Section Review 1

Key Terms communication stakeholders electronic commerce (e-commerce)Summary Effective communication is a critical factor in the business world: you must be able to make your messages understood, and they must function to move people to action or to change their ways of thinking. If your effort at communication succeeds, you increase productivity, and in order for it to succeed, you must be able to anticipate problems, make decisions, coordinate work flow, supervise others, develop relationships, and promote products and services. Another important effect of good communication is a positive impression on the stakeholders all the various elements within and without your organization that have an interest in its success including customers, clients, and investors. Poor communication is not only ineffective; it can make a bad situation worse. The characteristics of effective communication are as follows: It provides practical information such as how something is done, why a method has been changed, what the cause of a problem is and how it can be solved, how far along a project is, or why a particular piece of equipment is necessary.

It is based on facts and evidence rather than opinions. It employs specific details and concrete language, and it covers all sides of an issue, not just the most favorable one.

It uses a wide variety of means to make information as clear and concise as possible, including visual and graphic media.

It focuses on a specific audience, indicating what is to be done by or for that audience.

It is often persuasive in nature, recommending products, service, or courses of action to customers, clients, employers, or employees. The most effective persuasive messages indicate specific benefits to the reader.

A key concept in the writing of effective messages is revision; throughout the course, you will be reminded that no message is complete until it has been proofread and revised, usually more than once.Communication has a particular bearing on the challenges in todays workplace. Technological advances such as e-mail, voice mail, faxes, pagers, and the Internet have dramatically changed the nature of personal and professional communication, making communications faster, more frequent, and wider in scope. It is amazing that it is now possible for people on opposite sides of the world to communicate in a matter of seconds.This revolution in technology makes it necessary to communicate even more effectively and efficiently. Good writing skills not just in formal letters but in e-mails and memoranda are more important than ever. So are good verbal skills, for audio and video media are used with increasing frequency. Intranets- private corporate networks based on Internet communication- make organizational in-house communication more effective than ever. And extranets the extension of private networks to outsiders such as suppliers make it faster. Many business today are taking advantage of this technology in order to conduct electronic commerce (e-commerce) - the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet.Globalization is another factor affecting communication: the typical market today is the entire world, not just the town where a business is located. More and more Americans work for multinational employers, and foreign companies and investors are increasingly prevalent in the U.S. Moreover, the workforce in the U.S. now consists of people from a wide variety of cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Indeed, ethnic minorities have become so well established in some parts of the country that they are no longer minorities. Globalization and diversity make good communication even more important, as businesses must deal with differences in law, customs, and languages.Another important change affecting communication is the shift from the traditional command-and-control management structure to one based on collaboration and teamwork. This approach has advantages when quick decisions based on multiple factors are required. But it also has some disadvantages when different interests, goals, and functions compete.Outline I. Effective communicationA. PersuasionB. Increased productivityC. Effect on stakeholdersII. CharacteristicsA. PracticalB. FactualC. VariousD. Audience-centeredE. PersuasiveIII. RevisionIV. Modern workplaceA. Technological advancesB. Efficiency and effectiveness1. Good writing skills2. Good verbal skillsC. Electronic commerceV. Globalization and diversityA. Multinational employersB. Cultural and ethnic diversityVI. Teamwork and collaboration

Section Review

Key Terms internal communication instant messaging and chat formal communication network videoconferencing informal communication network telenet external communication Internet telephony telecommute file transfer protocol (FTP) e-mail discussion mailing lists Usenet newsgroupsSummary Every employee in a company is a part of the communication chain. Regardless of your position high or low you have information that others will need, and others have information you will need. Every link in the chain is important.Internal communication occurs just within the organization, and it is important that every member of the organization be aware of what is going on and communicate what he or she observes in order to head off potential problems. Internal communication is often effected by phone, e-mail, fax, memo, or intranet. Internal communication is necessary if the job is going to be done; it helps all company personnel understand the organizations mission.Internal communication is both formal and informal. A formal communication network is usually illustrated by a flowchart, with the company executives at the top, managers in the middle, and employees at the bottom. Information flows down, up, and across the structure. High level decisions flow down from the people who make them to the people who put them into effect. Important information such as problems, trends, opportunities for improvement, grievances, and performance ratings flow upward from the mid-level managers to the executives. And communication is in constant flow diagonally and laterally from one department to another.The formal communication network is the way information is intended to flow, but, of course, much information is passed through an informal communication network a grapevine, as it were. Just in the course of daily conversation, people at all levels of an organization are constantly communicating information; about 80% of it has to do with business, and 75 to 95% of that information is accurate. The grapevine cant be controlled from the top; so it is important that managers take it into account and indeed use it to their advantage to both receive and send information informally. But when official information needs to be imparted, it is important that it not be spread just by the grapevine.External communication is, of course, the communication with entities outside the organization- customers, vendors, distributors, competitors, investors, the media, and the government. As with internal communication, some external communication is formal and some informal. Formal external communication is in the form of letters, reports, memos, oral presentations, and websites. It is especially important that these forms be constructed well, for they are frequently the first impression of the organization that an outsider gets. Indeed, it is so important for certain messages to be just right that they are produced by a special public relations team within the organization.Often the public relations team is called in to respond to a crisis an environmental accident, sabotage situation, labor strike, product failure, major litigation, or change in management. Standard procedure in such instances is for the organization to communicate immediately, honestly, and frequently. Failure to do so especially if there is implication of a cover-up can be disastrous to a companys image. Just as informal communications are effective within an organization, so are they when dealing with external elements. Every member of an organization has external contacts that are important source of information and that give outsiders an impression of the organization overall. Much of a high-level managers job involves networking with his or her counterparts in other organizations, but a lot of it also includes getting feedback from real people.There is no more effective source of this sort of real world communication than the Internet, and anyone undertaking a career in business will certainly be expected to be Internet-savvy. The instantaneous sharing of textual and visual information has resulted in dramatic changes in the way companies operate internally and externally. Employees can now telecommute, that is, work away from the office, whether at home or while traveling. And the Internet has been especially effective in transacting business with other organizations throughout different parts of the world. The Internet provides a variety of options to enhance communication. The most familiar is e-mail, in the form of either a simple text message or one with complex files attached. Discussion mailing lists, or listservs, are groups which you join in order to receive messages from all other members of the group. Usenet newsgroups are websites which you access with a news reader program. Anyone can read the messages posted to the site; you dont have to be a member.Instant messaging and chat provide real-time opportunities for communication with individuals or groups. And telenet enables you to access other organizations' computer networks even if your computer is not a permanent part of the network.The Internet also provides opportunities for visual and audial communication from a distance. Videoconferencing is being used as an alternative to face-to-face meetings. Internet telephony enables professionals to communicate by phone over the Internet at much less cost than over conventional phone lines. Another advantage of the Internet is the ability to download and upload large amounts of information through file transfer protocol (FTP)Outline I. The communication chainII. Internal communicationA. Formal communication network1. Vertical flowchart2. Diagonal and lateralB. Informal communication network1. The grapevine2. Official communicationsIII. External communicationA. Formal communicationsB. Public relations teamC. NetworkingIV. The InternetA. TelecommutingB. Discussion mailing listsC. Usenet newsgroupsD. Instant messaging and chatE. TelenetF. VideoconferencingG. Internet telephonyH. FTPSection Review

