Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 1 3 .

T h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t H e r o d k i l l e d h i s o w n s o n s e e m s t o r e f e r t o t h e

e x e c u t i o n , r e c o u n t e d b y J o s e p h u s (Bellum Judaicum, I , 6 6 3 - 6 6 4 ; Anti

quitates, X V I I , 1 8 7 , 1 9 1 ) , o f H e r o d ' s s o n A n t i p a t e r , o r d e r e d b y H e r o d

s h o r t l y b e f o r e h e d i e d . I n r e f e r r i n g t o t h i s e v e n t , E u s e b i u s (Historia

Ecclesiastica, I , 8 : 1 5 ) d o e s n o t m e n t i o n t h e n a m e A n t i p a t e r ; h e m e r e l y

s a y s t h a t b e f o r e h i s d e a t h H e r o d k i l l e d a l e g i t i m a t e s o n o f h i s . T h i s

m a y b e a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t i n t h e p a s s a g e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n A g a p i u s ,

o r r a t h e r h i s S y r i a c s o u r c e , u s e d E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica.

T h u s m a n y e l e m e n t s i n t h i s p a s s a g e o f A g a p i u s a p p e a r t o b e d e r i v e d

f r o m J o s e p h u s , p r o b a b l y t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y o f E u s e b i u s .

H o w e v e r , t h e s t o r y c o n c e r n i n g t h e k i l l i n g o f H e r o d ' s w i f e i s n o t f o u n d



A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n i s t h a t o f t h e r e l a t i o n , f r o m t h e t e x t u a l p o i n t

o f v iew, o f th i s ve r s ion to the ea r l i e s t p r e -Euseb ian r ecens ion

o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , t h e o n e w h i c h m a y — i t i s a m o o t

p o i n t — h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d b y J o s e p h u s himself.

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e r e l e v a n t p a s sa g e s o f O r i g e n sh o u l d b e

m e n t i o n e d . I n t h r e e p a s s a g e s O r i g e n m e n t i o n s 2 0 9 J o s e p h u s '

a l lu s ions to Je sus ; a l l t h r ee r e f e r to the desc r ip t ion , found in

Antiquität es, X X , 2 0 0 , o f J a m e s a s the brother of Jesus, who was

called the Christ210 - τ ο ν α δ ε λ φ ο ν τ ο ν λ ε γ ο μ έ ν ο ν χ ρ ι σ τ ο ϋ ,1

Ι ά κ ω β ο ς δ ν ο μ α α ν τ ω . I n t h e s e p a s s a g e s O r i g e n a l s o r e m a r k s

t h a t J o s e p h u s w a s w r o n g ( t h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o Contra Celsum,1 , 4 7 , not far from the truth) i n s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n

i n e i t h e r o f t h e s e a u t h o r s . J o s e p h u s g i v e s t w o a c c o u n t s {Bellum Judai

cum, 4 4 1 - 4 4 4 ; Antiquitates, X V , 2 1 8 - 2 3 9 ; cf. X V , 6 8 - 8 7 ) o f t h e e x e c u

t i o n o f H e r o d ' s w i f e M a r i a m n e . T h e s e a c c o u n t s d iff er f r o m o n e a n

o t h e r , b u t e v e n m o r e s o f r o m A g a p i u s ' s t o r y ; i n b o t h , M a r i a m n e i s

k i l l e d b y H e r o d ' s o r d e r , b u t n o t b y h i s o w n h a n d . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h i s i s

a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f A g a p i u s ' u t i l i z a t io n o f a n u n k n o w n , p o s s i b l y e a r ly

s o u r c e w i t h i n a p a s s a g e th a t o t h e r w i s e a p p e a r s , i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s ,

t o s t e m f r o m J o s e p h u s a s q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s . I t m a y b e r e l e v a n t t o

p o i n t o u t th a t s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s a re p o s e d b y t h e B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i o

g r a p h er S y n c e l l u s , w h o s e a c c o u n t o f t h e H a s m o n e a n p e r i o d c o n t a i n s

m a t e r i a l t h a t i s n o t d e r i v e d f r o m J o s e p h u s . G e l z e r m e n t i o n s t h e p o s

s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s m a t e r i a l m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k o f

J o s e p h u s ' c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d o p p o n e n t , J u s t u s o f T i b e r i a s ; a c c o r d i n g

t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , S y n c e l l u s ' i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e w a s J u l i u s A f r i c a n u s ,

w h o d r e w u p o n J u s t u s , a n d w a s i n t u r n u s e d b y S y n c e l l u s ; s e e

H . G e l z e r , Sextus Julius Africanus und die Byzantinische Chronographie,

I , L e i p z i g 1 8 8 0 , p p . 2 5 6 - 2 6 5 , e s p . p . 2 6 5 .

S i m i l a r c o n j e c t u r e s c a n c l e a r l y b e m a d e c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o u r c e s o f

A g a p i u s ; p o s s i b l y t h e y c o u l d , a t l e a s t t o s o m e e x t e n t , b e c o r r o b o r a t e d

o r d i s p r o v e d , a s t h e c a s e m a y b e , b y m e a n s o f a d e t a i l e d c o m p a r i s o n

o f A g a p i u s ' h i s t o r i o g r a p h y w i t h t h a t o f S y n c e l l u s a n d o t h e r B y z a n

t i n e h i s t o r i a n s .

2 0 9 C o m m e n t a r y o n M a t t h e w i : 1 7 ; Contra Celsum, I , 4 7 ; Π , 1 3 . T h e

p a s s a g e s a r e q u o t e d i n f u ll b y C . M a r t i n , ' L e " T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a -

n u m " ', Revue Beige de Philologie et d'Histoire, X X ( 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 4 1 9 - 4 2 0 .

2 1 0 O r : the Messiah.



o f J a m e s b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m a n d t h e

d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e — a n o p i n i o n t h a t i s a l s o a s c r i b e d

t o J o s e p h u s b y E u s e b i u s , 2 1 1 bu t wh ich i s no t found in ou r t ex t

o f the Antiquitates. A c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n , 2 1 2 J o s e p h u s s h o u l d

h a v e p u t t h e b l a m e f o r t h i s n a t i o n a l c a t a s t r o p h e o n t h e J e w i s h

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s J e s u s .

I n t w o o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s O r i g e n a l s o s t a t e s t h a t J o s e p h u s d i d

n o t b e l ie v e t h a t J e s u s w a s t h e M e s s i a h . A c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n ' s

c o m m e n t a r y o n M a t t h e w i : 17, he did not accept our Jesus as

the M essiah -τ ο ν Ί η σ ο ϋ ν η μ ώ ν ov κ α τ α δ ε ξ ά μ ε ν ο ς ε ίν α ι χ ρ ισ τ ό ν .

I n Contra Celsum, 1 ,4 7 , h e s a y s , s p e a k in g of J o s e p h u s , . . . thoughdisbelieving in Jesus [regarded] as the Messiah - κ α ί τ ο ι γ ε ά π ι σ

τ ω ν τ ω Ί η σ ο ν ώ ς χ ρ ισ τ ώ . . .

D o t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i sb e l ie f o f J o s e p h u s i n

J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p i n d i c a t e t h a t O r i g e n h a d k n o w l e d g e o f a

T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m , i .e . o f a p a s s a g e o f J o s e p h u s r e fe r ri n g

to J e su s th a t w as d if fe r en t f rom th e vu lg a te t e x t? — fo r , a s

w e m a y r e c a l l , t h i s t e x t c o n t a i n s t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a s s e r t i o n

t h a t H e was the M essiah.

O b v i o u s l y t h e o t h e r p o s s i b l e h y p o t h e s i s i s t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l

w o r k s o f J o s e p h u s , a s k n o w n t o O r i g e n , c o n t a i n e d n o p a s s a g e

d i r e c t l y d e a l i n g w i t h J e s u s ; i t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t O r i g e n m i g h t

h a v e i n f e rr e d f r o m t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l c i rc u m s t a n c e t h a t J o s e p h u s

w a s a n u n b e l i e v e r . 2 1 3

O n t h e w h o l e , t h e first s u p p o s i t i o n s e em s t o m e t o b e m o r e

p r o b a b l e ; O r i g e n ' s a s s e r t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g J o s e p h u s ' u n b e li e f a r e

so posi t ive tha t i t i s d i f f icu l t to main ta in tha t they are so le ly

b a s e d o n a n argumentum ex silentio.

2 1 1 Historia Ecclesiastica, I I , 2 3 .

2 1 2 S e e Contra Celsum, I , 4 7 ; I I , 1 3 .

2 1 3 B e c a u s e h i s s i l e n c e c o u l d b e t a k e n a s i n d i c a t i n g a c o m p l e t e l a c k o f

i n t e r e s t i n J e s u s . T h e c u r s o r y r e f e r e n c e i n Antiquitates, X X , 2 0 0 , t o

J a m e s ' b e i n g the brother of Jesus, who was called the Christ - τ ο ν ά δ -

ε λ φ ό ν Ί η σ ο ϋ τ ο υ λ ε γ ο μ έ ν ο υ χ ρ ι σ τ ο ύ , c a n , i f o n e i s i n c l i n e d t h a t w a y ,

b e e a s i l y b r o u g h t i n t o l i n e w i t h t h i s v i e w .



I f w e a d m i t t h a t O r i g e n w a s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a r e c e n s i o n o f t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m , i t f o l l o w s f r o m h i s r e m a r k s , a s h a s b e e n p a r t l y

ind ica ted , tha t th i s r ecens ion mus t have d i f f e r ed f rom tha t o f

t h e v u l g a t e i n a t l e a s t t w o i n t e r c o n n e c t e d p a r t i c u l a r s :

1 . I t d id no t con ta in the sen tence He was the M essiah.

