searching for the invisible variables/factors of human ......of data, human behavior, social action,...

15/09/2017 1

Searching for the Invisible Variables/Factors of

Human behavior/condition and Destiny

© Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2017

MAKING SOCIOLOGY A SCIENCE:

SOCIAL RESEARCH

SCIENTISTS: “Seeing is believing”

Contents of Presentation

1. Introduction:

– Sociological Conclusions

– Central Question, Main Thesis, and Main Argument

– Major Concepts of Sociological Research

2. Why sociological research?

3. Types and aims of sociological research

4. Sociological research: the big picture

5. Research Processes: Positivistic Framework: Scientific

Method: Correlation and Causation

6. Research Processes: Interpretive Framework

7. Triangulation: The Fusion Approach

8. Elements and concepts of Research

9.The challenges of sociological research

10. Summary and Conclusion

10 2

Introduction: Your Responses to the

following Sociological Conclusions

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2199PPD8fRw

– Suicide is not caused by depression

– Famine is not caused by drought

– War is not caused by territorial greed

– Economic success is not caused by hard work

– Marriage is not caused by love

– Rape is not caused by depraved lust

– Child abuse is not caused by mentally sick people

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2199PPD8fRw

Introduction: Sociological Conclusions

Using Scientific Research in investigating the social

world helps sociology to draw conclusions (as found in

the previous slide) that show CORRELATION but not

CAUSALITY:

– E.G. Invisible phenomena such as depression and suicide may

have some association or relationship, but this does not mean

that depression causes suicide.

• There are so many people who are depressed but don’t commit suicide; there

are many people who commit suicide although they are not depressed.

• The sociological reasoning is that INVISIBLE social

phenomena cause VISIBLE social phenomena. Visible social

phenomena does not cause visible social phenomena. They

may only correlate (relate or associate).

15/09/2017 5


x

Y

X relates/associates with Y = Correlation

X causes/explains Y = Causality


Solutions to social problems and

designing programs to effectively

improve lives are derived from

factual information (empirical

evidence) based on the discovery of

CAUSALITY not CORRELATION.

15/09/2017 6

Introduction: Central Question and

Main Thesis

CENTRAL QUESTION:

– Why do sociologists do research and why do they use the strategies/processes they use?

MAIN THESIS:

– Sociologists do research to produce empirical evidence (accurate information) about causality [not mere correlation], and in order to achieve this goal they use credible and ethical methodologies, particularly the Scientific Method, that minimize bias and to overcome unscientific thinking.

?

=

Introduction: Main Argument

MAIN ARGUMENT:Sociologists use credible and ethical quantitative (positivistic) and qualitative (interpretive) methodologies or processes and research methods/designs to systematically collect, analyze, display, and interpret information to produce empirical evidence about causality [not mere correlation] in order to

a) test theories and construct theories

b) make visible the unseen social forces that shape human behavior and the human condition

c) help create social policies and community programs/projects that improve the human condition and change lives

Introduction: Main Argument

Illustrated Since it was first founded, many people interested in

sociology have been driven by the scholarly desire to

contribute knowledge to this field [through research that

discovers causality], while others have seen it as way not

only to study/research society, but also to improve

[transform] it. Besides the creation of public health care in

Canada, sociology has played a crucial role in many

important social reforms such as equal opportunity for

women in the workplace, improved treatment for individuals

with mental and learning disabilities, increased recognition

and accommodation for people from different ethnic

backgrounds, the creation of hate crime legislation, the

right of aboriginal populations to preserve their land and

culture, and prison system reforms

(http://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapt

er1-an-introduction-to-sociology/)

15/09/2017 9

http://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter1-an-introduction-to-sociology/

MAJOR CONCEPTS OF

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH The Scientific Method

Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory, and

Empowerment Research

Variables: Independent (X) and Dependent (Y)

Correlation and Causality

Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Deductive and Inductive Logic

Positivistic Research Framework

Interpretative Research Framework

Triangulation or Fusion Research Approach or Mixed

Methods

Ethics in Research

15/09/2017 10

WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?

1. To minimize the chance of

drawing biased conclusions:

In everyday life, believing is seeing. In other

words, in everyday life our biases easily influence

our observations. This often leads us to draw

incorrect conclusions about what we see. In

contrast, in science (as among chimpanzees),

seeing is believing. Scientists, including

sociologists, develop ways of collecting,

observing, analyzing and thinking about evidence

that minimize their chance of drawing biased

conclusions.15/09/2017 11


2. To overcome unscientific thinking.

Sociological research seeks to

overcome unscientific thinking such

as tradition, authority, personal

experience, opinion, media myth and

commonsense about human

behavior and the social world.