Key Terms encoding communication barriers communication channel perception medium selective perception decode noise feedbackSummary Communication is a dynamic, transactional (two-way) process. It involves both the sender and the receiver of a message and includes six steps:1) The idea someone (the sender) has an idea and decides to share it.2) Encoding - the sender decides all of the factors to be used in communicating the idea words, gestures, format, medium, tone, and style.3) Transmission the sender transmits the idea through a communication channel (writing, speaking, and visual) and a medium (telephone, letter, e-mail, and face-to-face conversation); the factors affecting channel and medium are location, time, and formality.4) Receiving the person to whom the message is directed receives it.5) Decoding the receiver decodes the message (hears, reads, sees, and understands it).6) Feedback the receiver responds (with words, gestures, expressions, or lack of any of them), indicating that he or she has or has not understood the message.However, the communication process is not as linear as this description might seem: Feedback functions as a sort of loop the sender and receiver each revising and responding to the message until it is more-or-less understood. This being the case, you should be careful not to put too much into any one message. Rather, focus on one main idea and use the back-and-forth feedback aspect to provide additional information and detail.Ideally, when the message is decoded the sender and the receiver both respond to the meanings of the words and other communication cues in the same way. But this is where the communication process sometimes breaks down. One of the great issues in postmodernist communication and literary theory is that people do not assign the same meanings to words (and gestures and expressions) as other people. This is particularly evident when people from two different cultures try to communicate. And there are other factors as well which can result in communication barriers.Communication theorists refer to any impediment to the process as noise. Noise, of course, can be an auditory distraction such as a lawn mower outside the window of a classroom. But it can also take the form of perceptual and language differences, restrictive environments, distractions, deceptive communication tactics, and information overload.Restrictive environment refers to intentional impediments in the communication chain, particularly the feedback loop. Organizations are most typically subject to this when they intentionally limit communication; if executives and managers use a command-and-control style, information is passed down the chain but not back up. In contrast to this technique is the best practices approach, one in which employees are encouraged to communicate their ideas and suggestions. The idea behind the best-practices approach is that the person actually doing to job has valuable knowledge of how it can best be accomplished. Miscommunication is sometimes intentional - the result of deceptive tactics, or spin. When an organization exaggerates the benefits of a product or idea, provides inaccurate statistical information, covers up or leaves out negative information, or states opinion as fact, it is using deceptive tactics. Distractions are another kind of noise that can interfere with communication. Physical distractions are bad phone-line connections, poor acoustics, or illegible text. They can also be factors that affect the receiver such as uncomfortable seating, poor lighting, and health problems. Emotional distractions can be a factor too whether they be the emotions of the sender or of the receiver.Information overload results from being bombarded with volumes of information. The average office worker receives over 200 messages in one form or another every day. It has become increasingly more difficult, but still vital, to determine what information is valuable and what is not.Our perception of the reality around us is based largely on sensory experience what we see, hear, touch, etc. When two people experience the same event such as hearing the same words they may or may not perceive it in the same way. All perception, or, rather, interpretation of perception, is based on prior experience. Therefore, when we interpret sensory experiences, we try to put them into the pattern of perception we have already developed, and sometimes we distort the experience in order to make it fit. This barrier to communication is called selective perception.Obviously, then, the closer the experiences of the sender and the receiver, the closer the perception of the message. Thus cultural factors have a strong impact on the communication process. Moreover, language itself has a strong impact: even though two people speak the same language, they might not have the same associative meanings with words.Round-the-clock accessibility is a result of modern technologys impact on communications. Cell phones, pagers and voice mails, intranets, and e-mail have all made it possible, and virtually necessary, to stay in contact with the job 24 hours a day, seven days a week.Outline I. Communication processA. IdeaB. EncodingC. Transmission1. Channel2. MediumD. ReceivingE. DecodingF. FeedbackII. Communication barriersA. Noise1. Restrictive environments2. Deceptive tactics3. Distractionsa. Physicalb. Emotional4. Information overloadB. Selective perceptionSection ReviewKey Terms topic main idea direct approach indirect approachSummaryIn the United States and Canada, a well-organized message is generally linear in development, proceeding point by point directly and clearly. Poorly organized messages are often characterized by the following: Taking too long to get to the point not stating the purpose until well into the message. Including irrelevant material putting in details that are either unnecessary or too specific Mixing up ideas putting information in the wrong paragraph or section of the message Omitting necessary information leaving out specific details such as make, model and price; time and date; particular problemsGood organization is essential in a business letter to avoid wasting the readers time and jeopardizing goodwill. In addition, poorly organized messages can result in misinterpretation, which can be costly. Good organization results in expediency, and time is money. A good organizational plan can save the writer time and work, obviating false starts and wasted effort. Moreover, a well-organized plan can enable the company to delegate responsibilities by dividing a task among several writers.Even more important, a well-organized message is easier for the reader to understand and thus respond to positively. Organization, combined with diplomacy, will enhance the writers and the organizations credibility. Saving the readers time is another important consideration, for, as noted above, time is money. A well-organized message is concise and relevant, providing only what the reader wants or needs to know.Good organization is achieved largely through attitude recognizing and accepting the need for a plan and through technique knowing how to organize information effectively. The steps to effective organization are: defining the main idea, limiting the scope, grouping supporting points, and selecting a direct or an indirect approach to message sequence.The subject of a business message is sometimes called the topic, and the statement or assertion the writer makes about the topic is called the main idea. (In a traditional college research paper, it is called the thesis.) Often the main idea is easy to impart, but in messages in which the writer is trying to persuade an audience or in which there is bad news to convey, the writer needs to develop a main idea that will establish a good relationship with the audience by focusing on common interests and advantages.Once the writer has determined the main idea, he or she should limit the scope of the message. Scope means the general length and the amount of detail. Two considerations in determining and limiting the scope are time available and audiences expectation. No matter what the scope is, the message should consist of only three or four major points maybe five, but no more. Rather than introduce new points, the writer can expand the scope by developing the points he or she has already chosen. Ultimately, the scope is determined by the subject, the audiences prior knowledge of the topic, its response to the message, and the writers credibility. After determining the scope, the writer must provide the appropriate structure in which to present ideas and supporting evidence. An outline is an excellent and sometimes indispensable tool for structuring a business message. The basic outline formats use numbers or letters to identify major points and indented points to show similarities in status. Another way of structuring a message is to create an organization chart with main ideas and subordinate ideas arranged visually by divisions according to priority.The main idea indicates what the readers should do or think and why they should do so. It is supported by three to five key points which serve one or more of the following purposes: to inform with factual material to describe a process to describe an object to persuade or collaborate to give a historical accountEach of these key points must in turn be supported with evidence; the more evidence provided, the more likely will the audience be persuaded. And it is a good idea to vary the evidence as the assertion is developed, switching from statistical data to anecdotal accounts, from authoritative references to physical description. Another important consideration is the sequence in which the key points will be presented. Since most business messages in the U.S. and Canada follow a linear pattern of development, they can be presented in one of two ways: Direct approach (deductive) the main idea supported by the evidence Indirect approach (inductive) the evidence first, leading up to the main ideaIf the audience is likely to be receptive, the direct approach works better. On the other hand, if the audience is resistant to the message, the indirect approach saving the main idea until last is advised. This rule of thumb notwithstanding, sometimes it is better to use the direct approach when the news is bad: it is all a matter of the type of message (i.e., the purpose), its length, and the audiences likely reaction.The most common types of business correspondence are routine messages, good-news messages, and goodwill messages. These messages are direct and easy to understand. The main idea should be stated immediately and then developed by evidence in the body or the message.Bad-news messages, on the other hand, require a bit of finesse. It might seem that the direct approach is always best, but business messages do more than just impart information; establishing goodwill with a potential customer, supplier, or contributor is always desirable. Thus, the opening of a bad-news message should be a bit indirect, with the bad news stated in the body and justified by the reasons for it. This approach is not considered unethical or manipulative; it is simply a matter of considering the feelings of a reader who is about to be let down and trying to make the situation a little easier. Persuasive messages are perhaps the most challenging of business correspondence. An audience that has to be persuaded is not naturally receptive, and thus the writer must get the reader to consider something contrary to his or her inclination. Persuasive messages begin by focusing the readers attention on a problem or need and then stimulating interest in it. The main idea then offers a solution to the problem or gratification of the need. The message ends with a call to action and a cordial closing.Outline I. Poorly organized messagesA. Unclear main ideaB. Irrelevant materialC. Mixed up ideasD. Missing informationII. Good organizationA. ExpediencyB. Cost effectivenessC. Delegation of responsibilityD. Positive reader response1. Conciseness2. RelevanceIII. Steps in effective organizationA. Define the main ideaB. Limit the scope1. Available time2. Audiences expectationC. Provide structure1. Outline2. Organization chartD. Support the main idea1. Informing2. Describinga. Processb. Object3. Persuading4. Giving historical accountE. Provide evidenceIV. Sequence of key pointsA. Direct approach1. Deductive2. Audience favorableB. Indirect approach1. Inductive2. Audience skepticalV. Most common business messagesA. RoutineB. Good-newsC. GoodwillVI. Bad-news messagesVII. Persuasive messagesSection Review