2 . I t con ta ined e i the r a scep t i ca l o r a nega t ive r e f e rence to the

c l a i m t o M e s s i a h s h i p m a d e o n J e s u s ' behalf.

In th i s con tex t i t may be r eca l l ed tha t the r ecens ions o f S t .

J e r o m e a n d M i c h a e l c o n t a i n e d t h e s e n t e n c e He was believed214

to be the Messiah. T h i s s e n t e n c e ( w h i c h p r o b a b l y a l s o a p p e a r e d

i n A g a p i u s ' S y r i a c s o u r c e ) s t r i k e s a m i l d l y d u b i t a t i v e n o t e a n dm a y acco rd in g ly fill t h e b i l l . I t ca n be a rgued th a t i t m a y h av e

b e e n t h e p h r a s e t o w h i c h O r i g e n a l l u d e d .

I t m a y , h o w e v e r , b e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t O r i g e n ' s r e m a r k a p p e a r s

t o i n d i c a t e a m u c h m o r e o u t s p o k e n s c e p t i c i s m o n t h e p a r t o f

J o s e p h u s , e v e n a d o w n r i g h t d e n i a l o f J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p . I f t h i s

con ten t ion i s accep ted , the sen tence in the r ecens ions o f S t .

J e r o m e a n d M i c h a e l c o u l d b e h e l d t o b e a w a t e r e d - d o w n

v e r s i o n o f t h e p h r a s e k n o w n t o O r i g e n .

I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m w i t h

w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o o u r s u r m i s e , O r i g e n m a y h a v e b e e n a c

q u a i n t e d d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e c o n t a i n e d d e r o g a t o r y r e m a r k s

re fe r r ing to Je sus ; O r i g e n w o u l d h a v e p r e t t y c e rt a in l y a n i m a d

v e r t e d u p o n t h e m .

T o s u m u p : T h e p e c u l i a r v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m F l a v i a n u m

f o u n d i n t h e c h r o n i c l e o f t h e t e n t h - c e n t u r y J a c o b i t e h i s t o r i a n

A g a p i u s s e e m s t o b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n c e n t r e d o n t h i s

J o s e p h i n e o r p s e u d o - J o s e p h i n e t e x t . I t s i m p o r t a n c e r e s i d e s i n

the fac t tha t i t i s so d i f fe ren t f rom the vu lga te vers ion tha t

h a r d l y a n y o f t h e a r g u m e n t s ( o r , p e r h a p s , n o n e ) d i s p r o v i n g t h e

au then t i c i ty o f the l a t t e r have any va l id i ty wi th r ega rd to i t .I n t h e m a i n , t h i s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d b e c a u s e o f

t h e p r o n o u n c e d C h r i s t ia n t r a i t s o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m ; i n A g a p i u s '

2 1 4 O r : thought.



v e r s i o n t h e s e t r a i t s a r e c o n s p i c u o u s b y t h e i r a b s e n c e , a n o n

c o m m i t t a l a t t i t u d e b e i n g t a k e n u p .

Th i s ve r s ion r e fe r s to the r epo r t o f the d i sc ip le s conce rn ing

J e s u s ' a p p e a r a n c e a f t e r t h e c r u c i f i x i o n , b u t , c o n t r a r y t o t h e

v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , d o e s n o t p o s i t i v e l y s t a t e t h a t t h i s a p p e a r a n c e

was a f ac t . Nor does i t a f f i rm the t ru th o f the c l a im tha t Je sus

w a s t h e M e s s i a h ; t h e re l e v a n t p h r a s e — r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o

S y r i a c — m e r e l y i n f o r m s u s t h a t h e w a s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e

M e s s i a h . T h e r e i s n o d e r o g a t o r y r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s , a n d h i s

h u m a n q u a l i t i e s a r e a c c o r d e d p r a i s e . B u t t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n i s

c o m p a r a b l e i n k i n d t o J o s e p h u s ' e v a l u a t i o n o f o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t i e s . O n i a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s s a i d t o b e a righteous man and

dear to God.215

I n t h e r e c e n s i o n o f t h e t w e l f t h - c e n t u r y S y r i a c Chronicle o f

M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n w e a l s o e n c o u n t e r t h e f o r m u l a t i o n t h a t

J e s u s w a s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e M e s s i a h . M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n h a s

a l s o s o m e o t h e r t r a i t s i n c o m m o n w i t h t h a t o f A g a p i u s ; h o w

eve r , in many r e spec t s i t i s c lo se to the vu lga te r ecens ion o f the

T e s t i m o n i u m f o u n d i n t h e S y r ia c t r a n s l a t i o n o f E u s e b i u s '

Historia Ecclesiastica. I t c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a m a l g a m o f

t h e t w o , b u t i t i s n o t c e r t a i n t h a t t h i s i s t h e s o l u t i o n .

S t . J e r o m e ' s r e c e n s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m , w h i c h i s o n e o f t h e

e a r l i e s t k n o w n t o u s , h a s a s i m i l a r f o r m u l a t i o n : He was believed

to be the Messiah.216

T h i s m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a p e r h a p s

s o m e w h a t s u p e r e r o g a t o r y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e p a r a l l e l s e n te n c e s

i n A g a p i u s ' a n d M i c h a e l ' s r e c e n s i o n s h a v e n o t b e e n c o i n e d i n

t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y o r t h e r e a b o u t , b u t g o b a c k t o a m u c h e a r l i e r

p e r i o d .

2 1 5 R . M a r c u s ' t r a n s l a t i o n ; Antiquitates, X I V , 2 2 : δ ί κ α ιο ς ά ν ή ρ κ α ι Θ ε ο

φ ιλ ή ς . A c o m p a r a b l e m e e d o f p r a i s e i s p o s s i b l y m e t e d o u t b y

J o s e p h u s t o J o h n t h e B a p t i s t (Antiquitates, X V I I I , 1 1 7 ) , b u t t h e ref

e r e n c e t o h i m h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d b y s o m e s c h o l a r s a s a C h r i s t i a n

i n t e r p o l a t i o n .

2 1 6 S t . J e r o m e ' s r e c e n s i o n is a l s o r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e O r i e n t a l r e c e n s i o n s

c i t e d h e r e i n s o m e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i c u l a r s .



T h e r e a r e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t a n u n k n o w n r e c e n s i o n o f

E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica m a y h a v e b e e n t h e u l t i m a t e

s o u r c e o f t h e p a s s a g e i n A g a p i u s im m e d i a t e l y f o l lo w i n g u p o n

t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . 2 1 7

C o n c e i v a b l y , A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m c o u l d h a v e

b e e n t a k e n f r o m t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l v e r s i o n o f t h e Historia

Ecclesiastica. H o w e v e r , t h i s i s a m e r e s u p p o s i t i o n , w h i c h m a y

t o s o m e e x t e n t b e v e r i f i e d o r d i s p r o v e d b y a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f

t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e p o r t i o n o f A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e d e a l i n g w i t h

t h e p e r i o d o f t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s o f

C h r i s t i a n i t y .O r i g e n ' s r e m a r k s o n t h e d i s b e l i e f o f J o s e p h u s p r o v e t h a t h i s

c o p y o f t h e Antiquitates d i d n o t i n c l u d e t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n

o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m . T h e s e r e m a r k s c a n e a s i l y b e m a d e t o f i t i n

w i t h A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n . I t c a n , h o w e v e r , b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e

v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m k n o w n t o O r i g e n 2 1 8 m a n i f e s t e d ,

w i t h r e g a r d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , a m o r e p r o n o u n c e d l y s c e p t i c a l o r

n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e t h a n t h e n o n - c o m m i t t a l v e r s i o n o f A g a p i u s .

I s t h e r e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s v e r s i o n s h o u l d b e i d e n t i c a l

w i t h , o r c o m e c l o s e t o , t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m a s

c o m p o s e d b y J o s e p h u s ? T h i s m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d t o b e t h e m a i n

qu es t i on a r i s ing f rom th e ex i s t ence o f th i s ve r s io n , i f t h e re h ad

n o t b e e n a s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t t h a t c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e T e s t i m o n i u m

is w ho l ly a Ch r i s t i a n fo rge ry . In the l igh t o f th e fac t th a t th i s

v i e w i s , o r h a s b e e n , s t r o n g l y r e p r e s e n t e d a m o n g s c h o l a r s , a

p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n s e e m s t o b e n e c e s s a r y ; i t m a y b e p u t a s

f o l l o w s : d o e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n ( w h i c h w a s

gene ra l ly l e f t ou t o f accoun t in the d i scuss ion o f the Tes t i

m o n i u m ) t e n d t o s h o w t h a t t h e s c e p t i c i s m o f t h e s c h o l a r s i n

qu es t ion w as un jus t i f i ed?

N o c lea r - cu t o r final ans w ers to these tw o in te r r e la t e d qu es t ion s

2 1 7 A n d , a t l e a s t , o f o n e o t h e r p a s s a g e .

2 1 8 O n t h e w h o l e , i t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t h e d i d k n o w a r e c e n s i o n o f t h e

T e s t i m o n i u m .



c a n b e l o o k e d f o r ; t h e r e a r e t o o m a n y u n k n o w n f a c t o r s. H o w

e v e r , c e r t a i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s p r i n g t o m i n d .