15/09/2017 12


3. To produce empirical evidence

(accurate factual information) that

discovers causality and use it to:

– a) make the unseen social forces visible

– b) test social theories

– c) construct social theories

– d) develop social policies

15/09/201713


4. To create a solid basis for sustainable

social policies and community

programs/projects that improve the

human condition and change lives.

15/09/2017 14

15/09/2017 15

Aims and Types of

Sociological Research

A MAJOR AIM OF SOCIAL

RESEARCH

“In large part, social research aims to find

patterns of regularity in social life…social

affairs do exhibit a high degree of regularity

[cause – effect] that can be revealed by

research and explained by theory” (Earl

Babbie and lance Roberts 2018, p. 11)

– “What about Exceptions?”: Social regularities

are probabilistic patterns, and they are no less

real simply because some cases don’t fit the

general pattern (ibid., p. 12). 15/09/2017 16

PURPOSES AND TYPES OF

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1. To EXPLORE patterns of human behavior and

social worlds: EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

2. To DESCRIBE patterns of human behavior and

social worlds: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

3. To EXPLAIN/PREDICT patterns of human

behavior and social worlds: EXPLANATORY

RESEARCH

4. To CHANGE patterns of human behavior and

social worlds: EMPOWERMENT RESEARCH

15/09/2017 17

15/09/2017 18

PURPOSES AND TYPES OF


FOCUS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Systematic gathering, analysis

and interpretation of information

to produce Empirical Evidence

EXPLANATORY:To discover

patterns governing

the social world

so as to explain

and/or predict

events.

DESCRIPTIVE: To describe patterns of data, human behavior, social action,

and social world.

EMPOWER-

MENT:To smash

myths of human

behavior and the

social world in

order to

empower

people to

Change lives

and society.

EXPLORATORY:To document patterns of human

behavior, social action, and the social

world that has not been previously

researched.

QUIZ #1

Kate Weeks is doing research that involves

interviewing victims of identity theft at Camosun

to discover the meaning that victimization has in

their lives with the primary purpose of helping

them to take control of and move on with their

lives. What type of sociological research would

provide more validity to this project?

a) Empowerment research

b) Exploratory research

c) Explanatory research

d) Descriptive research15/09/2017 19

15/09/2017 20

Sociological Research:

The Big Picture

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH:

THE BIG PICTURE

Research involves

– data collection

– data analysis

– display and interpretation of the pattern or

social regularity revealed.

Data collection methods are designed to detect

social regularities/patterns [cause – effect], while

data analysis techniques are used to interpret

these patterns and theories to explain them” (Earl

Babbie and Lance Roberts 2018, p. 12)15/09/2017 21

15/09/2017 22

Idea or Topic Research Problem & Questions

THE PATTERN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH: THE BIG PICTURE

Theory

Hypothesis or

Thesis

METHODOLOGY

Concepts: Abstract Reality

Variables/Factors

MEASUREMENT

of real social regularities

Ethics

Validity Reliability

Research

Methods

Objectivity

Approach

Instruments

Qualitative

Inductive

Quantitative

Deductive

ExperimentSurveyEthnographic Research

Non-reactive Research

Questionnaires & InterviewsObservations & Content Analysis

Positivism, Interpretism,

Attributes

Fusion

Correlations & Causality

Sampling

Inductive Deductive

15/09/2017 23

STORYLINES OF THE PATTERN OF


1. Sociology is a science. Therefore, it is in the business of using the Scientific Research Processes to produce empirical evidence about causation a) to make unseen social forces visible, b) to test and/or construct theories to explain and predict and/or c) to formulate policies and strategies to change/improve human behavior and condition.

2. In order to produce empirical evidence, there is the need for reliable and valid ways of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information or data.

3. To ensure reliability and validity in the production of empirical evidence, there are certain processes/procedures and research decisions/choices that have to be made.

RESEARCH PROCESSES

Source: Del Balso and Lewis (2008, p. 15)

Design researchGather data Analyze data

THEORY

15/09/2017 25

RESEARCH PROCESSES:

a) The Positivistic Framework: Scientific Method

THEORY

(1)

Begin with a Theory,

Deduce Research

problem and questions

focusing on

a gap in existing

knowledge

Review

literature to show that

the proposed

gap in knowledge is

theoretically logical

(2)

(3)Deduce

Hypothesis from Theory/Literature.

