scully - reading the shield of achilles

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Reading the Shield of Achilles: Terror, Anger, Delight Author(s): Stephen Scully Source: Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 101 (2003), pp. 29-47Published by: Department of the Classics, Harvard UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3658523Accessed: 12-08-2015 12:14 UTC

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READING THE SHIELD OF ACHILLES: TERROR, ANGER, DELIGHT

STEPHEN SCULLY

W HEN he agrees to make Achilles' armor, Hephaistos tells Thetis that any mortal "will wonder when he sees it"

(18.466-467). But, as it happens, nobody in the poem singles out any one scene on the shield for comment, and only rarely is the shield even noted by a character in the Iliad. Rather than inspiring a specific response from characters in the poem, the detailed description of the scenes on the shield, like an extended simile, invites the audience of the poem to consider Hephaistos' creation against the larger story of which it is a part.' While vocabulary and theme in those vignettes resonate with key scenes in the poem proper, as critics have observed,2 it has proven more difficult to define the particular relevance, if any, of the god's work of art for the heroes of the Iliad and most particularly for the hero who is to bear that shield.

In one scholar's words, the ekphrasis "represents the good life," its purpose to "make us ... see [war] in relation to peace," reminding the audience of all that will be lost with the fall of Troy.3 The description of

1 Cf. Kenneth John Atchity, Homer's Iliad: The Shield of Memory (Carbondale, Illi- nois 1978) 238-244 and 247-251. As Atchity notes, the four explicit references on the shield to singers "heightens the impression that Homer is making a statement here about his own creativity" (p. 249). For others on the same crucial observation, see: Walter Marg, Homer iiber die Dichtung 2nd ed. (Munster 1971), originally Orbis Antiquus No. 11 (Miinster 1957) 29-33; Karl Reinhardt, Die Ilias und ihr Dichter (GiSttingen 1961) 409-411; Wolfgang Schadewaldt, Von Homers Welt und Werk: Aufsditze und Auslegungen zur Homerischen Frage 4th ed. (Stuttgart 1965) 357-371; Keith Stanley, The Shield of Homer: Narrative Structure in the Iliad (Princeton 1993) 3-26; Andrew Becker, The Shield of Achilles and the Poetics of Ekphrasis (Lanham, Maryland, 1995) 4 and 57.

2 In addition to the contributions of Marg, Schadewaldt, and Stanley on this point (note 1), see the seminal work by 0. Andersen, "Some Thoughts on the Shield of Achilles," SO 51 (1976) 5-18.

3 Oliver Taplin, "The Shield of Achilles within the Iliad," G&R 27 (1980) 12 and 15, respectively. For Taplin, the shield represents "an easy hedonistic existence spent in



30 Stephen Scully

Hephaistos' work of art, falling between the fight over Patroklos' corpse and Achilles' re-entry into battle, offers stark contrast to the sur- rounding brutality of war.4 The depictions on the shield of a city cele- brating marriage, of a king who is "joyful at heart" (18.557) as the men, women, and children of his community prepare a harvest festival, or of maidens and young men "thinking carefree thoughts" (18.567), or of a crowd of people "filled with delight" (18.604) as they watch "a lovely chorus" (18.603), seem incongruous with the increasingly savage scenes in the main narrative, like a calm before an impending doom. Even the efforts of men in the &yop& trying to control through reasoned debate passions aroused by murder express a desire to contain violence. Not to be swept away by this vision, we need to remember that violence also finds its way onto the shield: a murderous ambush falls upon herders of cattle in a city at war and the battle which ensues includes the figures of Hate, Confusion, and Death; in a later scene Hephaistos sculpts two lions tearing out the guts of a bull as men and dogs try in vain to save the beast. But most readers, nevertheless, would agree with the view that the shield "creates an ambience which as a whole comments on the brutal war portrayed in the Iliad."s5 As the most recent book on the shield says, the ekphrasis is "there for us, not for the characters in the epic."6

In such a reading of Hephaistos' work of art, the relation of the

feasting with the pastimes of conversation, song and dance, making love-in fact a life such as the gods lead. This is the life that humans aspire to, even if they can only achieve it in brief snatches," 4. While I shall argue against Taplin's reading of the shield, I agree fully with his broader point that glimpses of a former peace provide an essential dynamic within the Iliad.