A s h a s b e e n s t a t e d , n o n e o f t h e m a i n o b j e c t i o n s p u t f o r w a r d

aga ins t the au then t i c i ty o f the vu lga te r ecens ion o f the Tes t i

m o n i u m w o u l d h o l d w a t e r i f t h e y w e r e l e v e ll e d a g a i n s t A g a p i u s '

v e r s i o n . I n o r d e r t o c o m p o s e t h e l a t t e r J o s e p h u s n e e d n o t h a v e

been a Chr i s t i an . In f ac t , a s f a r a s p robab i l i t i e s go , no be l i ev ing

C h r i s t i a n c o u l d h a v e p r o d u c e d s u c h a n e u t r a l t e x t ; f o r h i m t h e

on ly s ign if i can t po i n t ab ou t i t co u l d hav e be en i t s a t t e s t in g th e

h i s to r i c a l ex i s t ence o f Je su s . Bu t th e f ac t i s th a t un t i l m od er n

t i m e s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r h a r e w a s n e v e r s t a r t e d . E v e n t h e m o s tb i t t e r o p p o n e n t s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y n e v e r e x p r e s s e d a n y d o u b t a s

to Je su s ' ha v in g r ea l ly l ived . T he y con f ined them se lves to

dep lo r in g th e con seq uen ces o f th i s f ac t , an d , in ce r t a in case s ,

J e s u s ' b e h a v i o u r . J o s e p h u s , h o w e v e r , w h o , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m

i t s c l a im ed to be a n ob jec t ive h i s to r i an , cou ld have w r i t t en

th i s t ex t .

I t m i g h t , h o w e v e r , a l s o b e t h e re s u l t o f a C h r i s t i a n a d a p t a t i o n

o f a p a s s a g e , i n c l u d e d i n J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates, w h i c h w a s

o r i g i n a l l y m u c h m o r e h o s t i l e t o , o r c r i t i c a l of, C h r i s t i a n i t y .

B o t h t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s u r m i s e s e v i d e n t l y i m p l y t h a t J o s e p h u s '

Antiquitates d i d o ri g i n a l ly c o n t a i n a T e s t i m o n i u m o f s o m e s o r t

d e a l i n g w i t h J e s u s . T h i s m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a n s w e r t o t h e

p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e . W e m u s t , h o w e v e r , n o t e

t h a t b o t h s u r m i s e s a r e p r e d i c a t e d u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n , w h i c h

s e e m s t o m e j u s ti fi e d , t h a t A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n d o e s n o t s t e m f r o m

t h e v u l g a te r e c e n s i o n . N o C h r i s t i a n w o u l d h a v e t a m p e r e d w i t h

th e t ex t w i th a v iew to e l im ina t in g a l l t h e ph ras es th a t a r e

c o n c e r n e d w i t h J e s u s ' s u p e r h u m a n n a t u r e a n d a c t i o n s a n d t o

r e p l a c i n g t h e a u t h o r ' s a f fi rm a t i o n o f J e s u s ' M e s s i a h s h i p a n d

h i s a p p e a r a n c e a ft er d e a t h b y n o n - c o m m i t t a l s t a t e m e n t s t h a tm e r e l y m e n t i o n t h a t s u c h c l a i m s w e r e m a d e o n b e h a l f o f J e s u s .

A n d t h e r e i s n o i n d i c a t i o n w h a t e v e r t h a t t h e t e x t h a d b e e n

m a n i p u l a t e d b y a J e w , a J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n o r a P a g a n . M o r e o v e r ,

a l l t h e d a t a w e p o s s e s s c o n c e r n i n g A g a p i u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e



r e l e v a n t p e r i o d o f h i s t o r y a p p e a r t o s h o w t h a t h e o b t a i n e d h i s

f a c t s f r o m C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s . 2 1 9

I t i s admi t t ed ly d i f f i cu l t to accep t the idea tha t a t en th -cen tu ry

A r a b i c c h r o n i c l e h a s p r e s e r v e d a v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m

t h a t c o m e s c l o s e r t o J o s e p h u s ' o r i g i n a l t e x t t h a n t h e v u l g a t e

r e c e n s i o n a t t e s t e d i n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . T h e o d d s s e e m t o b e

v e r y h i g h t h a t a p a s s a g e o f t h i s n a t u r e , t r a n s l a t e d i n a l l p r o

b a b i l i t y f r o m t h e G r e e k i n t o S y r i a c a n d f r o m t h e S y r i a c i n t o

A r a b i c , w o u l d i n t h e c o u r s e o f c e n t u r i e s h a v e b e e n a l t e r e d

ou t o f a l l r ec og n i t io n . H ow eve r , th i s d if fi cu lty seem s to m e t o

b e m a i n l y o f a p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e n ov a l i d r e a s o n w h y a v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m p r e s e r v e d i n

A r a b i c s h o u l d n o t h a v e e s c a p e d C h r i s t i a n c e n s o r s h i p t o a

g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h e v u l g a t e v e r s i o n , o r e v e n a l t o g e t h e r .

M o r e o v e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n , a n i m p o r t a n t t r a i t o f A g a p i u s '

v e r s io n i s c o r r o b o r a t e d b y S t . J e r o m e ' s t h i r d - o r f o u r t h - c e n t u r y

r e c e n s i o n .

W e a r e t h u s l e f t w i t h t w o p o s s i b i l i t i e s : e i t h e r t h e v e r s i o n o f

A g a p i u s is t h e p r o d u c t o f C h r i s t i a n c e n s o r s h i p a p p l i e d t o t h e

o r i g i n a l t e x t i n a l e s s t h o r o u g h g o i n g f o r m t h a n i n t h e c a s e o f

t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n , o r i t d i d n o t u n d e r g o c e n s o r s h i p a t a l l ;

i n t h a t c a s e t h e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t w h i c h i t m a y

b e a s s u m e d t o c o n t a i n s h o u l d b e s e t d o w n a s t h e u s u a l a l t e r a

t i o n s d u e t o t h e m i s t a k e s o f s c r i b e s a n d t r a n s l a t o r s . T h e f i r s t

h y p o t h e s i s se e m s t o m e t o b e t h e m o r e p r o b a b l e o n e , b u t f o r

n o v e r y c o n c l u s i v e r e a s o n . A t t h e m o m e n t t h i s i s a n y b o d y ' s

g u e s s .2 2 0

2 1 9 E u s e b i u s ' Historia Ecclesiastica w a s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , a m a i n s o u r c e

f o r A g a p i u s o r t h e S y r i a c C h r o n i c l e r h e u s e d . A s h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d

a b o v e , t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n A g a p i u s ' w o r k a n d B y z a n t i n e h i s t o r i o

g r a p h y s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d .

2 2 0 I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a r e f e r e n c e t o a v e r s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m

d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n ( a n d , a s I m a y a d d , a l s o f r o m t h a t

o f A g a p i u s ) i s t o b e f o u n d i n a d i a l o g u e p u r p o r t i n g t o g i v e a n a c c o u n t

o f a r e l i g i o u s d e b a t e a t t h e c o u r t o f t h e S a s s a n i d s ; s e e E . B r a t k e , Das



In th i s connec t ion the fo l lowing spec i f i c po in t shou ld a l so be

n o t e d . T h e l a s t s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n , c o r r e c t e d b y a

c o m p a r i s o n w i t h M i c h a e l ' s v e r s i o n , c o u l d b e r e a d : He was

thought to be the M essiah, concerning whom the prophets have

recounted wonders. The l a s t words o f the sen tence o f f e r a so r t o f

e x p l a n a t i o n , a l b e i t n o t a v e r y e n l i g h t e n i n g o n e , o f t h e t e r m

M essiah - χ ρ ισ τ ό ς , w hic h c lea r ly h a d t o b e exp la ined in a

w o r k d e s t i n e d f o r r e a d e r s o f G r e e k ; a t t h e t i m e o f J o s e p h u s

m o s t o f t h e s e c o u l d h a v e m a d e n o t h i n g o f t h e p h r a s e o f t h e

v u l g a t e r e c e n s i o n δ χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς ο ύ τ ο ς ή ν . T h i s i s a n a d d i t i o n a l

r e a s o n — o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e o b v i o u s o n e , n a m e l y , h i s u n b e l i e f — f o r m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t h e c o u l d n o t h a v e w r i t t e n t h i s ;

w h e r e a s t h e s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s a n d o f M i c h a e l c o u l d c o n

c e i v a b l y b e a u t h e n t i c .

I t h a s o f t e n b e e n n o t e d t h a t , o u t s i d e t h i s v u l g a t e v e r

s i o n — w h o s e a u t h e n t i c i t y w a s , t o s a y t h e l e a s t , d o u b t f u l — t h e

t e r m χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς i s u s e d b y J o s e p h u s i n o n e p a s s a g e o n l y ,

Antiquitates, X X , 2 0 0 , w h e r e h e s p e a k s o f J a m e s , t h e b r o t h e r o f

J e s u s , w h o w a s c a l l e d the M essiah - τ ο ν λ ε γ ο μ έ ν ο υ χ ρ ισ τ ο ύ .

S o m e t i m e s i t h a s b e e n a s s u m e d t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t i n s p e a k i n g

o f t h e c h i e f s o f t h e J e w i s h i n s u r r e c t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t s J o s e p h u s

sogenannte Religionsgespräch am Hofe der Sassaniden (Texte und Unter

suchungen, X L I I I ) , L e i p z i g 1 8 9 9 , p . 3 6 ; c f . M . G o g u e l , Jesus and the

Origins of Christianity ( E n g l i s h t r a n s i . ) , N e w Y o r k 1 9 6 0 , p . 7 8 , n . 4 .

G o g u e l ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s r e f e r e n c e r e a d s : Josephus spoke of Christ

as a just and good man, manifested by grace divine by means of miracles

and signs, and who did a great deal of good to many p eople. O n a n o t h e r

p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s p a s s a g e , s e e B r a t k e , op. cit., pp. 223 f f .