(4)Select Quantitative Methods

and instruments to collect

data

(5)Analyze data

statistically for a

Pattern, display pattern

and interpret it to

confirm or reject

hypothesis in relation

to theory

(6)

Share results in a report;

Show new problem that

emerges from the

research

RESEARCH PROCESSES:

b) The Interpretive Framework

THEORY

Begin with a

particular

Research problem or

question focusing on

goals of researcher or

the researched

Review literature to

show that the pattern

is true/valid

Analyze data

for pattern & display

pattern

Share results in a report;

Show new research issues

that emerge from this

research

Select

Qualitative

Methods and

instruments to

collect data

Interpret the

pattern, formulate thesis

and show how it connects

with existing knowledge.

Suggest theory

1

2

3

4

5

6

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Research Processes:

ILLUSTRATION

1. What is your topic?: Social Media Technology

2. Theory: The use pattern of social media technology is generation-specific

2. What is already known about Social Media technology—The usage pattern of Myspace, Twitter and Wiki among the various generations living Victoria.

3. What is missing from this knowledge? The pattern of generational gap in the use Facebook Networking Program in the city of Victoria.

4. What exactly are your research questions? What is the difference in the Facebook use pattern between teenagers and older adults living in Victoria?

5. What is your hypothesis? Teenagers use Facebook to communicate more than older adults in Victoria.

6. What research framework informed your research? Positivism /Quantitative

7.What methods and instruments/techniques did you use to gather needed information? Survey and Observation: Questionnaire and online monitoring.

8. How did you record and analyze the information? Electronic; Statistics Software

9. What did the data tell you and what is your interpretation of this? There is no difference in the pattern of Facebook usage among teenagers and older adults in Victoria: Interpretation: This is because of similarity in access to social media technology. The hypothesis is refuted

10. What is your conclusion: There is no generation gap in Facebook usage pattern in Victoria.

15/09/2017 27

15/09/2017 28

Research Frameworks :–RESEARCH PROCESSES GUIDES:

• 1) Positivistic or Quantitative– Sociological Imagination supports this framework

• 2) Interpretive or Qualitative– Social construction of reality supports this framework

• 3) Fusion or Triangulation– Both Sociological Imagination and Social Construction

of Reality support this framework

15/09/2017 29

Research Processes Guides:

–a) Positivistic Framework: The Scientific

Method: (See pp. 8 and 26 of Textbook)• The world is a single reality that can be known by independent,

neutral and objective scientists using the scientific method (Van de

Sande & Schwartz 2011, p. 70)

–b) Interpretive Framework: The Less

Scientific Approach: (See p. 9 of Textbook)• Values of the researcher cannot be separated from the research—

objectivity is not possible, nor is it desirable because there are

multiple realities based on subjective interpretations people assign to

their worlds (van de Sande & Schwartz 2011, p. 14)

15/09/2017 30

Research Processes Guides:

C) Fusion Framework: (See pp. 27 and 28 of Textbook)

– Using mixed methods (both positivist and

interpretist frameworks) to research the same

phenomenon to achieve high validity and

reliability. Feminist Research Methods fall into

the Fusion Framework (See pp. 58-60 of

Textbook)

RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS:

a) Positivistic or Quantitative

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

mi8DQspNeX4

15/09/2017 31

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThuhwPdI-04

POSITVISTIC FRAMEWORK:

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: “VARIABLES”

Facts: Correlation & Causality

x

Y

X relates/associates with Y = Correlation

X causes/explains Y = Causality



“Variables are properties of objects

that can change. Variables change

across a set of scores called

attributes” [or indicators]. For

example, sex/gender, blood type,

social class, height, ethnicity, IQ…” (

Earl Babbie and Lance Roberts 2018,

p. 13)

15/09/2017 33



A Focus on Facts: Correlation & Causality

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

X (CAUSE) Y (EFFECT)

Parents’ Income Likelihood of children’s

enrolling in college or

university

Correlation does not necessarily mean CAUSALITY

Reference: Witt & Hermiston 2010, p. 25; Ravelli 2013, p.

100.15/09/2017 34

INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK: “FACTORS”:

A Focus on Truths: Social Relationships

The impact of parents’ income on children’s educational

outcomes may depend on the values and beliefs of parents.

These factors are interpretations that cannot be quantified.

QUIZ #2:

In the above context, the Interpretive Frameworks is

arguing that…..