Key Terms style connotative meaning compound-complex sentence tone abstract word topic sentence active voice concrete word transitions passive voice cliches boilerplate jargon functional words simple sentence content words compound sentence denotative meaning complex sentenceSummaryAfter making an outline, the writer should put it aside for a day or so in order to go back and look at it more objectively. The outline is not cast in stone, and it is likely that the writer will add, delete, and re-arrange ideas as he or she begins composing the message. Composition entails giving creativity free reign. It isnt important at this stage to get every word spelled correctly or even to finish every sentence. Editing is the next stage in the process; the important thing at this point is to get down idea.Style and tone are important considerations in composing a business message. Style is the way an individual uses the language; tone is the overall impression he or she creates formal, informal conversational, and so on. Most business messages effect a conversational tone; good writers are conscious of being sensible, logical, and objective and of providing sufficient detail and examples to support their assertions. In particular, writers of business messages should be careful to avoid the following:Pompous, obsolete language pompous means stiffly formal, and it is often characterized by phrases and expressions that are now considered stilted or obsolete.Intimacy it is not a good idea to get too personal with the receiver of a business message unless one knows the person well already. Details about the readers personal life, as well as other peoples personal lives, have no place in professional correspondence.Humor nothing falls flatter than unsuccessful attempts at humor, and there is a very fine line between what one person finds funny and another does not, especially when the two are from different cultures. Humor is best avoided altogether in business messages.Preaching and bragging - nothing turns people off more quickly than being preached to. And bragging about ones accomplishments, whether in person or in correspondence, is an obvious social and professional faux pas.A writer often has to adapt his or her tone to the situation, changing from conversational to formal, or the other way around, depending on the circumstances. In most business situations, though, the preferred idiom is known as Plain English, the level of the language that can be understood by just about anyone with an eighth- or ninth-grade education. Plain English does have some limitations - it does not entail the vocabulary necessary for scientific research, and it falls a bit short in expressing strong feelings or personal insights. Moreover, it does not incorporate the variety of cultures and dialects that make up the English language. But in general it is an effective way of avoiding some of the misunderstanding that can result from nuances of usage and meaning.As a rule, the active voice is more direct and precise than the passive voice. The active voice emphasizes the doer of an action (Jack threw the ball), whereas the passive voice emphasizes whom or what the action was done by (The ball was thrown by Jack.) Both have their uses, but, as noted above, the active voice is generally preferred in vigorous, concise, and easily understood communications.Diction means word choice, and the writer should be conscious of choosing the best words for the intended effect. Functional words are those whose meanings do not change prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and pronouns but even so the writer needs to be sure to use them correctly. Content words such as nouns, verbs, adjective, and adverbs are often subject to interpretation, and so the writer needs to be sure to choose words carefully to impart the intended meaning.For example, content words often have both a denotative, or literal, meaning and a connotative, or figurative, meaning. The denotative meaning is the one given by the dictionary; the connotative meaning is the one that results from the readers response to the word usually positive or negative. Another consideration in choosing the right word is its abstractness or concreteness. Concrete words refer to physical objects; abstract words to ideas, concepts, or characteristics. Concrete words are more specific and less likely to be misconstrued, but business messages often employ abstract terms as well for example, morale, productivity, quality, motivation, and promise. When discussing abstract ideas in the business world, the writer should use specific, concrete words whenever possible to obviate misinterpretation.Some more suggestions with regard to diction are as follows:Use strong words nouns and verbs rather than modifiersUse familiar words familiar to the reader, that is.Avoid cliches like the plague (get it?)Be careful when using jargon technical terms and professional jargon have their place in business messages, but awareness of the audiences level of understanding is essential here.Just as important as diction in business messages is sentence structure. And a general understanding of the syntax of English is a valuable tool. There are four types of sentences, discussed in detail with examples in the text: A simple sentence has one main clause. A compound sentence has two main clauses joined by a conjunction or separated by a semicolon. A complex sentence has one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. And a compound-complex sentence has two main clauses and at least one subordinate clause. In complex sentences the relative position of the main clause and the subordinate clause determines the relative importance of the ideas being expressed. If the subordinate clause is put at the end of the sentence, the main idea of the sentence is emphasized. If the subordinate clause is put at the beginning, the main idea is de-emphasized. Good writing is characterized by a variety of sentence types and emphasis of ideas.Style the writers personal touch is another consideration. Most business correspondence is characterized by a straightforward, relatively simple style, one that the audience will find clear and easy to understand rather than entertaining. Emphasizing the key ideas in a business message is an obvious way of bringing them to the readers attention. Emphasize the main ideas by putting them at the beginning of the sentence (i.e., writing in the active voice and making the main idea the subject) and by giving the more important ideas more space that is, developing or describing them in more detail. Just as words are combined into sentences, sentences are combined into paragraphs. The three essential considerations in paragraph writing are unity, coherence, and development. A good paragraph contains a topic sentence - which establishes unity - developed by various types of supporting sentences. The writer achieves coherence by arranging ideas in a logical order and by using transitions to link sentences and paragraphs. There are five basic ways to develop paragraphs: illustration, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, classification, and problem and solution. The method the writer chooses depends, naturally, on the purpose of the message and the audience. Finally, business messages sometimes employ a device known as a boilerplate a pre-written paragraph or other block of text incorporated into the text that is being custom written to suit the needs of a particular audience. Outline I. Before composingA. Review outlineB. Revise as neededII. First draftA. Dont edit yetB. Shape message1. Style2. Tone3. Sentences and paragraphsIII. Style and toneA. Style use of language1. Forceful or objective2. Personal or formal3. Colorful or dryB. Tone overall impression1. Conversational2. Sensible, logical, objectiveIV. Obsolete and pompous languageA. Avoid intimacyB. Avoid humorC. Avoid preaching and braggingV. Plain EnglishA. 8th 9th grade levelB. Endorsed by government and organizationsC. Limitations of Plain English1. Lacks scientific precision2. Ineffective for expressing intense feeling and personal insight3. Does not embrace cultural dialectsVI. Active and passive voiceA. Active1. The subject performs the action2. Vigorous, concise, understandableB. Passive1. The subject is acted upon2. Cumbersome, wordy, vague3. Sometimes effective in creating you attitudeVII. DictionA. Functional and content wordsB. Denotative and connotative meaningsC. Abstraction and concretenessVIII. Words that communicateA. Strong words1. Nouns and verbs2. Not adjectives and adverbs B. Familiar wordsC. ClichesD. JargonIX. Effective sentencesA. Types of sentences1. Simple2. Compound3. Complex4. Compound-complexB. Sentence style1. Voice2. Emphasis3. Length4. Lists and bulletsX. Coherent paragraphsA. Paragraph elements1. Topic sentence2. Developmental sentences3. Transitional elementsB. Paragraph development1. Illustration2. Comparison/contrast3. Cause and effect4. Classification5. Problem and solutionC. BoilerplatesSection Review