T h e w o r d s a just and good man - α ν δ ρ ό ς δ ι κ α ίο υ κ α ΐ α γ α θ ο ύ m a y

b e r e g a r d e d a s s o m e w h a t r e m i n i s c e n t o f A g a p i u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n ( a c c o r d

i n g t o o n e v e r s i o n ) : his conduct was good and he was known to be vir

tuous. I t s e e m s , h o w e v e r , t o b e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e s e w o r d s a r e ,

a s i s n o t e d b y B r a t k e (op. cit., p . 2 3 0 ) , v e r y s i m i l a r i n d e e d t o t h e e x

p r e s s i o n o c c u r i n g i n M a l a l a s ' q u o t a t i o n f r o m J o s e p h u s ( s e e a b o v e ,

η . 6\):ά ν θ ρ ω π ο ν α γ α θ ό ν κ α ί δ ίκ α ιο ν . A p a r t f r o m t h i s , t h e q u o t a

t i o n i n t h e d i a l o g u e h a s n o p o i n t o f r e s e m b l a n c e w i t h A g a p i u s ' v e r

s i o n o f t h e T e s t i m o n i u m .



d o e s n o t r e f e r t o a n y o n e a m o n g t h e m a s b e i n g r e g a r d e d a s t h e

M e s s i a h i s d u e t o t h e w i s h n o t t o i r r i t a t e t h e R o m a n s a n d t o

f o s t e r t h e i r s u s p i c i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e J e w s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e

a r e n o ind ica t io ns th a t any o f the se ch ie fs c l a im ed t o b e th e

M e s s i a h .

As f a r a s the ev idence we possess goes , i t cou ld be supposed tha t

th i s t i t l e , w h ich ha d been use d in spe ak in g o f r e ign ing k ings

a n d o f h i g h p r i e s t s , w a s n o t , i n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d p r i o r t o

J e s u s , a p p l i e d t o a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s a v i o u r o r d e l iv e r e r w h o

h a d a c t u a l l y l iv e d a n d m a n i f e s te d h i m s e l f d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . 2 2 1

A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s h y p o t h e s i s J e s u s w a s d e s c r i b e d b y J o s e p h u s( j u s t a s h e w a s b y M a t t h e w i : 16) as δ λ ε γ ό μ ε ν ο ς χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς n o t

on ly beca use h i s ad he ren t s con s ide red th a t th i s ti t l e w as right

f ul ly h i s , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e a t t h a t t i m e e v e r y o n e , b o t h a d h e r e n t s

a n d o p p o n e n t s , k n e w t h a t t h i s w a s a c o g n o m e n p e c u l i a r t o

J e s u s . T h e f a c t t h a t a s e n t e n c e o f A g a p i u s ' v e r s io n , w h i c h m a y

b e a u t h e n t i c , r e c o r d s t h a t J e s u s w a s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e M e s s i a h

a n d g iv e s s o m e s o r t o f e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t e r m d o e s n o t , o f

co u r s e , con f li c t w i th th i s h yp o t he s i s ; i t i s , i n f ac t , f avo urab le

to i t .

221 I n a p e r i o d p o s t e r i o r t o J e s u s i t a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d t o B a r

K o k h b a b y t h o s e w h o b e l i e v ed i n h i s m i s s i o n .



Appendix

G A L E N O N C H R I S T I A N S , A C C O R D I N G T O A G A P I U S

I N A P O R T I O N of a book bea r ing the t i t l e Galen on Jews and

Christians,1 P r o f e s so r W a l z e r t r e a t s o f a t e x t a t t r i b u t e d t o G a l e n

b y so m e O r i e n t a l , M o s l e m , a n d C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s , w h i c h r e f e r s

ve ry f avou rab ly to the Chr i s t i an way o f l i f e . A l l these au tho r s

b u t o n e s t a t e t h a t t h e t e x t o c c u r r e d i n G a l e n ' s su m m a r y o fP l a t o ' s Republic. T h e s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n i s B a r H e b r a e u s , w h o

b o t h i n a S y r i a c a n d i n a n A r a b i c w o r k 2 te l l s us tha t the tex t i s

e x t r a c t e d f r o m G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y o f t h e Phaedo. W a l z e r g i v e s

n o c r ed i t w ha te ve r to th i s p iece o f in fo rm a t io n , h i s r ea so ns be ing

a s f o l l o w s : 3

Now here else are Ga len's words attributed to his summ ary of the

P h a e d o . It is, moreover, highly improbable that Bar Hebraeus,or his imm ediate predecessor, had access to more writings of

Galen than were known in the ninth century to Hunain Ibn Ishäq,

who was already unable to trace Galen's summary of the P h a e d o

and could not translate it into either Syriac or Arabic. Hence it

is almost certain that the substitution of the P h a e d o for the

R e p u b l i c is due to Bar Hebraeus' notorious carelessness in such

matters and of no significance whatever. In addition, Bar Hebraeus

is by no means an 'independent witness', since his discussion of

Galen's life is nothing but an abridged copy taken from the

H i s t o r y o f L e a r n e d M e n by Ibn al-Qifti {published after 1227

C.E.), who , again, attributes the statement to Ga len's summary of

1 R . W a l z e r , Galen on Jews and Christians ( h e n c e f o r t h : W a l z e r ) , O x f o r d

1 9 4 9 , p p . 1 5 - 1 6 , 5 7 ff., 8 7 - 9 8 ; c f. P . K r a u s & R . W a l z e r , Galeni Com

pendium Tima ei Piatonis, (Plato Arabus, I ) , L o n d o n 1 9 5 1 , p p . 3 7 - 3 8

o f t h e A r a b i c t e x t a n d p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 o f t h e L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n .

2 E x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e S y r i a c .

3 W a l z e r , p . 9 3 .



the R e p u b l i c . Bar Hebraeus can therefore be eliminated from

future discussions of this statement.

W a l z e r ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t nowhere else are Ga len's words attributed

to his summ ary of the P h a e d o . . . i s i n c o rr e c t, a s i s p r o v e d b y

t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e o c c u r r i n g i n A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e : 4

He 5 also said in his com mentary on a book of Plato called the

P h a e d o : 6

The people called Christians have built their doctrine

upon enigmatic indications1 and miracles. [As far as] the way

they act8 [is concerned], they are not inferior9 to the genuine

philosophers. For they love continence, keep fasts10 and prayers,11

and avoid unjust actions. Am ong them there are men w ho do notpollute themselves with wom en.12

B a r H e b r a e u s ' v e r s i o n 1 3 i s in va r iou s de ta i l s c lo se r to A ga p iu s

t h a n t o t h a t o f t h e M o s l e m w r i t e r q u o t e d b y W a l z e r , 1 4 even i f

o n e a b s t r a c t s f r o m t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t e x t t o t h e c o m m e n t a r y

o n t h e Phaedo. I n a d d i ti o n , b o t h A g a p i u s 1 5 a n d B a r H e b r a e u s 1 6

q u o t e — i n o r d e r t o p r o v e t h a t G a l e n w a s n o t a c o n t e m p o r a r y

o f J e su s — a p a s sa g e o f G a l e n ' s Anatomy, s t a t i n g , inter alia,

t h a t t h i s w a s c o m p o s e d in t h e r e ig n of A n t o n i n u s C a e s a r . B u t

t h e r e a r e a l so d iv e r g e n ci e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o t e x t s . M o r e o v e r ,

A ga p iu s do es no t r e f er to a sec ond p ro o f o f the f ac t th a t G a le n

4 E d . C h e i k h o , p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 .

5 G a l e n .

6 O n e M S h a s När.n, a n d t h e o t h e r Nädän. C h e i k h o i s c e r t a i n l y c o r r e c t

i n e m e n d i n g t h e l a t t e r n a m e t o Fädän - Phaedo.

7 Rumüz.

8 A'mal; l i t e r a l l y : actions.

9 Aqall; l i t e r a l l y : less.

1 0 I n t h e s i n g u l a r .

1 1 I n th e s i n g u l a r .

1 2 A g a p i u s a d d s : / s a y that he means by enigmatic indications the parables

concerning the Kingdom of God formulated in the pure Gospel.

1 3 A L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s v e r s i o n o c c u r s i n W a l z e r , p . 9 3 .

1 4 Ibid., p p . 1 5 - 1 6 .

1 5 E d . C h e i k h o , p . 9 3 , c l o s e t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t e x t q u o t e d a b o v e .

1 6 W a l z e r , p p . 9 2 - 9 3 .



l i v e d a f t e r J e su s , w h i c h i s a d d u c e d , a s W a l z e r p o i n t s o u t , 1 7 n o t

o n l y b y B a r H e b r a e u s , b u t a l s o b y I b n a l - Q i f t i 1 8 a n d I b n A b i

U s a y b f a i n t h e i r w o r k s o n t h e h i s t o r y o f p h y s i c i a n s . A c c o r d i n g

t o t h i s proof, G a l e n m u s t h a v e l i v ed af te r J e su s , b e c a u se i n t h e

t e x t u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n G a l e n sp e a k s o f C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c i sm ,

a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t o n l y a p p e a r e d o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s a f t e r

J e s u s .