– a) Parents’ income causes their children’s educational

attainment

– b) Parents’ income influences enrollments in Canadian

schools

– c) Parents’ income correlates with, but does not necessarily

cause their children’s educational attainment

– d) Parents’ income does not influence enrollments in Canadian

schools

15/09/2017 36

POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK (SCIENTIFIC METHOD):

APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE

QUANTITATIVE: Numerical or Mathematical Testing for FACTS: Hard Data

(See pp. 38-39 of Textbook): We see social forces as/in numbers.

Chance of Getting a Job: The Skin Colour Effect

34%

17%

14%

5%

No criminal record

Criminal Record

No criminal record

Criminal record

Source: Pager 2003, p. 958. Cited in Witt & Hermiston 2010

WHITE

BLACK

POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK (SCIENTIFIC METHOD):

APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE

QUIZ #3:

What is the Dependent Variable in

the graph in the previous slide?

– A) Chance of getting a job

– B) Skin colour

– C) Criminal Record

– D) Numerical Testing

15/09/2017 37

QUIZ #4

For many of the social issues confronting humanity today such as hate crimes, other

crimes, violence against women and minorities, sexism, racism, etc., it might not be

an exaggeration to say that new patterns of socialization are ultimately necessary if

our society wants to be able to address these issues effectively. Parents and

teachers of young children and adolescents bear a major responsibility for making

sure our children do not learn to hate and commit harm to others, but so do our

schools, mass media, and religious bodies. No nation is perfect, but nations like

Japan have long been successful than the United states in raising their children to

be generous and cooperative (Steven Barkan 2012, p. 75). If you understood Chapter

One of the required textbook for this course, you discovered that Sociology is also

about transformation of society. What is the correct Independent Variable of the

transformation process suggested in the above scenario?

a) Crime, violence and the isms.

b) Confronting humanity

c) New Patterns of Socialization

d) Parents and Teachers

e) School, mass media and religious bodies15/09/2017 38

INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK: APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE

QUALITATIVE: Non-numerical or

Words: Soft Data: (See pp. 38 and 40-43 of Textbook)

(Ravelli 2013, pp. 16, 17, 97, 98 &

106). Rigorous research for TRUTHS

or creative insights:

– We see the social forces

beyond/beneath the

numbers/statistics/facts.


a) Positivistic or Quantitative and

b) Interpretive or Qualitative

ILLUSTRATION VIDEO:


MlU22hTyIs4

15/09/2017 40

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlU22hTyIs4https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MlU22hTyIs4

POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK:

Logic or System of Reasoning

DEDUCTIVE LOGIC : From Theory

through Hypothesis to Data (see p. 37 of Textbook)

– Researchers who use QANTITATIVE

approach typically use deductive

reasoning (Ravelly 2013).

– The focus is on Hypothesis = Suspected

testable causal link between/among

variables (Witt and Hermiston 2010, p.

24).

41

INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK:

Logic or System of Reasoning

INDUCTIVE LOGIC: From Data

through thesis to Theory (see p. 37 of Textbook)

– Researchers who use QUALITATIVE

approach usually use inductive

reasoning (Ravelli 2013, p. 92).

– The focus is on Thesis = suspected

answer to a qualitative research

question.

FRAMEWORK Quantitative (pp. 95-96): POSITIVISTIC Qualitative (p. 96): INTERPRETIVE

AIM/TYPE Descriptive or Explanatory Descriptive, Exploratory or

Interpretive

FOCUS/CONCEPTS Variables, Hypothesis, Validity,

Reliability, Correlation, Causality (pp.

99-100 of Ravelli & Weber 2014)

Factors, Thesis, Credibility,

Dependability

SAMPLING Random, probability (pp. 100-101, Ibid.) Non-random, non-probability (pp.

100-101, ibid.))

DESIGN/METHODS Structured: Experiment, Quantitative

Survey, Non-reactive (pp. 100, 102, 110-

112 Ibid.)

Flexible: Field Research, Qualitative

Survey, Participatory Action

Research, Mixed (p. 106, Ibid.)

REASONING Deductive: From theory thru hypothesis

to data (p. 98, Ibid)

Inductive: From Data thru thesis to

Theory (p. 98, Ibid)

RESEARCHER Researcher uses inanimate instruments Researcher is the main instrument

INSTRUMENTS or

TECHNIQUES

Questionnaires and tests, Statistical

software, Content Analysis (pp. 101-105,

Ibid.)

Participant Observation, interviews,

Focus Group, Content Analysis (pp.

103-105, ibid.).