Summary E-mail is a more convenient and generally less formal medium than the business letter, but organization and writing style are still important considerations.Most e-mail software includes the message of the original e-mail in any return, but for the sake of conciseness and convenience, the writer of the return e-mail can edit the original message to include only the relevant parts i.e., the parts to which the reply e-mail are addressed.As a rule, e-mails messages should be limited to one screen, if possible. If not, the most important information should be included first, and subsequent information should be included in descending order of important.The tone of e-mail can be as informal as that of a conversation or as formal as that of a traditional business letter, depending, naturally, on the audience and the purpose. If a writer is going to use e-mail and it is almost unavoidable not to he or she must know how to use it correctly to avoid embarrassing situations such as sending the message to an unintended recipient. The To:, Cc:, and Bcc: fields are used to send messages directly to a recipient or recipients, to send a courtesy copy of a message to an additional recipient or recipients, or to send a blind courtesy copy to an additional recipient or recipients respectively. (Note: some business professionals regard sending a blind courtesy copy (Bcc) as unethical.)E-mail, like all other business messages, should be composed for the ease of the reader. Special considerations include line length and text wrapping, as well as font styles. Naturally, the general rules of composition apply paragraphs should be unified, coherent, and well developed - and, of course, concise(Note: It is something of a fashion to disregard spelling and mechanics when using e-mail, but in professional communication these conventions are as important in e-mail as in formal letters.) An informative subject line is a distinctive feature of e-mail. Because business professionals receive so many e-mail messages, they frequently screen them based on 1) sender, 2) subject, and 3) scanned message. If the subject line does not get the readers attention in a genuine and informative way, the sender might delete the message without reading it.The subject line should tell the reader more than just the general topic of the message; it should describe or classify the message as specifically as possible within the 25 to 40 characters available. When an e-mail message is exchanged back and forth several times, the subject line should be revised periodically to reflect updates in the message.Adding a salutation or greeting to an e-mail helps establish the tone of the message to follow. A traditional salutation such as Dear Professor Ingersol establishes a formal tone, while a less formal Hi Marty implies a personal relationship which will be reflected in the rest of the message. Similarly, both the traditional Sincerely your, as well as the simpler Thanks or Regards, are used in e-mail. (Note: international correspondence usually calls for the more formal tone.)To close the e-mail, the writer can simply type his or her name on the last line or create a signature file which will automatically include the writers name, organization, mailing address, fax number, and so on. In addition, a digital copy of ones signature can also be attached which will, in some instances, have the same legal effect as a handwritten signature.Outline I. E-mail organization and toneA. Reply1. Including original message2. Editing original message for relevanceB. Screen1. One screen if possible2. Important information first, if not bad newsC. Tone formal or informalII. Intended recipientsA. To:, Cc:, and Bcc: optionsB. Line length and wrapped textC. Conventional spelling, capitalization, and mechanicsIII. Parts of an e-mailA. Subject line1. Purpose2. RevisionB. Salutation establishing tone1. Formal2. ConversationalC. Closing1. Formal2. ConversationalD. Signature1. Typed2. Signature file3. Digital signatureSection Review 5

Key Terms hyperlinksSummary Writing for the web is different from writing for any other medium: the writer must gain the audiences attention and make the main points immediately. Web readers needs result from the volume of information available and their expectation that it be available immediately. Because there is so much information available and Web readers are able to scan many pages at one sitting, reading Web documents is likely to be cursory rather than thorough. Therefore, it is vital that the reader be able to ascertain main ideas at a glance.Additionally, when read thoroughly, Web documents take more time than hard copies. Reading text on a monitor is about 25 percent slower than on paper. The glare from the screen is hard on the eyes, and scrolling from one screen to the next takes time.Web texts often include hyperlinks, which enable the reader to move from one document, webpage, or even website to another and back again in a nonlinear fashion. This three-dimensional aspect of moving into, out of, and all round various websites gives the reader a tremendous advantage in terms of locating information. But it also makes it hard for the reader to determine the depth and scope of the information. Thus it is important for web writers to use a well organized and reliable hyperlink structure.Coordinating the navigational elements of hyperlinked websites takes skill and effort. First, the writer must plan hyperlink navigation as part of the original concept of the project. As always, it is essential to be conscious of the audiences needs in this case, the path the reader will follow to find information. The writer should be familiar with the linked websites in advance to know what is included and to avoid duplication of information.Second, it is important that the reader be in control that he or she be able to explore alternatives and choose the most viable course. An effective hyperlinked web document can include a search engine, a site map, and an index or table of contents, usually found at the top, at the bottom, or on the side of the webpage.Third, the writer must be sure that the links are effective. Hyperlinks can be in the form of words, phrases, sentences, and even graphics. Graphical links, though, can present a problem in that they slow down the loading speed of a webpage. In addition, some readers turn off the graphics capability of their computers to speed up download time; they need to be accommodated by text versions of graphic pages, as indeed do visually handicapped readers.Composing a webpage message requires some attention to style and format. Corporate webpages are often characterized by dull and sometimes vague writing. A good visual design is an asset to web messages, but well thought-out and composed substantive content is just as important as in any other medium.An important characteristic of the web is that it is immediately accessible to a global audience. That being the case, the tone of messages on the web must be appropriate for readers who might not be fluent in English. Usually the tone of web correspondence is somewhat less formal but not overly familiar. Also, idioms and jargon can be misleading, so the writer must be careful not to confuse or offend.Localizing is an interesting technique for suiting web material to the needs of the audience. This entails more than just translating the text into the language of the reader; local norms such as currency, weights and measures, time, and some customs are also tranlated. Providing localization for web material requires a greater in-depth understanding of the audience than normal and entails considerable effort.Reading information online is difficult, other audience needs notwithstanding. It is helpful to arrange information, if possible, in screen-sized, theme-related chunks that can be accessed in any order. Each of these chunks becomes a separate webpage, and webpages can be linked to other webpages to provide complete but manageable accessibility to the subject.Although linked, these webpages should be compehensible as separate entities. One of the advantages of hyperlinked text is that it can be accessed in any order the reader chooses. However, too many hyperlinks make accessing information difficult. If information can be presented clearly and concisely on one webpage, it isnt necessary to provide additional hyperlinks.With regard to conciseness, webpages should be about 50 percent shorter than printed texts. If possible, a web article should be limited to one computer screen; if that is not possible, then three at the most. If the material cannot be limited to three screens, it should not be randomly divided into different webpages; rather, the writer should attempt to find logical patterns of division to avoid linear interruption as much as possible.Many readers print online documents and read from the hard copy rather than the screen. Web writers need to accommodate this preference by providing print-ready versions of their online documents. The document should include the file size to help the reader determine the download time and the URL so that it will appear in the printed version.Because writing for the web requires the most important information to be placed first, using an inverted pyramid style, a familiar technique to journalists, is an effective method. The main idea appears first and the points follow in decreasing order of importance. Thus the reader can find the most important information easily and then read as much or as little of the rest as he or she wishes.Outline I. The Web: A unique mediumA. Conventional guidelinesB. New challengesII. Characteristics of reading onlineA. CursoryB. DifficultC. Nonlinear and interactive (hyperlinked)D. Three dimensionalIII. Difficulties of reading onlineA. Scope and depth of materialB. Inconsistent nature of online contentIV. Well-organized hyperlink structureA. Plan navigational pattern1. Readers likely path2. Writers own efforts v. other sitesB. Give readers control1. Options2. Site maps, etc.C. Make graphic links effective1. Slower load time2. Text alternativesV. Design v. contentVI. Writing for global audiencesA. Lighter, less formalB. Jargon and idiomC. Localized sites1. Language, norms, currency, weights2. Cultural differencesVII. Information chunksA. Self contained webpagesB. Accessible in any orderC. LinkedVIII. Concise but comprehensive coverageA. Nonlinear webpagesB. Only necessary hyperlinksC. Reduced length of textD. Logical division into webpagesE. Printable versions1. File size2. URLIX. Inverted pyramid styleA. Journalists techniqueB. Main idea firstC. Descending order of importanceSection Review