I t f o l l o w s t h a t i f A g a p i u s w a s , w i t h r e g a r d t o o u r p a s sa g e , a

so u r c e o f B a r H e b r a e u s , h e w a s n o t t h e o n l y so u r c e . P o s s i b l y ,

h o w e v e r , h e d i d n o t u s e A g a p i u s , b u t s o m e o t h e r w o r k — o n e

c o u l d t h i n k o f t h e S y r ia c so u r c e o f A g a p i u s , b u t th i s is o n l y o n ep o s s i b i l i t y a m o n g m a n y — t h a t a l s o n a m e d G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y

of the Phaedo a s t h e w o r k f r o m w h i c h t h e t e x t c o n c e r n i n g t h e

C h r i s t i a n s o c c u r r e d i n t h e s u m m a r y o f t h e Phaedo, w h e r e a s

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o t h e r so u r c e s i t o c c u r r e d i n t h e su m m a r y o f t h e

Republic. T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e s e c o n d t r a d i t i o n i s l a t e r t h a n t h e

ev idence fo r th e f ir st . Fo r Aga p iu s l ived be fo re a l l t h e au th o r s

m e n t i o n e d b y W a l z e r a s q u o t i n g G a l e n ' s t e x t .1 9 e

U b a y d A l l a hI b n J i b r ä ' i l I b n c U b a y d A l l a h I b n B a k h t ï s h û , w h o , a s W a l z e r

n o t e s , w r o t e a t r e a t i s e c o n c e r n i n g G a l e n w h i c h w a s t h e so u r c e

o f the passages in Ibn a l -Qi f t i and Ibn Ab î Usayb i ' a r e f e r r ed

t o a b o v e , l i v e d i n t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y ; a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n

p h i l o s o p h e r I b n Z u r c a , w h o i n a t r e a t i s e Concerning the Main

Questions Discussed Between Christians an d Jews g ives a sho r t

v e r s i o n o f t h e t e x t o f G a l e n , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o h i m , o c c u r r e d

a t t h e e n d o f t h e su m m a r y o f t h e Republic, d i e d i n 1 0 0 8 , 2 0

m o r e t h a n s i x t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e d a t e a t w h i c h A g a p i u s ' c h r o n i c l e

o r a p a r t o f i t w a s b e i n g w r i t t e n . H o w e v e r , t h i s c h r o n o l o g i c a l

p o i n t d o e s n o t s e e m t o b e o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e , s i n ce A g a p i u s

1 7 Ibid., p . 9 4 .

1 8 I b n a l - Q i f tï , Ta'rikh al-hukamä 9, L e i p z i g 1 9 0 3 , p . 1 2 8 ; I b n A b i U s a y b i e a ,

Kitäb 'uyürt al-anba fi fabaqät al-htukamä\ e d i t e d b y M ü l l e r , K ö n i g s

b e r g 1 8 8 4 , I , p p . 7 6 - 7 7 .

1 9 S e e , h o w e v e r , b e l o w , n . 2 5 .

2 0 S e e W a l z e r , p . 9 1 .



a n d all the a u t h o r s q u o t e d by W a l z e r i n d u b i t a b l y m a d e use of

e a r l i e r w r i t e r s .

W a l z e r m a k e s the p o i n t t h a t it is highly improbable that Bar

Hebraeus or his immediate predecessor had access to more

writings of Galen than were known in the ninth century to Hunain

Ihn Ishâq, who was already unable to trace Galen's summary of

the P h a e d o and could not translate it into either Syriac or

Arabic.21

It s e e m s to me t h a t the a r g u m e n t is i r r e l e v a n t , for it is

m o r e t h a n p r o b a b l e t h a t the q u o t a t i o n s of p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e x t s

m a d e by A g a p i u s an d by Bar H e b r a e u s in his h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s

a re not e x t r a c t e d d i r e c t l y f r o m p h i l o so p h i c a l w o r k s , but f romh i s t o r i c a l c h r o n i c l e s , w h i c h , in the l a s t a n a l y s i s , d r e w m o s t of

t h e i r m a t e r i a l s f r o m C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y w r i t t e n in

G r e e k .

T h e r e is, of c o u r s e , no difficulty in s u p p o s i n g t h a t a C h r i s t i a n

h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r w r i t i n g in G r e e k q u o t e d a t e x t — w h i c h may

h a v e b e e n e i t h e r g e n u i n e or s p u r i o u s — p u r p o r t i n g to be

d e r i v e d f r o m G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y of the Phaedo.A s a m a t t e r of f ac t , the t r e a t i s e of

e U b a y d Allah Ibn J i b r ä ' i l ,

r ight ly regarded by W a l z e r as the s o u r c e of Ibn a l -Qif t i ' s and

I b n Abi U s a y b i V s q u o t a t i o n s of the t e x t of G a l e n , was l i k e

w i se b a se d on h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s d e a l i n g w i t h c h r o n o l o g y .

T h e t r e a t i s e was w r i t t e n bye U b a y d Allah in o r d e r to a n s w e r a

q u e s t i o n p o s e d to him as t o the t i m e in w h i c h G a l e n l i v e d , t h i s

b e i n g a c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p i c . In t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s t r e a t i s e q u o t e d

b y Ibn Abi U s a y b i ' a , 2 2 c U b a y d Allah s t a t e s t h a t he f o u n d his

m a t e r i a l in a c h r o n o l o g i c a l w o r k w r i t t e n by I l y ä the M e t r o

p o l i t a n of N i s i b i s 2 3

and in a sh o r t h i s t o r y w r i t t e n by H ä r ü n

I b n e A z z û r . 2 4

Ibn a l - Q i f t i 2 5 s t a t e s — and he may very we l l be

2 1 Ibid., p. 93.

2 2 I, p. 72.

2 3 He d i e d in 1049 .

2 4 Ibn a l - Q i f f i , p. 136: Ά ζ ΰ η . The t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the n a m e g i v e n in the

t e x t is t h a t of Graf; see b e l o w , n. 25.

2 5 He ['Ubayd Allah] relied on it [the treatise in question] in speaking of



r i g h t — t h a t ' U b a y d Allah r e l i ed ma in ly on H ä r ü n . T h e r e

a r e a l s o s o m e r e a s o n s for b e l i e v i n g , as W a l z e r d o e s , 2 6 t h a te U b a y d Allah may h a v e u s e d I s h ä q Ibn H u n a y n ' s History of

the Physicians.

W a l z e r a l s o s u r m i s e s 2 7 t h a t I s h ä q ' s w o r k was u s e d by

I b n Z u r e a w h e n he q u o t e s G a l e n ' s t e x t . In his c a se the

e v i d e n c e is less c lear . He may have u t i l i zed a h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l

w o r k . It is e v e n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t , b e i n g a p h i l o s o p h e r , he may

h a v e r e a d a m a n u s c r i p t of G a l e n ' s s u m m a r y of the Republic,

a p o s s i b i l i t y w h i c h is a p p a r e n t l y d i s c o u n t e d by W a l z e r . If one

a b s t r a c t s f r o m t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , it may a p p e a r t h a t the ev idencein f avou r of e a c h of the two t r a d i t i o n s , the one m a i n t a i n i n g

t h a t the t e x t of G a l e n is e x t r a c t e d f r o m the s u m m a r y of the

Republic and the o t h e r t h a t the t e x t a p p e a r e d in the s u m m a r y

of the Phaedo, are s u p p o r t e d by e v i d e n c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y

e q u a l s t r e n g t h . The f a c t t h a t the f i r s t t rad i t ion is a d o p t e d by a

g r e a t e r n u m b e r of a u t h o r s is o b v i o u s l y of no g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e

i n t h i s c o n t e x t . And, as we h a v e i n d i c a t e d , the f ac t tha t the

s e c o n d t r a d i t i o n is a t t e s t e d e a r l i e r t h a n the first is a l so not very

s ign i f ican t .

O n e of t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s m a y , of c o u r s e , be due to a s i m p l e e r r o r

i n t r a n s m i s s i o n . If it is not, se v e r a l w a y s of i n t e r p r e t a t i n g the

d a t a are l e f t o p e n : It is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t G a l e n may h a v e

i n se r t e d s i m i l a r t e x t s i n t o the two s u m m a r i e s in q u e s t i o n ; or

t h a t the t e x t mayh a v e o r i g i n a l l y o c c u r r e d in one s u m m a r y o n l y ,

h a v i n g b e e n a d d e d to the o t h e r by i n t e r p o l a t o r s ; in b o t h

Galen [namely] on a history written by the monk Härün Ibn 'Azün, in

which the latter enumerated the kings and Caesars from the time of Alex

ander, [giving] the duration of the reign of every one of them (loc. cit).

G . G r a f l i s t s H ä r ü n Ibn ' A z z ü r a m o n g the C h r i s t i a n A r a b i c a u t h o r s

w h o li v e d p r i o r t o I J u n a y n I b n I s r i ä q . S e e hi s Geschichte der Christlichen

arabischen Literatur, II, C i t t à del V a t i c a n o 1947, p. 112. As he p o i n t s

o u t , a MS of H ä r ü n Ibn ' A z z ü r ' s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k is e x t a n t . It is l i s t e d

i n S b a t h ' s Fihris, u n d e r N o . 2 6 9 6 .

2 6 P. 94.

2 7 Loc. cit.



s u m m a r i e s t h e t e x t s w o u l d b e s p u r i o u s , h a v i n g b e e n c o m p o s e d

b y C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t o r s . T h e r e i s a l s o t h e p o s s ib i l it y t h a t o n e

o f t h e s u m m a r i e s , o r b o t h , o r i g in a l l y i n c l u d e d a r e fe r en c e m a d e

b y G a l e n t o t h e C h r i s t i a n s , a n d t h a t t h e t e x t t h a t w e a r e a c

q u a i n t e d w i t h i s t h e r e s u l t o f a n a m p l if i ca t io n a n d , p e r h a p s ,

a l s o a n a l t e r a t i o n d u e t o C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t o r s .