ETHICS Do No Harm: Milgram’s Obedience

Study, Stanford Prison Experiment (pp.

110-112 ibid.), Tuskegee Syphilis

Experiment

Do No Harm: Humphery’s Tearoom

Trade (p. 112, ibid)

THEORY Functionalism, Social Conflict,

Feminism (pp. 94 & 108, ibid.)

Interactionism, Feminism (pp. 94 &

108, Ibid.), postmodernism

QUIZ #5

Canada’s Attorney General has awarded you a major funding to research into the causes of and solutions to marijuana grow-ops in British Columbia. You have decided to adopt the qualitative research approach. What would be your role as a researcher?

A) A research instrument

B) A research instrument user

C) Experimenter

D) Surveyor

QUIZ #6

Jasmica believes that the social world is a stable, macro social structure and culture that have objective existence ruled by deductive logic. She has decided to research into the drug trade from this perspective. What would be the, methodological approach, method, and the main instrument she would adopt?

A) Qualitative, field research and content analysis

B) Qualitative, participatory action research, and focus group

C) Quantitative, survey, and questionnaire

D) Qualitative, experiment, and intensive interviews

KEY ISSUES OF RESEAECH

Regardless of which of the three

major research frameworks you

choose, there are three critical

issues that must be addressed:

– 1. Sampling (See pp. 46-48 of Textbook)

– 2. Validity & Reliability (See last para of p.36 of Textbook)

– 3. Ethics (See p. 54, para 2 of Textbook)

15/09/2017 46

15/09/2017 47


c) FUSION APPROACH or

TRIANGULATION (see p. 42, para 3 of Textbook)

15/09/2017 48

Triangulation:– ILLUSTRATION VIDEO:

– Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade

–https://www.youtube.com/watc

h?v=rsFa10JFats

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rsFa10JFats

15/09/2017 49

TRIANGULATION: THE FUSION APPROACH

Using mixed methods to research the same phenomenon to

achieve high validity and reliability

EXPERIMENT

Quantitative

SURVEY:

Quantitative

Participatory

Action Research

Qualitative

FIELD

RESEARCH:

Qualitative

15/09/2017 50

Challenges of Research

15/09/2017 51

CHALLENGES OF SOCIOLOGICAL

RESEARCH

1. Time and Money

2. Sensitive and/or dangerous topics: sexuality, crime, conflicts, etc.

3. Ethics: a) Do no harm (Milgram’s Obedience Study); b) Safety of research subjects (Stanford Prison Experiment); c) Informed consent (Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade; the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment); d) Privacy--anonymity & confidentiality—(Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade) See Ravelli 2013 pp. 110-112 and p. 54 para 2 of Textbook)

4. Emotions, values, and morality

UNETHICAL RESEARCH:

Milgram’s Obedience to Authority

Experiment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bc

vSNg0HZwk

15/09/2017 52

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcvSNg0HZwk

UNETHICS RESEARCH: The

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x

-YMdaEdbcg


mi8DQspNeX4

15/09/2017 53

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mi8DQspNeX4https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mi8DQspNeX4

UNETHICA RESEARCH:

Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T

huhwPdI-04

15/09/2017 54

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThuhwPdI-04

15/09/2017 55

Summary and Conclusion

15/09/2017 56

DNA is not Destiny; The

SOCIAL is Destiny SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH, using the SCIENTIFIC METHOD and

LOGICAL REASONING, has produced enough EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE and THEORIES to substantiate the PARADIGM that the SOCIAL is destiny, not DNA or the BRAIN.

In effect, things do not happen in the world and to people because PHYSICAL and EMOTIONAL forces cause them (Robert J. Brym 2004: 3-4: New Society: Sociology for the 21st Century. Fourth Edition). Examples of correlation but

not causality:– Famine is not caused by drought

– War is not caused by territorial greed

– Economic success is not caused by hard work

– Marriage is not caused by love

– Suicide is not caused by depression

– Rape is not caused by depraved lust

– Child abuse is not caused by mentally sick people

15/09/2017 57

CONCLUSION: A PARADIGM

SHIFT

Sociology has caused a paradigm shift about

the world and human behavior/condition

because of Sociological Research

methodologies/methods/techniques that

– a) utilize the principles of science,

particularly the Scientific Method to

discover/reveal unseen social forces as

causality and not mere correlation.

– b) constitute the foundation of sociological

theorizing that will be discussed in Lecture

3.

searching for the invisible variables/factors of human ......of data, human behavior, social action,...

Documents