SESSION 2: THEMES & APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNITY PLANNING Copyright 2011 Phil Heywood

The Four Themes & Their Contributions to Community Planning

• Communication

• Consultation

• Participation

• Negotiation

Relations Between Communication, Consultation, Negotiation & Participation

Communication

Application & Purpose

Goal & Context

Vehicle & Context

Media & Meaning

Participation

Consultation Negotiation

Process & Information

Purpose & Direction

Method & Value

Point & Outcome

Capacity & Legitimacy

Understanding & Facility

Stimulus & ContinuityOutcome &

Credibility

Communication

1. Role of Communication in Social Evolution

2. Content and roles of Communication in Planning Practice- Communicative Methods

1. Recording2. Exploring3. Developing4. Communicative action & policy making

The Role of Communication in Social Evolution

The following table demonstrates the importance of Communication in supporting the values and activities of Freedom and Equality, illustrating its roles in shaping their contribution to human survival and evolution:

1. Survival requires true recognition of real world situations.(Example: “Don’t try to walk on water!”) .

2. Establishment of truth requires challenge and response to individual interpretations (Example: “What makes you think you perform better after a drink?”).

3. Challenge & response requires free speech and personal freedom. “(Example: Why isn’t my work returned to me promptly after marking?”)

4. Free Speech & personal freedom require equality of rights.

Thus, communication, personal freedom and equality are all necessary values to human survival and beneficial social evolution.

The Roles of Communication & Related Values in Social Evolution

Values Origins Activities Planning Implications

Survival,ShelterHealth

Basic Values -genetically inscribed

Recognition of Truth

(objective or inter-

subjective)

Open discussion: rights ofcommunication protected by custom or law

Beliefs about truth, equality, purpose of life

Cultural Values-

culturally entrenched

Challenge & Response

Conjecture & Refutation in

open debate

Critical, tolerant & communicative cultures –Richard Florida’s human

capital & Creative Class

Prosperity,Liberty,Debate & Learning

Social Values- socially grounded

Education, politics,

religion & planning

Rights of free speech ,protection & support for opposing views & critiques

(e.g. Of of paid Oppositions in govt.)

Equality of Rights & defined Responsibilitie

s

Jurisdictional Values- constitutionally defined.

Equality before the

law; constitutional

rights &

responsibilities.

Individual rights constrained

only by like rights of others.

Communicative Methods:1. Recording community preferences in workshops &

websites2. Exploring issues with community groups and on

websites3. Collaborative development of options with professionals

& other local groups4. Communicative action & policy making – negotiated

objectives, problem-solving, conflict resolution and appreciative inquiry

Consultation

Characteristics, Criticisms & Advantages

Forms & Methods of Consultation

QUALITATIVE METHODS QUANTITATIVE METHODS

Focus Groups with special interests

Promotional & Pressure Groups

Media use

Mixed Interest Groups with different interests

Consultative & Advisory Committees

Schools & Colleges

Service Providers & Implementation agents

Steering Committees Whole Affected Community

(Sample Surveys)

Participation

• Issues & Goals

• Theories: Social Contracts & Mutual Aid

• Applications

Goals & Issues of Participation

• ETHICS: Choice not coercion

• STYLE: Preferences not persuasion

• LOCATION: Decentralized and not marginalising

• METHODS: Multiple methods and outcomes not just one

Theories: Social Contract & Mutual AidSOCIAL CONTRACT:

1. Developed by John Locke (1690) to include peoples’ rights to choose government representatives and enjoy freedom of belief, speech & expression in return for paying taxes and obeying laws2. Enshrined in US Declaration of Independence (1776)s

inalienable rights to Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness

3.John Rawls (A Theory of Justice, 1972)1. Equal freedoms for all 2. Give most to those who have least3. Basis of Social Justice is what people would choose for

themselves.

MUTUAL AID: Peter Kropotkin (1899 &1939) & Syndicalists“Sociability is the greatest single advantage in the struggle for

survival & success in a constantly changing world”.• Resulting arguments for collaboration & cooperation

Planning Applications•Neighbourhood & Community Boards & Councils to involve local people in elective government: Amsterdam’s Neighbourhood Councils, New Zealand’s Community Boards; USA’s Education Boards

•Supporting Voluntarism : the Oregon Model- Portland’s 102 Neighbourhood Associations performing a wide range of representative, active and service roles

•Community initiatives and sharing powers :Community Industry and Workers Coops & Management in North Spain: Community Gardens & City Farms worldwide ; Creek Catchment Coordinating Committees in Queensland , Housing estates - “Tenants Take Over” open space & community facilities:

Participation Based on Work:Mondragon Workers Cooperative

- CONCEPTION: 1941: Father Jose Arizmendi founded democratically managed Polytechnic School to explore cooperative ideas as a “third way” between excesses of dictatorships of Franco & Stalin (Order ) & the social inequities of capitalism (Competition).

- BIRTH: 1956: Established ULGOR workers cooperative with unemployed Polytechnic graduates to produce“White Goods”, of which 5 foundation members had previous experience.

Participation Based on Work:Mondragon Workers Cooperative

- YOUTH: 1960s: Growth to a network of enterprises with 3,000 + worker partners all having a financial stake which was bought out on leaving, so that only the workers could own their work places & enterprises.