In th i s con tex t , t he f ac t tha t a l l , o r nea r ly a l l , s t a t emen ts made

i n G a l e n ' s t e x t 2 8 c a n b e m a t c h e d b y a s s e r t i o n s m a d e b y

C h r i s t i a n s o f t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a b o u t t h e m

se lves i s , i t seem s to m e , r e l eva n t . A m or e p rec i se ob se r va t ion

m a y b e e v e n m o r e s o . I t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t t h e r e i s a g r e a ts i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d s o m e p a s s a g e s o f P h i l o ' s

des c r ip t io n , in th e t r ea t i se De Vita Contemplativa, of the way

o f li fe o f t h e T h e r a p e u t a e . T h i s s i m i l a ri t y c o m e s o u t r a t h e r

c l e a r l y i f o n e c o m p a r e s s o m e p o r t i o n s o f t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n a s

s u m m a r i z e d i n t h e Historia Ecclesiastica 2 9 b y E u s e b i u s ( w h o

e q u a t e d , a s d i d o t h e r C h u r c h F a t h e r s , t h e T h e r a p e u t a e w i t h

t h e C h r i s t i a n s ) w i t h t h e f u l l t e x t o f G a l e n , a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d b y

W a l z e r , 3 0 o r w i t h A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n o f t h i s , o r t h e p a r a l l e l t e x t

g i v e n a b o v e .

E u s e b i u s , Historia Ecclesiastica:

I I , 1 7 : 1 0 They31

study the sacred scriptures and expound

their national philosophy by allegory, for they regard the literal

interpretation as symbolic of a concealed reality indicated in

what is beneath the surface.

I I , 1 7 : 1 6 - 1 7 Having laid down for the soul continence as a

foundation, they build the other virtues on it. None of them wou ld

take food or drink before sunset, for they think that philosophy

2 8 T h e s t a t e m e n t i n c l u d e d i n t h e first s e n t e n c e o f W a l z e r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f t h e te x t h a s b e e n m a i n t a i n e d b y C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s a s w e l l a s

b y t h o s e o f o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m e d i a e v a l A r a b i c

p h i l o s o p h y i n g e n e r a l ; s e e b e l o w , p . 8 1 .

2 9 I n K i r s o p p L a k e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n ; o n e w o r d h a s b e e n c h a n g e d .

3 0 P . 1 5 ; W a l z e r ' s t r a n s l a t i o n h a s b e e n m o d i f i e d i n s o m e d e t a i l s.

3 1 T h e T h e r a p e u t a e .



deserves the daylight and the necessities of the body darkness;

for this reason they allot the day to the one, and a sma ll portion

of the night to the others. Som e of them neglect food for three

days for the great love of knowledge dwe lling in them, and some

so delight and luxuriate in the banque t of doctrine, so richly and

ungrudgingly presided over by wisdom , that they abstain for twice

that time, and are accustom ed scarcely to taste necessary food

every six days.

I I , 1 7 : 1 9 - 2 0 For he32

says that women belong also to those

under discussion and that most of them are aged virgins who kept

their chastity from no compulsion, like some of the priestessesamong the Greeks, but rather from voluntary opinion,

33

from zeal

and yearning for wisdom , with which they desired to live, and

paid no attention to bodily pleasures, longing not for m ortal but

for imm ortal children, which only the soul that loves God is

capable of bearing of itself. He then proceeds to expound this

more clearly: 'But the interpretations of the sacred scriptures are

given them figuratively in allegories'

W a l z e r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f G a l e n ' s t e x t :

M ost people are unable to follow any demonstrative argument

consecutively; hence they need enigmatic indications and bene fit

from them — and he {Galen) understands by enigmatic indications

tales of reward and punishment in a future life — just as now we

see the people called Christians drawing their faith from parables

3 2 P h i l o .

3 3 C f . O r i g e n , Contra Celsum, V I I , 4 8 . I n t h i s p a s s a g e O r i g e n r e fe r s t o

C h r i s t i a n m e n w h o a b s t a i n f r o m s e x u a l c o n g r e s s a n d t o C h r i s t i a n w o m

e n w h o p r e s e r v e t h e i r v i r g i n i t y a l l t h e i r l i f e . A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , t h e s e

w o m e n c o m p a r e f a v o u r a b l y w i t h th e f e w p a g a n w o m e n w h o k e e p t h e ir

v i r g i n i t y i n h o n o u r o f t h e g o d s t h e y b e l i e v e i n . O r i g e n s t a t e s t h a t h e

w i l l n o t g o i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e i r d o i n g t h i s i s

o r i s n o t t h a t t h e y a r e g u a r d e d b y m e n . T h i s m a y a l l u d e t o t h e s t a t e m e n t

o f P h i l o (De Vita Contemplativa, 6 8 ) , q u o t e d b y E u s e b i u s i n t h e p a s

s a g e c i t e d i n t h e t e x t , t h a t u n l i k e t h e a g e d v i r g i n s , w h o a r e m e m b e r s

o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f T h e r a p e u t a e , G r e e k p r ie s t e ss e s p r e s e rv e t h e i r

v i r g i n i t y o n l y u n d e r c o n s t r a i n t .



and miracles, and yet sometimes acting in the same way as those

who philosophize?* For their lack of fear of death 25 is patent to

us every day, and likewise their restraint in cohabitation. For they

include not only men but also women who refrain from cohabiting

all through their lives; and they also number individuals who, in

self-discipline and self-control in ma tters of food and drink and

in their keen pursuit of justice, have attained a pitch not inferior

to that of genuine philosophers.

A g a p i u s ' v e r s i o n of G a l e n ' s t e x t h a s f o u r m a i n p o i n t s : t h e

C h r i s t i a n u s e o f a l l e g o r y ; 3 6 t h e C h r i s t i a n f a s t 3 7 (a t ra i t r e fer red

to in o the r ve r s ions o f the t ex t a s the i r se l f - con t ro l in ma t t e r so f f o o d a n d d r i n k ) ; t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h e C h r i s t i a n s a t t r i b u t e t o

c o n t i n e n c e ; a n d C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c i sm ( i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n h e

sp e a k s o f m e n o n l y ; o t h e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e te x t sp e a k o f m e n a n d

w o m e n ) .

A l l o f t h e se p a r t i c u l a r s a r e f o u n d i n E u se b i u s ' su m m a r y o f

P h i l o ' s d e sc r i p t i o n o f t h e T h e r a p e u t a e . T h e fa c t t h a t i n r e f e rr i n g

t o c o m p l e t e s e x u a l a b s t i n e n c e t h r o u g h o u t l i f e t h i s t e x t m e n t i o n so n l y w o m e n se e m s t o m e t o b e o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . I t i s

a l so n o t e w o r t h y t h a t n o v e r s i o n o f G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d , f o r o b v i o u s

r e a s o n s , a l s o n o t t h e s u m m a r y o f P h i l o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , r e f e r s

in any way to Je sus o r to any spec i f i c Chr i s t i an belief. T h e

r e f e r e n c e , w h i c h i s f o u n d i n I b n a l - Q i f t ï , I b n A b i U sa y b i ' a a n d

A b u ' 1 - F i d ä ' , b u t n o t i n A g a p i u s o r B a r H e b r a e u s , t o t h e l a c k

o f f e a r o f d e a t h , w h i c h m a k e s t h e C h r i s t i a n s s i m i l a r t o t h e

3 4 O r : doing things similar to the achievements of genuine philosophers

( s e e W a l z e r , p . 5 7 , n . 5 ) .

3 5 S o m e s o u r c e s a d d w o r d s w h i c h c a n b e r o u g h l y t r an s la t ed and of its

sequel; c f. W a l z e r , p . 1 6 ; p . 6 7 , n . 1 .

3 6 T h e v i e w t h a t C h r i s t i a n f o r m u l a t i o n s h a v e t o r e c e i ve a n a l l e g o r i c a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c u r r e n t i n C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . I t i s f o u n d , inter alia, i n

a m a n i f e s t C h r i s t i a n f o r g e ry , t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f S a i n t P a u l a n d

S e n e c a ; i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h l e t te r S e n e c a re f er s t o t h e a l l e g o r i c a l a n d

e n i g m a t i c c h a r a c t e r o f m a n y o f P a u l u s ' t e x t s .

3 7 H e a l s o a d d s p r a y e r s , a p a r t i c u la r w h i c h i s n o t f o u n d e l s e w h e r e .



p h i l o s o p h e r , c a n n o t b e f o u n d i n E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y , b u t c a n

b e p a r a l l e l e d i n r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . 3 8

T h e n o t i o n e x p r e s se d , a c c o r d i n g t o W a l z e r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n

the f i r s t sen tence — found on ly in Abu '1 -F idä 9 — t h a t m o s t

p e o p l e , b e i n g i n c a p a b l e o f f o l lo w i n g a d e m o n s t r a t i v e a r g u m e n t ,

n e e d a l l e g o r i e s , i s a c o m m o n p l a c e o f A r a b i c p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h

p r o b a b l y t o o k i t f r o m t h e G r e e k s . T h e r e i s n o r e f e r e n c e t o i t i n

E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y , n o r i n o t h e r u n d u b i t a b l y g e nu i n e p a s s a g e s

o f G a l e n i n w h i c h h e sp e a k s o f M o se s , t h e J e w s a n d t h e

C h r i s t i a n s . 3 9 A s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t i s , h o w e v e r , m a d e

b y O r i g e n .

4 0

O n t h e w h o l e , t h e r e se m b l a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t e x t a t t r i b u t e d t o

G a l e n a n d E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y o f P h i l o ' s t r e a t is e s e em t o m e

3 8 T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o O r i g e n {Contra Celsum, Π , 4 5 ) , t h e a p o s t l e s s u r

p a s s e d i n c o u r a g e a n d e n d u r a n c e th e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f w h o m t h e G r e e k ss p e a k . I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t b e f o r e G a l e n a n o t h e r P a g a n p h i l o s o p h e r ,

n a m e l y , E p i c t e t u s , r e f er r e d t o t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s , w h o m

h e c a l l s G a l i l a e a n s , t o d e a t h . A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , t h i s a t t i tu d e r e s u l te d

f r o m h a b i t {ύ π ό ε θ ο ν ς ); s e e E p i c t e tu s , I V , 7 : 6 .

3 9 S e e W a l z e r , p p . 1 0 - 1 5 .