Key Terms cultural diversity culture ethnocentrism cultural context high-context culture low-context culture stereotypingSummary Intercultural communication is the process if sending and receiving messages between people whose cultural backgrounds lead them to interpret verbal and nonverbal signs differently. It is largely the result of two current trends: market globalization and a multicultural workforce. Market globalization means the increasing tendency of the world to act as one market. Advances in travel and technology have made it possible for people from all over the world to collaborate from their home offices. Products can be produced in countries with low-cost labor and then distributed all over the world. Competition is on the rise as business look for new international markets. The first way to go global is to reduce the cultural and language barriers between companies and customers, and one way to do so is through the use of Websites that accommodate these differences. Interaction with people from different cultures is on the rise, even through communication media other than the Internet. The United States has become the most demographically diverse country in the world. By 2010, half the population of the U.S. will be made up of ethnic minorities. The cultural diversity that results is dramatically changing the way business communication takes place, making it necessary for managers to communicate with and motivate employees and at the same time maintain cooperation and harmony among them. In order to do so, companies have to develop a sense of cultural sensitivity. Culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations, and norms for behavior. Subcultures are recognized groups within cultures ethnic, religious, and, in the business world, professional groups that have their own customs and idiom. Examples of subcultures within the U.S. are Mexican Americans, Mormons, wrestling fans, Russian immigrants, disabled individuals, Harvard graduates, and uncountable other groups. Cultural idioms, the ways in which members of a culture express themselves, are learned directly and indirectly from other members of the group. The first way to communicate with people from different cultures is to recognize the tendency to judge people according to your own cultures standards i.e. to overcome ethnocentrism. The communication process entails the encoding and decoding of messages. Miscommunication occurs when cultural differences result in the decoding of messages in unexpected ways. Assuming that people will see things the way we see them often leads to cultural misunderstandings four areas contextual, ethical, social, and nonverbal. Cultural context refers to the pattern of physical cues, environmental stimuli, and implicit understandings that help people within a culture understand each other. But outside the culture, cultural context can result in misunderstanding. In high-context cultures the nonverbal context is more important than the words. The speakers gestures and tone of voice provide cues that help the receiver discover the meaning indirectly. In low-context cultures, verbal communication takes precedence. The burden of communication is on the speaker rather than the listeners, and both speaker and listener are conditioned to respond to syntactical patterns such as chronological order and cause-effect relationships to infer meaning. In business these differences in context affect the way people make decisions, solve problems, and negotiate.In low-context cultures such as the United States and Germany, people try to make decisions quickly and efficiently. They focus on the main issues and the leave the details to be worked out later. In high-context cultures, such as Greece, focusing on the details is taken to be a sign of honesty and openness; ignoring the details is regarded as evasive. In the U.S. again, a low-context culture business is usually transacted through competition and some confrontation. However, in China, a high-context culture, open conflict and debate are regarded as bad form. In low-context cultures, Germany and Canada for example, business negotiations are considered impersonal. But in Japan negotiators prefer to establish social relationships first, personal and long-term ties that will result in successful relationships in the future. Ethical and even legal issues can arise from cultural context. In low-context cultures the written word is tantamount to a binding contract, but in high-context cultures, a personal pledge is regarded as a point of honor and is more important than a legal contract. The cultural foundations of laws can result in totally different ways of interpretation. Under English common law, on which the British and American legal systems are based, a person is innocent until proven guilty. But in Mexico and Turkey, whose legal systems are based on the Napoleonic code, the reverse is true. Similarly, bribery is considered not only unethical but even illegal in the U.S., but in Kenya, China, Russia, Mexico, and the Middle Easy, it is an accepted method of making sure that things are done right. The best way to avoid ethical conflicts in intercultural communication is to follow four basic principles: Seek mutual ground be flexible and willing to compromise.

Dont be judgmental recognize and accept cultural differences.

Be honest see things as they are, and accept the differences.

Respect cultural differences acknowledge the other persons needs and preserve his or her dignity.Social etiquette is an important consideration in recognizing and respecting cultural differences. Informal rules, which are learned through observation and inference, are the basis of how one is supposed to behave, but sometimes they are difficult to explain. This is where cultural sensitivity becomes an important consideration. Among the issues that recur are the following: Attitude toward materialism In the U.S. hard work is associated with success, and success is often measured by material acquisition. Other countries consider leisure more important.

Gender roles In the U.S. and Western Europe, women have come to be regarded as mens equals in the business and professional worlds. In Latin America and Eastern Europe, and especially in the Middle East and East Asia, this is not the case.

Social status Professional status in the U.S. is often indicated by the location and furnishings of ones office; in other countries, the office is unimportant. Titles also reflect status, but in this case more so in other countries than in the U.S. In America most professional are addressed by the courtesy titles Mr. or Ms. In China titles are more reflective of a persons actual function Chairman or Manager, for example.

Manners Social customs are often regulated by manners, and what is considered good manners in one culture is bad manners in another. Making small talk about the weekend is common in the U.S., but asking what someone did on the weekend would be regarded as intrusive in cultures in which business and private lives are kept separate.

Time Executives from low-context cultures see time as limited, and consequently they focus on specific tasks. Executives from high-context cultures, on the other hand, see the business day as more flexible and focus more on forming interpersonal relationships than on meeting deadlines.As has been noted, nonverbal communication is very much a part of the mores of any culture, and being able to interpret nonverbal signals is important in recognizing and accommodating culture differences: Personal space The five feet of distance that usually separates Americans and Canadians when transacting business, is uncomfortably close for Germans or Japanese and uncomfortably far for Arabs and Latin Americans. When the distance is increased or decreased, people might feel uncomfortable without really knowing why.

Body language People in the U.S. and Canada indicate no by moving their heads back and forth while people in Bulgaria indicate no by moving their heads up and down. Exposing the sole of the shoe is regarded as an insult by many people in the Middle East.

Communicating with people from different cultures means overcoming ethnocentrism, the natural human tendency to regard ones own culture as superior. At the same time, it is important to avoid stereotyping when trying to understand different cultures the tendency to predict other peoples behavior or characteristics on the basis of their cultural identification. The Japanese, for example, often stereotype Americans as aggressive, direct, self indulgent, and extravagant. While some stereotypes are relatively accurate, it is important not to let your desire to avoid ethnocentrism cause you to see people as members of cultures rather than as human beings. Outline I. Intercultural communicationA. Market globalizationB. Multicultural workforceII. Cultural contextA. High-context culturesB. Low-context culturesC. Legal and ethicalD. SocialE. NonverbalIII. Overcoming ethnocentrismA. StereotypingB. Accepting human beingsSection Review 3

Key Terms idiomaticSummary To overcome ethnocentrism, you will need to study the cultures of people with whom you communicate, overcome language barriers, and develop strong oral and written intercultural skills. If you are gong to work with people from a particular culture, you should learn as much as you can about them. Books, articles, and personal contacts are all good ways of learning about a cultures history, religion, politics, values, and customs. There are several helpful Websites as well that will help you understand not only general culture issues but also specific points of business and professional protocol. Seemingly similar gestures and customs can have different meanings in different cultures. For example, a handshake in Spain should last from five to seven up-and-down strokes, whereas in France more than single stroke is too much. But dont expect to be able to pass yourself off as a native of another culture, no matter how much you study it. Rather, just make the effort to show you are aware of cultural and individual differences by following these guidelines: Assume that others are different dont hold people to your own culture standards.

Take responsibility for communication learn the language, if you can.

Withhold judgment as with any communication situation, wait until you have heard the message before you jump to conclusions.

Show respect learn what the signs of respect are and show that you know them.

Empathize as always, put yourself into the position of the person you are communicating with.

Tolerate ambiguity know and accept the fact that communication will not be easy.

Look beyond the superficial heres another one that applies to all communication situations, not just intercultural.

Be both patient and persistent know that intercultural communication takes time; dont give up.

Recognize your cultural bias cultural bias is natural; the key is to understand it.

Be flexible be prepared to change both habits and attitudes.

Look for common ground once gain, this is good advice in any communication situation.

Send clear messages be ready to tolerate ambiguity, but avoid it as much as possible,

Treat people as individuals avoid cultural stereotyping.

Know when to be direct and when to be indirect.

Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis put it to the test.These general guidelines will help in any communication effort, intercultural or not. But there are even stronger issues, such as the language barrier. More and more peo0ple throughout the world are learning English as a second language, and many of them are coming to the U.S. Recent statistics show that 18% of the population of the U.S. now speak some language other than English at home. In California, the number is 40%. The language spoken most commonly in the U.S. after English is Spanish, then French, German, Italian, and Chinese. Only 32% of Internet users read English. There is a wide range of fluency among ESL users; so you have to be careful when using idiomatic English. As a rule, languages dont translate with word-to-word correlations; every language has its idiomatic expressions phrases that have figurative meaning but dont translate. For example, how would a non-native speaker of English respond to the suggestion that he eat a hot dog? Be careful to avoid these figurative expressions, using instead words whose denotative meanings are clear. Pronunciation and accent can have a dismaying effect on non-native speakers. Similarly, we native speakers can have a hard time understanding the pronunciation of colleagues who speak English as a second language. To facilitate communication, here are some suggestions: Listen carefully learn from experience.