4 Cf. Marg (note 1) 32 and 36-37; Reinhardt (note 1) 401-411; Schadewaldt (note 1) 368; Cedric Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (New York 1958) 205-207; Seth Schein, The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer's Iliad (Berkeley 1984) 142; E. T. Owen, The Story of the Iliad (Toronto 1946; repr. Ann Arbor 1966) 186-189.

5 R. S. Shannon, The Arms of Achilles and Homeric Compositional Technique = Mnemosyne, Suppl. 36 (Leiden 1975) 29. Cf. Robert Rabel, Plot and Point of View in the Iliad (Ann Arbor 1997) 178.

6 Becker (note 1) 150; cf. Reinhardt (note 1) 405. For important, recent studies of the shield narrative as the first within the ekphrastic tradition, see John Hollander, The Gazer's Spirit (Chicago 1995) 7-9, and James Heffernan, Museum of Words (Chicago 1993) 10-22. For a general study of ekphrasis as a rhetorical device and for a considera- tion of its relations to the main narrative, see Murray Krieger, Ekphrasis: The Illusion of the Natural Sign (Baltimore 1992); for ekphrasis within Vergilian poetics, see Michael Putnam, Virgil's Epic Designs: Ekphrasis in the Aeneid (New Haven 1998).



Reading the Shield ofAchilles 31

shield to its bearer is ironical: the god's view of the world is discordant with a death-embracing Achilles. It is for this reason, many feel, that the poet describes the scenes on the shield not when Achilles receives the arms but as Hephaistos makes them, as Walter Marg argued in his important essay of 1957.7 In this vein, it has recently been proposed that "the audience can appreciate [Hephaistos' artifact], but Akhilleus could not properly do so until after his reconciliation with Priam, when he is more ready to appreciate life on ordinary human terms."8

Hephaistos himself, it is worth noting, sees an irony in the relation between the shield and Achilles, but it is not the type of irony that Marg most had in mind. Speaking with regret to Thetis, the god notes that although his work is of divine craftmanship it will not shelter its mortal bearer from a warrior's death (cf. 18.464-467).9 This irony suggestively parallels the paradox of Troy, itself doomed though its walls are of divine construction, Poseidon having built them, he says, "in order that the city be invulnerable" (21.447). In this regard, the mortal Achilles in Hephaistos' armor is not unlike the city he is bent on destroying; both Achilles and Troy are "clothed" in the divine and doomed.10

The contrast between the many life-renewing scenes on the shield and the intensifying mayhem of its context in the poem may evoke reverberating dissonance for readers. But the Iliad suggests in a num- ber of ways that the ekphrasis is not meant for the poem's audience alone; unlike similes, the shield is observed, even if rarely, by figures in the story and by the narrator in Books 19-22. If we take their readings as our guide, we ourselves shall be compelled to interpret Hephaistos'

7 Cf. Marg (note 1) 24-25 and 36-37, a point frequently cited in subsequent essays. 8 Mark Edwards, The Iliad: A Commentary vol. 5 (Cambridge 1991) 208. 9 In the battle scenes, however, the narrator seems less aware of that irony when in a

rare intrusion into the story he chides Achilles for fearing that his shield might not with- stand the thrust of an enemy's spear: "Foolish man, not perceiving that a man may not easily overcome the gifts of the gods" (20.265-266).

10 For the ironical counterpoint of Achilles' vulnerability when clothed in divine armor, see most recently Edwards (note 8) 139-140 and ad 20.264-267. See also Michael Lynn-George, Epos, Word, Narrative and the Iliad (Atlantic Highlands, New Jer- sey 1988) 193. For the association of Achilles' rentry into battle with the destruction of a city, see 18.206-214, 18.219-220, 18.265, 21.520-536, 22.25-31; cf. Stephen Scully, Homer and the Sacred City (Ithaca 1990) 32, 116-122 and 174 n. 16. Laura Slatkin comments on the helpless status of Thetis in the Iliad where contrary to her part in the tradition of divine protrectress she is unable to protect her son from death even as she plays that role when giving Achilles' the gift of Hephaistos' immortal armor; The Power of Thetis: Allusion and Interpretation in the Iliad (Berkeley 1991) 45-52.