4 0 O r i g e n r e m a r k s t h a t i f i t w e r e p o s s i b l e f o r a l l m e n t o g i v e u p t h e b u s i

n e s s o f th e i r l i v e s , d e v o t i n g t h e ir l e is u r e t o p h i l o s o p h y , n o o n e w o u l d

h a v e n e e d e d t o t a k e a n y o t h e r r o a d . F o r w i t h i n C h r i s t ia n i t y , t o o , t h e

r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d a n d t h e e n i g m a s o f t h e p r o p h e t s ,

t h e G o s p e l p a r a b l e s a n d m y r i a d s o f s y m b o l i c e v e n t s a n d c o m m a n d

m e n t s i n t e r p r e t e d . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f th e n e c e s s i

t i e s o f l i f e a n d a l s o b e c a u s e o f h u m a n i n c a p a c i t y , a s o n l y v er y f e w m e n

t u r n d e v o t e d l y t o r e a s o n {logos). T h i s b e i n g s o , w h a t b e t te r w a y i s

t h e r e t o h e l p t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e t h a n t h e o n e t r a n s m i t t e d b y J e s u s

t o t h e n a t i o n s ? W h a t i s b e t t er f o r t h e m a s s o f t h e b e l i e v e r s : s o m e w h a t

t o a m e n d t h e i r h a b i t s , b e i n g h e l p e d b y t h e ir f a i t h i n p u n i s h m e n t s f o r

s i n a n d r e w a r d s f o r g o o d , o r n o t t o a c c e p t c o n v e r s i o n b a s e d o n s i m p l e

f a i t h , a n d p u t i t o f f u n t i l t h e y c a n e x a m i n e t h e d o c t r i n e s ? E v i d e n t l y ,

p r a c t i c a ll y a l l m e n w i t h v e ry f e w e x c e p t i o n s w o u l d n o t , i f t h e y c h o s e

t h e s e c o n d p o s s i b i l i t y , a c h i e v e t h e r e s u lt s t h a t m a y b e o b t a i n e d f r o m

s i m p l e f a it h a n d c o n t i n u e ( t o c l i n g t o ) a v e r y e v i l w a y o f l i f e .



t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t ; 4 1 t h e y m a y j u s t if y t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t w h e n

t h i s t e x t w a s c o m p o s e d , 4 2 e i the r by Ga len h imse l f o r by a

C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p o l a t o r , t h e t r e a t i s e i n q u e s t i o n o r so m e C h r i s

t i a n s u m m a r y o f i t w a s d r a w n u p o n .

A r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e m a i n c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t h a v e e m e r g e d

se e m s t o b e r e q u i r e d . T h e se c o n c l u s i o n s m a y b e f o r m u l a t e d a s

f o l l o w s :

1. T h e r e i s a n i n d e p e n d e n t t r a d i t i o n t h a t m a i n t a i n s t h a t G a l e n ' s

t e x t c o n c e r n i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n s o c c u r r e d i n t h e su m m a r y o f t h e

Phaedo.

T h e e v i d e n c e i n f a v o u r o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n is c o m p a r a b l e i n v a l i d i t yt o t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t a t t e s t s t h a t t h e t e x t o c c u r r e d i n t h e su m m a r y

o f t h e Republic.

2. T h e i m m e d i a t e s o u r c e s o f e U b a y d Allah I b n J i b r ä ' i l B a k h -

t i sh u ' s t r e a t i s e w e r e t w o h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l w o r k s t r e a t i n g o f

c h r o n o l o g y . T h i s t r e a t i s e m a y h a v e b e e n a l so i n f l u e n c e d b y

I s h ä q I b n H u n a y n ' s History of the Physicians.

3 . A s su p p o se d b y W a l z e r , t h e p a s sa g e w e h a v e r e f e r r e d t o a sG a l e n ' s t e x t w a s p r o b a b l y c o m p o s e d i n G r e e k .

4 . T h e r e i s a c l o se r e se m b l a n c e b e t w e e n G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d so m e

p a s s a g e s i n P h i l o ' s d e s c r i p ti o n o f t h e T h e r a p e u t a e . T h e s e p o i n t s

s t a n d o u t i n t h e s u m m a r y o f t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n m a d e b y E u s e b i u s ,

w h o , l i k e o t h e r C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s , b e l i e v e s t h a t P h i l o sp e a k s o f

t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s . T h i s r e s e m b l a n c e s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o

accoun t in a d i scuss ion o f Ga len ' s t ex t . I t does no t necessa r i ly

p r o v e t h a t t h e t e x t i s sp u r i o u s , t h o u g h , o n t h e w h o l e , i t t e n d s

to g ive g rea te r c r ed ib i l i ty to th i s thes i s 4 3

4 1 T h e y a r e m u c h c l o s e r t h a n t h e r e s e m b l a n c e s b e t w e e n G a l e n ' s t e x t a n d

a p a s s a g e o f A l e x a n d e r o f L y c o p o l i s c o n c e r n i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n s w i t h

w h i c h t h e t e x t i s c o m p a r e d b y W a l z e r ( p . 7 2 ) . L i k e t h e t e x t a n d l i k e

E u s e b i u s ' s u m m a r y , t h i s p a s s a g e d o e s n o t m e n t i o n J e s u s o r a n y s p e ci fi c

C h r i s t i a n belief, b u t i t d o e s n o t m e n t i o n C h r i s t i a n a s c e t i c i s m e i t h e r .

4 2 O r a m p l i f i e d a n d g i v e n i t s fin al f o r m ; s e e b e l o w , n . 4 3 .

4 3 A s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t ' G a l e n s ' t e x t ' i s t h e r e s u lt

o f a n a m p l i f i c a t io n o f a s h o r t e r g e n u i n e p a s s a g e o f G a l e n d e a l i n g

w i t h t h e C h r i s t ia n s . T h i s p a s s a g e m a y h a v e b e e n a l te r e d i n t h e p r o c e s s .



S E L E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Agapius: Kitäb al-Unwän / Agapius Episcopus Mabb ugensis: HistoriaUniversalis (Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum: Scriptores Arabici, X ) ,

e d i t e d b y L . C h e i k h o , L o u v a i n 1 9 5 4 ( re p r in t ). [ = A g a p i u s , e d . C h e i k h o ]

Agapius: Kitäb al- Unw än / Histoire Universelle, écrite par Agapius (Mafrboub )

de Men bidj (Patrologia Orientalis, V , 4 ) , e d i t e d w i t h F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n

b y A . V a s i l i e v , P a r i s 1 9 1 2 . [ = A g a p i u s , e d . V a s i l i e v ]

R . E i s l e r , Ι η σ ο ύ ς Β α σ ι λ ε ύ ς ο ΰ Β α σ ιΧ ε ύ σ α ς , I , H e i d e l b e r g 1 9 2 9 . [ = E i s l e r ]

Eusebius: Demon stratio Evangelica (Die griechischen Christlichen Schrift

steller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte: Eusebius' Werke, V I ) , e d i t e d b yI . A . H e i k e l , L e i p z i g 1 9 1 3 . [ = Demonstratio]

Euseb ius: Historia Evan gelica (Die griechischen Ch ristlichen Schriftsteller

der ersten drei Jahrhunderte: Eusebius* Werke, I I ) , e d i t e d b y Ε . S c h w a r t z ,

L e i p z i g 1 9 0 3 .

Eusebius: Historia Ecclesiastica, L o e b C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y , e d i t e d b y

E . S c h w a r t z , tr a n s la t ed b y K . L a k e , L o n d o n - C a m b r i d g e ( M a s s . ) 1 9 5 9 .

The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius in Syriac, e d i t e d b y W . W r i g h t &

N . M c L e a n , C a m b r i d g e 1 8 9 8 .Josephus: Opera, I - V I I I , e d i t e d b y B . N i e s e , B e r l i n 1 8 8 7 - 1 8 9 4 .

Josephus: Antiquitates Judaicae, L o e b C l a s s ic a l L i b r a r y , I V - I X , t e x t b a s e d

o n N i e s e ' s e d i t i o n , w i t h c o r r e c t i o n s b y H . S . J . T h a c k e r a y a n d o t h e r

s c h o l a r s , t r a n s l a te d b y T h a c k e r a y , R . M a r c u s & L . H . F e l d m a n n ,

C a m b r id g e ( M a s s . ) - L o n d o n 1 9 6 1 - 1 9 6 5 .

Josephus: Bellum Judaicum, L o e b C l a ss ic a l L ib r ar y , Ι Ι - Π Ι , t ex t b a s e d o n

N i e s e ' s e d i t i o n , w i t h c o r r e c t i o n s b y H . S . J. T h a c k e r a y a n d o t h e r s c h o l a r s ,

t ra n s l at ed b y T h a c k e r a y , C a m b r i d g e ( M a s s . ) - L o n d o n 1 9 5 6 - 1 9 5 7 .