Expect to understand dont create a psychological block.

Create a relaxed atmosphere be friendly, and make it clear you are trying to understand.

Create a relaxed atmosphere be friendly, and make it clear you are trying to understand.

Rephrase questions ask the speaker to use different words.

Ask the speaker to write the messageVariations in tone and frequency of speaking are other considerations. People in some cultures speak more loudly or softly than in others. And in some cultures silence is regarded as a virtue in communication. The key, of course, is to match your communication style with the needs and expectations of your audience. If a direct, confrontational approach is the norm, then use it. If written communication is preferable to oral, then write. But recognize, too, that written communication in other cultures is invariably more formal than in the U.S. Be sure to formalize your tone to the proper degree, while not allowing it to sound unnatural or stilted. While English is the most widely used language in the world, the language of business is always the language of the customer. Therefore, you have three choices when communicating with people who dont speak English: learn their language, use an interpreter, or teach them English. Learning another language is a good idea, whether you are going to live and work in another country or just visit. And, indeed, it can go a long way to earning the respect and appreciation of people in the U.S. whose native language is not English. Learning the language, or even just a few phrases, shows respect for other peoples culture. Using a translator is necessary in some situations, and experienced translators are useful in interpreting not only the meanings of words but also the cultural contexts. Be sure to meet with translators in advance and make sure they understand the nuances of what you are trying to impart. Also, if possible have a back-translator on hand to translate back into English what the translator has put into the other language. More and more companies are recognizing the value of providing English instruction for their employees. Doing so has resulted in enhanced production and fewer accidents and grievances. As you develop your understanding of other cultures and the language barriers that interfere with communication, you will have to decide whether oral or written channels will be most effective. As noted above, there are notable differences in letter-writing styles among members of different cultures, most being more formal than in the U.S. For example, business letters from Japanese writers typically begin with an observation about the weather, followed by an inquiry into the health of the recipient, then a note of thanks for past services or patronage, and only after all that comes the main point of the letter. For your own part when you are writing to people from different cultures, use the following guidelines: Write in plain English dont use two words when one will do.

Be clear use specific, concrete terms rather than figures of speech.

Follow the prescribed format for addresses.

Cite numbers carefully use figures (27) rather than spelled-out numbers (twenty-seven).

Avoid slang, jargon, buzzwords, abbreviations, and acronyms.

Be concise use shorter and simpler sentences.

Use short paragraphs no more than eight to ten lines.

Use helpful transitions - first, second, third, ... in addition, consequently, etc.It is easier to read and write a foreign language than to engage in a conversation. But sometimes there is no alternative to a face-to-face contact. In those instances, when you are speaking English to people who have difficulty with it, follow these guidelines: Try to eliminate noise speak slowly and clearly, and make one point at a time.

Observe and use body language but remember that a gesture in one culture might mean something different in another.

Use repetition and examples to make sure your meaning is understood.

Dont talk down to the other person dont think that talking louder or over-enunciating will make a difference, and dont blame him or her for not understanding.

Use objective, accurate language avoid hyperbolic expressions such as fantastic, fabulous, or awesome.

Learn foreign phrases and expressions Greeting people in their own language will show your interest in their culture and willingness to accommodate.

Adapt your conversational style to the other persons if the other person is direct, be direct.

Check frequently for comprehension stop from time to time to make sure you are being understood.

Clarify what will happen next make sure you and the other person agree on what has been said. Follow up with a memo or letter confirming the decisions that have been made.Outline I. Learning about other culturesA. Books, articles, personal contactsB. WebsitesII. Awareness of cultural differencesIII. Language barriersA. English as a second language1. Idiomatic usage2. Pronunciation and accent3. Variation in tone and speaking frequencyB. The language of the customer1. Learning the language2. Using a translator3. Teaching them EnglishIV. ChannelsA. WrittenB. OralSection Review

Key Terms solicited proposals request for proposalf unsolicited proposals internal proposals external proposalsSummary Reports serve a wide variety of purposes in the workplace, their essential function being to provide objective information and analysis. The type of report used depends on five factors: Source Frequency Target audience Length Intent A report may include some or all of these factors, depending on its purpose. Most reports fall generally into one of six categories: monitor/ control, policy/ procedure, compliance, progress, problem-solving, and proposal.Monitor/control reports fit into the larger category of informational reports. They provide data that enable managers to head off problems that might occur down the line and to establish guidelines for future action. They require close attention to detail, accuracy, and honesty. Examples of monitor/control reports are strategic planning and annual budgets, sales reports, corporate annual reports, and scouting reports. Other monitor/control reports provide an account of what happened at a conference or convention or on a trip. A summary report provides specific information about a situation, publication, or document but does not go into detail about background or provide examples.Policy/procedure reports answer questions about, naturally, policies and procedures. They provide specific, objective information about organizational guidelines, regulations, and standards. Sometimes the information they provide is permanent; other times these reports are position papers on particular issues.Compliance reports confirm that an organization is abiding by required or regulated standards, usually imposed by the government. The report is often written in response to specific questions; sometimes it is produced by filing out a form. Progress reports indicate how much of a project has been completed and how much is left to complete. Sometimes they take the form of scheduled interim reports followed by final reports when the undertaking has been completed. All of the above reports are essentially informational in nature. But other reports require analysis and sometimes recommendations. These reports provide accurate, objective information, but they then go farther to persuade the reader to accept a decision, solution, or change. Typical of analytical reports are problem-solving reports; these generally take the form of recommendations based on research and analysis of alternatives. When they involve consideration of several alternatives, they are called feasibility reports; when they entail justification of an action that has already been performed, they are called, naturally, justification reports.Proposals are special types of analytical reports that involve persuasion. They follow the process of analyzing the audiences needs, providing a solution, and explaining why the solution should be effected. Solicited proposals are prepared in response to a need advertised by either an external organization or an internal component, usually managerial, of your own organization. Proposals solicited by external organizations, such as the government, often take the form of a request for proposal, a formal invitation to submit a bid for contracted work and a detailed explanation of when and how the work must be done.Unsolicited proposals are initiated by the person or organization requesting consideration, not by the organization needing the work done. If you write one of these proposals, the job description and criteria are not already determined; rather, you must persuade the reader that there is a need and that you can fulfill it.Unsolicited proposals can be either internal or external. Internal proposals are requests for some change within your own organization - a change in policy, procedure, or organization or requests for additional resources personnel, equipment, or funds. Because the readers of these proposals sometimes feel threatened by changes, the reports have to be carefully crafted to reflect the best interest of all involved.External proposals are used to persuade current customers, potential customers, or government agencies of the need for some change or action. They are different from internal proposals in that they are 1) more formal, 2) legally binding, and 3) reflective of an organizations competence and integrity.As with all types of business messages, the three-step writing process is the best way to organize your report or proposal. The steps are already familiar planning, writing, and completing. However, because of the persuasive nature of business reports and proposals, you might need to give a bit more attention to your purpose and audience.Outline I. Determining types of reportsII. Informational reportsA. Monitor/controlB. Policy/procedureC. ComplianceD. ProgressIII. Analytical reportsA. Problem-solving1. Feasibility2. JustificationB. Proposals1. Soliciteda. Request for proposal2. Unsoliciteda. Internal b. ExternalIV. Three-step writing processA. Planning, writing, completingB. Extra attention to purpose and audienceSection Review