32 Stephen Scully

gift in a different light. Rather than finding comfort in images of peace, the Myrmidons and Trojans feel terror.

II

Narrative description of the shield also suggests terror. Far from characterizing Achilles' shield as joyful, the narrator describes it as "terrible and awful to behold" (6Otv6o... o.tep6awXoq, 20.259-260).

TH e(x, I(xai lv &-tv& ao(lact jXocv 71 ptiov Eyxo;,,

GCop&paXo" gEya 68' & gpi o ;` o u6Kc;R 80'6op0; &ico)"r.

So speaking, (Aeneas) drove the strong spear onto the terrible shield, awful to behold; and the great shield groaned beneath the spear-point.I1

Aetv6o and oagp6aXo;

are far from formulaic terms for shields in the poem. Only one other object in the Iliad is similarly terrifying and awful to behold: the severed head of the Gorgon as it appears on Athene's aegis (5.742). The figures of Terror, Strife, Strength, and Onslaught (Phobos, Eris, Alke, loke) surround the Gorgon's head on the goddesses' protective goatskin (5.738-742). Elsewhere in the poem, the aegis itself is simply agFep6La.rl (21.400-401).12 Hephais- tos' shield is of similar nature, a grim object striking fear in the beholder.13 Frequently in archaic vase painting the sole figure depicted

11 All translations are my own. Text cited is D. B. Munro and T. W. Allen (ed.), Homeri Opera vols. I and II, 3rd ed. (Oxford 1920).

12For reading aiy(8a, not daria8a, with oagp&x8a lv at 21.400-401, see N. J.

Richardson, The Iliad: A Commentary vol. 6 (Cambridge 1993) ad 21.440-441, a mis- print for what should be 21.400-401. In addition to its application to Achilles' shield at 20.260, cgEp6aXio; twice describes Hektor's bronze (armor) (12.463-464 and 13.191-192), at a crucial point in the battle when as a terrifying figure Hektor first breaks through the Greek wall. Ajax's shield is 6etv6g (7.245).

13 Compare the grim aspect of Achilles' shield to Agamemnon's shield which does indeed display an image of the Gorgon (p3ocropinrtg; and 8&tvbv 8epicog&v1, "grim-looking ... glancing terribly"), flanked by Fear and Terror (Deimos and Phobos) (11.36-37. For Agamemnon's shield, see Becker (note 1) 67-77, esp. 73-75; on its symbolism, see Hermann Fraenkel, Early Greek Poetry and Philosophy (tr. M. Hadas and J. Willis) (New York 1975) 38-39. For a comparison between it and Achilles' shield, see Stanley (note 1) 3, 5, 24; for his analysis of its anachronistic elements on Agamemnon's shield, see 129



Reading the Shield of Achilles 33

on Achilles' shield is the Gorgon's head; in one instance it is simply an image of Athene's aegis (without Gorgon head).14

When Thetis travels from Olympus to earth transporting the "glori- ous arms of Hephaistos, very beautiful, such as no man ever has carried on his shoulders" (19.10-11), human reaction to them is mixed (19.12-23):

itp6a0ev 'AxthXXfio;g & 6' 8&v'pcpE Sai68otah 2cdvtca.