- MATURITY: 1970s & 80sControl of the factories and senior management appointments was by Works Councils (all workers are voting members) appointing and sharing power with plant managers.

- EXPANSION: 90s and 21st C: By 2009, the network had grown to include over 100,000 member owners, with 20,000 outside Spain, and become Spain’s largest producer of white goods, with the highest worker productivity of any Spanish firm.

Mondragon Arrangements

Redistribution10% of the profits must go to “second degree” co-ops providing community

services of schools, colleges, Mondragon University, clinics & research institutes, governed by factory co-ops representatives

Human ScaleNo individual factory may expand to > 500 workers, to maintain workers control &

good communications (though average size of 150 firms is now over 600 worker members each). Wage differentials, originally fixed at a ratio 1:3, have been expanded but only to 1:6.

ResilienceGlobal re-structuring of employment due to automation of 1980s & 1990s posed

sharp challenges, but employment levels remained at 100% - inherent in the cooperative structure. The MCC is also weathering well the current economic crisis

- New enterprises start with a group of people who are friends. The natural bonds of friendship are the basis for successful ventures, reflecting community as “friendly association”

BUZZ PAIRS

Each pair member think of a situation where participation is or could be occurring quite effectively

OR

Describe a classical case where people are or have been excluded, alienated or marginalised

Negotiation

3 elements:

1. Group Dynamics

2. Alternative Dispute Resolution

3. Consensus Building

Group Dynamics

Principles of Kurt Lewin’s Resolving Social Conflicts & Field Theory in Social Science (1947)

• Force- Field theory : Behaviour is a product of personality acting within the field of environment

• Change solutions come through increasing rewards within new situations to outweigh current constraints.

• Most secure resolutions come from face to face contacts• Democratic principles & leadership are necessary within and

between groups• Continuity & commitment of dialogue are necessary (unlike

once-for-all legal decisions)

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)WHO SHOULD BE INVOLVED?

Those who can demonstrate that their interests are affected have a right to be involved (Mill’s self regarding vs. other regarding issues)

WHAT IS BEING SOUGHT? Maximum possible benefit from minimum inescapable risk (Rawls’ Maximin principle- different from chancers’ Minimax Principle)

HOW IS IT DONE? a. ADR requires commitment to maintain contact and follow

due process;b. Participants think about their own & others’ BATNAs (Best

Alternatives to Negotiated Agreements) & decide whether to negotiate or not

c. Problem solving methods are required to produce “Win- Win” situations – as in Alexander’s Indian Village scheme.

Consensus Building

1. May use Appreciative Enquiry or Problem Solving

2. May involve Action Planning,, Charettes or Inquiry by Design

3. May result from Advocacy Planning, Community Action or Community Development

Negotiation in Community Planning in Practice

• Problem Solving - From Opposition to Proposition: Brisbane’s Southbank example

• Appreciative Enquiry – Chicago’s Back o’ the Yards; Seattle’s Sewage.

• Action Planning - Kolkatta Bustee Improvements; Bangkok CEDA Inner city Improvements & Schweitzer- Renate Workshops in South Africa.

• Advocacy Planning – Norman Creek Waterway Park, Suburban Action & Desegregation of US Suburbs

CASE STUDY: NEGOTIATIVE PLANNING IN NORMAN CREEK CORRIDOR

1.Agendas a.1986 Sydney Industrial Developers’ propose

to culvert creek for industrial development. b. Local opposition produces combined

scheme (initiated by Community Development Officer) by Norman Creek Flood Mitigation Committee working with QUT Planners for creek conservation, floodway, housing improvement & industrial estate.

2. Conflict 4 year conflict involving community members &

advocates & all levels of government, including Brisbane City Engineers, Traffic Planners, Parks Department & Economic Development Bureau

3. Negotiation 1989 Steering Committee composed

(after resolving deadlock) of local community groups with co-opted, but non voting council staff to settle objectives, terms of reference and provide guidance for a consensual scheme

4. Resolution 1990 Loder & Bayley Consultants

scheme, reflecting original Community- University proposals, adopted by Council & gained PIA Strategic Planning Award for Excellence.

. 1992 Current Norman Creek Waterway Park opened & continued in full use

Norman Creek Outcomes

1. Consensual Scheme with something for everyone – residential flood mitigation, habitat conservation, inner city industry, recreation and access

2. Continuing successful resistance to inner suburban roads & creek culverting schemes

3. Continuing very active community involvement in conservation and open space management– N4C (Norman Creek Catchment Coordinating Committee)

Reminder of Relations among Communication, Consultation, Negotiation & Participation

Communication

Application & Purpose

Goal & Context

Vehicle & Context

Media & Meaning

Participation

Consultation Negotiation

Process & Information

Purpose & Direction

Method & Value

Point & Outcome

Capacity & Legitimacy

Understanding & Facility

Stimulus & ContinuityOutcome &

Credibility

Good communication provides the basis to achieve each of the values of consultation, participation and negotiation and is thus a ‘must have‘ skill for successful community planning

Consultation, both with practitioners of such activities as housing, employment and transport, and with community members affected by possible changes, is always essential, for reasons of both justice and effectiveness

Participation is both a means to acceptable planning and an important social good to be achieved as an end of community activities

Negotiation is often the crucial means to unlock acceptance of change, and is thus an essential component of democratic planning

Questions & Contributions

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