Key Terms problem factoring hypothesisSummary As with any written business message, the best way to produce a report is to follow the three-step writing process: planning, writing, and completing. The steps are not different, but the purpose and audience analysis components require special attention in a proposal. The three-step writing process is covered in detail in chapters 4, 5, and 6; below are some observations about the additional elements that pertain to writing reports and proposals.The planning stage of reports and proposals consists of three steps: analyzing the situation, gathering information, and adapting the information to the audiences need.Planning a written business message always entails determining the purpose and analyzing the audience, but when you write a report you should include the additional step of analyzing the situation, of determining whether a formal written message is the best medium or whether the situation might be handled more tactfully by a phone call, e-mail, or conference. If you decide that the written medium is best, then you must decide whether an informational report or an analytical report will better suit the purpose.If you determine that the nature of the report is analytical, then the next step is to define the problem specifically. Sometimes the problem will have already been defined; in other instances, you must determine that it actually exists and then communicate this through persuasion to you reader. Several questions you might consider in this analysis are: What needs to be determined? Why is this issue important? Who is involved? Where is the problem located? How did it start? When did it start?One you have defined the problem, the next step is to engage in problem factoring essentially identifying a cause/effect situation. This is usually accomplished through inductive reasoning observing effects and from them inferring causes. This inference or speculation of the cause is called a hypothesis, which, once it has been formulated, must then be tested.Once you have formulated a hypothesis, the next step is to determine a statement of purpose: the problem statement tells what you are going to analyze; the statement of purpose tells why you are doing so. The easiest way to write a purpose statement is to use an infinitive phrase (to plus a verb followed by an object) for example, to identify... to explain... to submit... to inform... to persuade...The statement of purpose for an analytical report is sometimes more inclusive than for an informational report. It might be written as several infinitive phrases such as to analyze... evaluate... and suggest....The more specific your statement of purpose, the easier it will be to stay on task. If the report has been solicited or authorized, be sure the check the statement of purpose with the authorizing entity to make sure you have understood the instructions.When you have nailed down your purpose statement, you should next prepare a preliminary outline. This will give you an overview of your report from the beginning to the end its key points, the order in which they will be presented, and the amount of detail to be included. Of course, the final outline will likely be somewhat different from the preliminary, as you will make changes and adjustments as you proceed. But having a preliminary overview is invaluable. Much of the change reflected in the final outline will be based on conclusions resulting from your research. As you find out more information, you add some ideas and eliminate others. There are two basic outlines formats alphanumeric and decimal. It doesnt matter which one you use as long as you are consistent. Also, the format of the outline can be descriptive (topical) or informative (talking), depending on the nature of the information and the way it will be used.After you have produced a preliminary outline, you should prepare a work plan to help you coordinate and monitor your undertaking. It can range from a relatively simple list of the steps to a more formal and detailed statement of exactly what is to be done and when. This more formal work plan is likely to include the following Statement of the problem Purpose and scope Discussion of tasks Description of results Review of assignment, schedules, and costs Follow-up plans Preliminary outlineOutline I. Three-step writing processA. PlanningB. WritingC. ComposingII. Planning reports and proposalsA. Analyzing the situationB. Gathering informationC. Adapting the informationIII. Analyzing the situationA. Appropriate mediumB. Informational or analytical?IV. AnalyticalA. Define the problemB. Problem factoring1. Cause/effect2.HypothesisC. Statement of purpose1. Infinitive phrase2. ConfirmationD. Preliminary outlineE. Work plan1. Informal2. FormalSection Review

Key Terms paraphrase plagiarism mean median mode correlation conclusions recommendationsSummary The next step after you have analyzed the situation and determined the best way to proceed is to start gathering information. As with any other writing project, the best appproach is to plan first. And often the best way to plan is simply to start browsing through infroamtion, in libraries and bookstores or online, to get a general idea of what has already been written on your topic.As you are gathering ideas about your topic, be sure to clarify the assignment. If you are doing the project for someone else, check with him or her to make sure you both agree on what is to be done; if you are doing the project for yourself, make sure your purpose is clear and specific. Then begin narrowing down the information you have gathered, identifying the best sources. Most research projects involve the use of secondary sources, information that has been written by others based on their own experience or research. There is a wide variety of sources of secondary information on any topic in the business world, including information provided by specific companies or an entire industry (NAICS), and data on statistics, trends, and business-related issuesInformation which does not come directly from specific companies or industries can often be researched in the library. Among the sources available are business books electronic databases newspapers periodicals directories almanacs and statistical resources government publicationsThe most popular and convenient source of information on business and industry is, of course, the Internet. But it is important to note that Internet information is not screened and, thus, is not always reliable. You need to evaluate any online information you find and consider its reliability. One good screening source for Internet information is the Internet Public Library at http://www.ipl.org.Among the documents you can find there are company profiles, trade data, business news, corporate tax and legal advice, small-business information, forms and documents, financial reports, job postings, and publications.To find information about a particular company, you might go to its website. In addition, you can find recent news releases about companies from PRNewswire at www.prnewswire.com) and Business Wire at www.businesswire.com. Of course, the web does have it limitations; so to fine tune your search you should use a well-known commercial search engine. These tools are reliable because they are usually well maintained and updgraded. The disadvantage of search engines is the volume of unrelated material they can generate; therefore, be sure to consider the strategies listed in Checkouts: Improving Search Results.Sometimes you have to go to primary sources to find the information you need. One of the most common primary sources is an original document a sales report, memo, balance sheet, income statement, brochure, newsletter, etc. A lot of this information can be found in company databases. The information you find can be used as a secondary source summarized by someone else or as a primary source analyzed by you and compared with similar information from other sources.Another way of using primary sources for gathering information is to make formal observations to watch employees performing their jobs or customers using a product. Still another method is to conduct experiments. But because these methods require careful quantifiable analysis, they are often expensive and time consuming.One of the most frequently used methods of collecting information in business is to survey people with relevant experience and opinions. Surveys must be reliable and valid to be useful: a reliable survey produces identical results when repeated; a valid one measures what it is intended to measure.The first step in creating a survey is to develop a questionnaire. To be effective, it should be short, relevant, and easy to understand. The optimal time for completing a questionnaire is 10 to 15 minutes. The important considerations in designing survey questions are the following: Questions should be easy to tabulate or analyze numbers, if possible. Leading questions should not be used. Questions should ask only one thing at a time. The survey should be pretested by a sample group.Because getting people to respond to a survey is sometimes frustrating, a 10 to 20 percent response rate is usually considered good. To increase the chances of getting a response, be sure to make it easy for the respondents to complete the survey and return it. Internet surveys are becoming increasingly popular because of their convenience, low cost, and high response rate. Interviews are effective if you need to get specific information directly from the most authoritative source. Their disadvantages are that they must be planned carefully and that they take time. Because the interviewer is expected to control the discussion by asking specific questions, you need to be sure to plan those questions well. Planning an interview is like planning any other sort of business communication: determine the purpose, analyze the audience, formulate a main idea, and then decide on format and style.Good interviews, like good business messages, have an opening, a body, and a close. The opening is used to engage the person being interviewed and give him or her some idea what to expect. The body includes the actual questions. The close summarizes the points that have been articulated and establishes goodwill with the person being interviewed.The answers you get in an interview will depend largely on the questions you ask, the way you ask them, and in some cases the race, gender, age, education, and social status of your subject. Be especially careful about sensitive issues that are ethically questionable or confidential. A good way to obviate an uncomfortable situation is to provide a set of questions a day or so before the actual interview. Open-ended questions give the person being interviewed more opportunity to reveal feelings, provide information, and offer opinions. Closed-ended questions are easier to respond to and give the interviewer more control. Restatement questions focus on the earlier answers of the person being interviewed and give him or her the opportunity to expand. Whatever the type of question you use, be sure it is relevant, concise, and easy to understand. The following guidelines will be useful: Consider the sequence of the questions. Decide which questions are most important, and focus on them. Make sure your questions seem intelligent. Vary the pacing by using different types of questions - open-ended, closed-ended, and restatement. Limit the number of questions about 20 per half hour. Edit the questions before you ask them.In addition to face-to-face interviews, online and e-mail interviews are being used with increasing frequency. The advantage to these is the delayed time factor: they give the person being interviewed a chance to think through the answers more carefully and provide more useful information.After you have gathered sufficient information, it is time to evaluate your sources. Among the questions you should consider are the following: Is the source reliable and honest? Could the source be biased? What was the original purpose for the information? Is the source authoritative? Where did the source get the information? Can the information be verified? Is the information current? Is the information complete? Does the information stand up to close scrutiny?After you have evaluated your source material, decide whether or not you have enough information by answering the questions you developed at the beginning of your project. Incorporating research material into your report or project requires some care and skill. For the most part you will be using your own words to paraphrase or summarize the information you have found. A good paraphrase is shorter than the original text, it is in your own words, and it does not alter or distort the meaning of the original text. Occasionally, when the language of the original source is especially relevant or compelling, you will use direct quotations. However, you should use these quoted passages sparingly. In either case, whether you use paraphrase or direct quotations, you must document your sources, including tables, charts, diagrams, song lyrics, and so on. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism. The various methods of documentation footnotes, endnotes, and parenthetical citation are explained in Appendix B of the original text.In some cases it is not enough just to document your sources; you must also abide by the copyright laws by requesting permission to use certain information. Under the fair use doctrine this is required when your use of the material would interfere with the original authors benefiting from the result. In some instances you will have to pay a fee to use copyrighted material. Of course, material that is regarded as common knowledge is not copyrighted; indeed, it does not even have to be documented.After you have compiled your information and decided what must be documented, you will begin the process of analyzing it and interpreting your findings. Statistical data, in particular, are open to a wide range of interpretation and must be presented in the most useful manner. One method of analyzing statistical data is to determine the mean the sum of all the items in a group divided by the number of items. Another useful statistic is the median the midpoint in a series of numbers. And still a third is the mode the number that occurs more frequently in a series than any other.Another method of interpreting data is to find a trend a steady pattern in a series of events over a period of time. Once youve found a trend, the next step is to find a cause. One example is a correlation a statistical relationship between two variables. Correlations are not always reliable methods of establishing a cause-effect relationship, however. After you have analyzed your data and put them in an easily understood form, it is time to draw conclusions. The measure of a sound conclusion is that it 1) fulfills the original statement of purpose, 2) is based strictly on the information included in the report, and 3) is the logical result of a pattern of reasoning. Of course, all conclusions are subject to further interpretation and different perspectives.Conclusions in a report are often followed by recommendations suggestions of what to do with the information and conclusions presented. In some reports, a recommendation is not called for and thus is inappropriate. However, when you are asked to make recommendations, be sure to do so without bias, assumptions, or the influence of personal values. Credible recommendations must be based on factual information, good analysis, and logical conclusions. Outline I. Gathering ideasA. Browsing libraries, bookstores, and web sitesB. Clarifying the assignmentII. Secondary sourcesA. Specific companies and industriesB. LibrariesC. The Internet1. Screening2. Company websitesIII. Primary sourcesA. Company databasesB. Formal observations1. Surveys 2. QuestionnairesC. Interviews1. Planning2. Organization3. Sensitive issues4. Types of questionsa. Open-endedb. Closed-endedc. Restatement5. Online and email interviewsIV. Evaluating sourcesA. ReliabilityB. PurposeC. AuthorityD. VerificationE. Currency and completenessV. Incorporating research material in the reportA. ParaphraseB. QuotationC. PlagiarismD. CopyrightVI. Analyzing and interpreting researchA. Statistical data1. Mean2. Median3. ModeB. Trends and correlationsVII. Drawing conclusionsVIII. Making recommendationsSection Review 10