De Vita Sua — Flavius Josephe: Autobiographie, e d i t e d a n d t r a n s l a t e d b y

A . P e l l e t ie r , P a r i s 1 9 5 9 . [ = Vita]

Michel le Syrien: Chronicle, e d i t e d i n f a c s i m i l e w i t h F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n b y

J . B . C h a b o t ; V o l . I : T r a n s l a t i o n , P a r i s 1 8 9 9 ; V o l . I V : S y r i a c T e x t ,

P a r is 1 9 1 0 . [ = M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n ]



I N D E X O F N A M E S

A b g a r 5 5

A b u ' 1 - F i d ä * 8 1

A g a p i u s p a s s i m

A g h ä b i y ü s — s e e A g a p i u s

A g r i p p a 4 7

A l e x a n d e r o f L y c o p o l i s 8 2

A l - M a k î n 7 8 1 0 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

1 7 1 8 1 9 3 4 3 5

A l - M a n b i j ï — s e e A g a p i u s

A l o n , G . 5 9 6 1

A n a n u s — s ee H a n n ä n

A n n a s — s e e H a n n ä n

A n t i p a te r 63

A n t o n i n u s C a e sa r 7 4

A r c h e l a u s 5 9

A r i s t o b u l u s 5 9

A s a m o n a i o s 5 9

B a r H e b r a e u s 6 1 6 2 7 3 7 4 7 5

7 6 8 0

B a r K o k h b a 7 2

B a u m s t a r k , A . 6

B r a t k e , E . 7 0 7 1

B u r k i t t, F . C . 2 0

C a i a p h a s — s e e Q a y ä f ä

C e d r e n u s 1 5 1 7 1 8 1 9C e l s u s 3 4

C h a b o t , J . B . 9 5 2

C h e i k h o , L . p a s s i m

C h .r ïf ÏÏ s — s e e A g r i p p a

C h r i st p a s s i m

C l a u d i u s 5 3

Dornseiff, F . 2 0

E g e si p p u s 3 2 3 6 4 2 4 5

E i c h s t a d t , Η . Κ . Α . 4 3

Ei s l e r , R . 1 3 1 5 2 0 2 1 3 3 3 4

E l i e z e r , s o n o f P l a n n ä n ( A n a n u s )

1 2 5 6 6 0

E p i c t e t u s 8 1

E u s e b i u s p a s s i m

E u t y c h i u s I b n S a ' ïd 6

F e l d m a n , L . H . 2 0

F l o r i n u s 6

F l u s s e r , D . 3 8

G a l e n 7 3 ff.

G e l z e r , H . 6 1 6 4

G o e t h a l s , A . 4 3

G o g u e l , M . 7 1

Graf, G . 7 6 7 7

G r e s s m a n n , H . 2 5

G i p h a n i u s — s e e V a n G i f f e n ,

H u b e r t

tfa nn ân 1 1 1 2 1 3 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 6 0

H a r n a c k , A . G . 2 0H ä r ü n I b n e A z z ü r ( e A z ü n ) 7 6 7 7

H i e r o n y m u s — s e e J e r o m e , S t .

H e r o d 1 1 5 6 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2

6 3 6 4

H u n a i n I b n I s l j äq 7 6

H . u r û s . y . w . s . — s e e Ü r . s . y . w . s .

I b n A b î U s a y b i e a 7 5 7 6 8 0

I b n a l - Q i ft ï 7 3 7 5 7 6 8 0I b n Z u r e a 7 5

I f l ä tü n — s e e P l a t o ; c f. P h l e g o

I l y ä 7 6

I r e n a e u s 6

I s h m a e l , s o n o f P h a b î — s e e

I s m ä ' i l , s o n o f Y a h y ä

I s h ä q I b n ï J u n a y n 7 7 8 2

I s i d o r u s P e l u s i a n u s 1 5I s m ä ' i l , s o n o f Y a l r y ä 1 2 5 6

6 0

J e s u s p a s s i m

J a m e s 6 4 6 5 7 1



J e r o m e , S t . 7 1 3 1 7 2 2 3 0 3 7

4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 2 6 6 6 7 7 0

J o h n t h e B a p t i s t 6 7

J o h n C h r y s o s t o m 6 1

J o s e p h u s p a s s i m ; s e e a l s o Q a y à f âJ u l i u s A f r i c a n u s 7 5 3 5 8 6 1 6 4

J û r j i s a l - M a k ï n I b n a l - e A m ü d —

s e e a l - M a k ï n

J u s t u s o f T i b e r i a s 6 1 6 4

M a h b ü b Q u s t a n t ï n a l M a n b i j ï —

s e e A g a p i u s

M a l a l a s , I o a n n e s 1 5 1 7 1 8 7 1

M a r i a m n e 6 4M a r t i n , C . 2 1

M e r x , A . 2 9

M e s s i a h p a s s i m

M e S c e r s k i y , Ν . Α . 4 5

M e y e r , Ε . 2 0

M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n p a s s i m

M o s e s 8 1

M ü l l e r , G . Α . 3 6

N o r d e n , Ε . 2 0 4 3

O n i a s 6 7

O r i g e n 7 2 0 3 4 5 1 6 4 6 5 6 6

68 79 81

O r o s i u s 5 3 5 4

P a u l , P a u l u s 8 0

P h a b i — s e e Y a h y ä

P h i l o 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 2

P h l e g o ( P h l e g o n ) o f T r a l l e s 7 5 2

5 3 5 4

P i l a t e 8 9 1 6 1 7 2 5 2 6 2 9 3 1

3 2 3 3 3 5 4 0 4 2 5 2 5 3

P l a t o 7 5 4 7 3 7 4

P o m p e y 4 9

Q a y ä f ä 1 1 1 3 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 6 0

S a l o m e 6 3S c h a l lt , A . 1 2

S e n e c a 8 0

S h ä l ü m — s e e S a l o m e

S i m o n , s o n o f Q a m î h u d ( C a m i t h u s )

1 2 5 6 6 0

S i m o n b e n K i m b i t — s e e S i m o n ,

s o n o f Q a m f l i ü d

S o z o m e n o s 1 5S u i d a s 1 5

S y n c e l l u s 7 5 3 6 4

T h a c k e r a y , H . S . J . 4 3

T h a l l u s 53

T a n n é g u y L e f è vr e 4 3

T a t i a n 4 1

T h e o p h i l o s o f E d e s s a 6 2 3 5 3

T i b e r i u s 7 8 5 2 5 3 5 5T i t u s 5 9

e U b a y d A l l a h I b n Jibrà'u I b n

' U b a y d A l l a h I b n B a k h t î s h u 7 5

7 6 7 7 8 2

Ü r . s . y . w . s . 8 5 2 5 3

V a l e r i u s G r a t u s 5 6 5 8 6 1

V a n G i ff e n, H u b e r t 2 0V a s i l ie v , A . p a s s i m

V o n G e b h a r d t , Ο . 4 0

W al z e r , R . 73 ff.

Y a b y ä 1 2



L I S T O F M A I N P A SS A G E S A N D W O R D S Q U O T E D *

A g a p i u s

e d . C h e i k h o , p . 1 4 0 6 3

p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 7 4 p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0

7 f f . l 4 1 6 5 5 ff. p p . 2 5 4 - 2 5 5

4 6 f . p . 2 5 5 9

A l - M a k ï n

e d . C h e i k o , p . 3 9 1 8 1 0 1 4 1 5

E g e s i p p u s

Π , 1 2 4 1 4 2

E u s e b i u s

Demonstratio, V I I I , 2 : 9 9 1 2 6 1

Historia Ecclesiastica, I , 5 : 3 2 7

I , 5 : 6 2 7 1 , 8 : 4 1 2 1 , 8 : 9 2 7

I , 9 : 4 2 7 I , 1 0 : 2 - 6 55ff.

I , 1 0 : 4 5 1 I , 1 0 : 5 1 2 I , 1 1 : 4

5 1 I , 1 3 5 5 I I , 1 7 : 1 0 7 8

Π , 1 7 : 1 6 - 1 7 7 8 f. 1 1 , 1 7 : 1 9 - 2 07 9 Π Ι , 9 4 8

The Ecclesiastical History of

Eusebius in Syriac, e d . W r i g h t &

M c L e a n , p . 2 7 , 11. 2 - 3 2 7

p . 2 7 , 1 . 2 0 2 7 p . 4 0 , 1 . 11 2 7

p . 4 3 , 1 . 5 2 7 p . 4 4 5 7 p . 4 5 , 1 . 7

2 7 p . 4 7 , 1. 5 2 4 p . 48 2 4 ff .

Theophania, ed . S . Lee , V , 4 4 2 4 f .G e r m a n t ra n s i, b y H . G r e s s m a n n

2 5

G a l e n

e d . R . W a lz er , p . 1 5 7 9 f. p . 9 3

76 f .

I b n a l - Q i f t i

Tdrikh al-frukamä, p . 136 7 6 f.

J e r o m e , S t .

De Viris Illustribus, Χ Π Ι 4 0 4 1

J o s e p h u s

Antiquitates, I , 2 4 8 X I V , 2 2 6 7

X V I I I , 3 4 1 2 X V H I , 3 4 - 3 5 5 6 f.

X V I I I , 6 3 - 6 4 1 4 1 6 X X , 2 0 0

6 4 6 5 7 1 X X , 2 4 7 - 2 5 0 5 9

Bellum Judaicum, e d . N i e s e , p p .

x r v - x v , χ ν π 4 5

Contra Apionem, I , 1 5 1 I , 2 5 1

J o h n

x i : 4 9 5 9 x i : 5 1 5 9 x v i i i : 1 3 5 9

L u k e

i i i : 2 1 1 v : 2 3 4

M a l a l a s , I o a n n e s

Chronographia, e d . B . G . N i e b u h r ,

p p . 2 4 7 - 2 4 8 1 5 7 1

M a t t h e w

i: 16 7 2

M i c h a e l t h e S y r i a n

Chronicle, e d . J . Β . C h a b o t , I ,

p . 1 4 3 6 0 p p . 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 5 2 I V ,

p . 91 24 f f .

O r i g e nC o m m e n t a r y o n M a t t h e w i : 17 65

Contra Celsum, I , 6 : 1 7 - 1 8 3 5

I , 4 7 5 1 6 4 6 5

S o z o m e n o s

Historia Ecclesiastica, e d . J . B i d e z ,

L i b . I , C a p . 1 , p . 7 1 5

TB Yoma 4 7 a 1 2

* B o l d t y p e i n d i c a t e s p a g e - n u m b e r s i n t h i s w o r k .

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