Summary Any effective business communication must be audience centered. The first consideration with a report is to choose the appropriate channel and medium. Sometimes you can write just a memo or an email; other times you will need to write a formal letter. And in some instances, the best channel is oral rather than written.Oral reports are effective when you want immediate feedback or when a nonverbal component will make the audience receive the report more favorably. Sometimes oral reports are used in place of written reports; sometimes they are used in conjunction. Chapter 13 will cover oral reports in more detail.Most written reports are produced because the information they cover is long or complex and must be laid out carefully, or because a written record might be needed for future reference. Electronic reports have become increasingly popular because of their speed, accessibility, and versatility.A critical factor in a successful report is a good relationship with the audience. Several methods of establishing it are as follows: Use the you attitude Keep the tone positive Establish your credentials Be polite Avoid biased language Reflect the company image.Outline I. Centering on audienceA. Channel and mediumB. Good relationshipII. Selecting channel and mediumA. Oral reportsB. Written reportsC. Electronic reportsIII. Establishing a good relationshipA. You attitudeB. Emphasizing the positiveC. Establishing credibilityD. Being politeE. Avoiding biased languageF. Reflecting the company imageSection Review

Key Terms team free riders brainstorming participative management high cost of coordination emergence problem-solving teams group dynamics reinforcement task forces self-oriented roles collaborative message committee team-maintenance roles virtual teams task-facilitating roles Groupthin orientation hidden agenda conflictSummary A team is a unit of two or more people who work together to achieve a goal. And like it or not, teamwork is very much the way of the business world. Teams achieve the highest level of improvement in performance, and collaboration leads to creativity through participative management i.e., a sense of ownership in an undertaking and in the decision-making to effect it.Teams can be classified as formal, in which case they often become a permanent part of the structure of the organization, or informal (also called ad hoc), in which case they are formed only for a particular purpose and then disbanded. Examples of ad hoc teams are problem-solving teams and task forces, in which representatives from different departments and other organizational elements are brought together to focus on a common problem. An example of a formal team is a committee, particularly a standing committee, which is formed to deal with a recurring issue.Virtual teams, composed of members from different organizations and often times different geographic locations, can be either formal or informal. They communicate via technology, sharing ideas without having to be in physical proximity. Teamwork and collaboration have advantages and disadvantages. Among the advantages is the old adage that two or more heads are better than one. This is true in terms of several factors: Breadth and depth of knowledge and information

Diversity of views

Support through ownership

Higher performance through mutual purpose and accountabilityThe chief disadvantage is that collaborating takes more time and effort than working independently. Other disadvantages are as follows: Groupthink a situation in which the integrity of the group is maintained even at the cost of the right decision.

Hidden agenda Individuals are often motivated by factors other than the accomplishment of the goal, such as displaying power, avoiding effort, and even attracting the attention of co-workers.

Free riders Some team members are unproductive because they are not individually accountable for the success of the undertaking.

High cost of coordination Teamwork is often more costly in terms of time and money than individual efforts.

The professional and personal interactions that occur within a team are called group dynamics. Sometimes the group dynamics work naturally, but more often they have to be coordinated and controlled by unstated rules called norms. Examples of norms would be the assumption that it is acceptable to be ten minutes late for a meeting or that e-mail should be used for communicating with other team members rather than the phone.The dynamics of a team often result in members playing certain identifiable roles. Self-oriented roles are assumed by members who have personal agenda, or at least needs, that take precedence over the common goal. These members are the least productive and, indeed, can be counterproductive. Team members who assume team-maintenance roles focus on the actual process of the collaboration, encouraging other members to work together and actually coordinating tasks. Members who assume task-facilitating roles are more focused on the goal and keep the team from becoming too involved in the process rather than the solution.These roles are not usually assigned; rather, they are naturally assumed as a result of the members status within the group. Among the variables that can determine status are competence in the field, educational level, past successes, position within the organization, social standing, education, age, gender, and even personal attractiveness. These factors can have an unsettling effect on a collaborative effort, and the team may have difficulty in focusing on its goal until roles and status have been stabilized.Once a team has been established and the roles more or less determined, the decision-making process can begin. There are five stages: Orientation personal interaction and establishment of roles and norms

Conflict definition of the issues and individual positions

Brainstorming airing of the options and discussion of the pros and cons

Emergence development of a solution, even if it is not supported 100%

Reinforcement acceptance of the common goal and assignment of tasksConflict is inherent in the nature of teamwork, and it can have both positive and negative results. On the positive side, conflict forces individuals to look at issues in a different way, to see possible implications that might not have been evident and to use creativity in solving problems