MvpRt186vag 8' ipa navra; 'LE Cpog;, ol)FS ngX\ (vXrTv ~iotS6Etv, 6taX' ~txpeoav. aorocp 'AXtheXS; d e1t8', 6 cIV tv '&LXov 8 06xxo;" v &8 oi taoe 8Etvbv 3r6n o

Pepd0pov, GE ei o Ea;, oktcpa vOEv" r~pIErto 8' Fv XeipEontv aXO)v Oeoi dlXya& 6Wopa. aXI)Tp 1LEti ppEoiv a t erdxpnero 6pcXISaXXa Xeioov, aot'icca Rtrlzpa i1v irXa rtetp6vFta tpo(rla8a- MT-rep F jr , R1- 9Cv

0vXbxa 08e6 n6pRv, ot ' 2r0t1t ( K; Epy' e!tV o0av6woa~v

, rLVR1& po-byv v68pa 'tre~aoat. viv 8' ijrot p~v ~y 00op4itogat -

So speaking the goddess placed down the arms before Achilles. The elaborately wrought arms clashed loudly. Then fear seized all the Myrmidons; not one of them dared to look at the arms straight on, but they shrank back in terror. But

Achilles, the more he looked, the more the anger made its way into him. And his eyes, like sunglare, glittered terribly under his lids. He was delighted, holding in his hands the shining gifts of the god.

and 305 n. 15, and bibliography therein. For comparison with Greek archaic armor, see Bryan Hainsworth, The Iliad: A Commentary vol. III, Books 9-12 (Cambridge 1993) 215-223.

14 The image of the aegis on the shield is on an Attic black-figure neck amphora (c. 570 BCE) by the Camtar Painter (Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 21.21); see LIMC 1.2 Achilleus 191. Steven Lowenstam is surely right in arguing that this vase scene, as with most other vase depictions of Achilles' arms, represents Achilles receiving his new arms in Iliad 19; "The Arming of Achilleus on Early Greek Vases," CA 12 (1993) 199-218. For the Gorgon head on the shield, see LIMC IV.2, pp. 285-286 and 299-301; cf. Hilda Lorimer, Homer and the Monuments (London 1950) 190 n. 3. In Euripides' Electra, the Gorgon's head is added to Achilles' shield; see notes 18 and 36, below.



34 Stephen Scully

Then when he was delighted in his midriff, looking at the elaborately

wrought work, straightway he addressed his mother with winged words.

"Mother, a god gave these arms, work befitting the immortals. No mortal

man could do this. But now I shall arm myself..."

Though this passage refers to the arms in the plural, the narrator's attention has focused almost exclusively upon the scenes from the shield, and it is reasonable to imagine that Achilles, as he gazes, sees what we have just seen.15 Even while the hexameters from 19.14-17 are unusu- ally expressive in their series of enjambed verses closely linking Myr- midon terror with Achilles' swelling anger and pleasure, it is left to us to interpret these intense and highly divergent reactions, as the narrator offers scant explanation. The activity of looking joins the constellation of emotions: the Myrmidons unable to look, and Achilles looking intently. The Myrmidons' fear stems from the arms and not from the presence of the goddess, even though the arms pose no personal threat.16 As with reactions to epic poetry itself, a source of pleasure (tipxt;) for most audiences but of tears and grief for Odysseus and Penelope,17 so perhaps here we may detect a similar divergence between responses to the shield by readers of the poem and by warriors within the poem.

Some suspect that the Myrmidons are filled with fear because they are "overawed by the glare of the armour alone,"18 although nothing in

15 In the narrator's reference to Hephaistos' arms collectively as "all skilled artwork" (6ai6aXa rtdvra) at 19.13, we may perhaps think of the phrase, in a kind of reverse metonymy, as reference primarily to the shield, itself "crafted all over" (nivroo a &at- 8diXhov, 18.479). The same word describing all the arms also refers to the multiple scenes on the shield: 8ai8asa norX&, 18.482. Elsewhere Achilles' shield (odKCog) is iKaXv 8at&xikov (22.314). It seems reasonable to assume that when Achilles is said to examine Hephaistos' work (8ai8acXa lXmiaov, 19.19), he is examining first and fore- most the shield itself, the most conspicuous of the god's gifts.

16 At II. 19.13-17, Edwards (note 8) suggests Od. 24.47-57 as a parallel but the reference is of limited help. The Greek fear of Thetis and the Nereids in the Odyssey when they come up from the deep to mourn Achilles' death stems from the goddesses' wailing.

17 Cf. George Walsh, The Varieties of Enchantment (Chapel Hill 1984) 3-21. 18 Edwards (note 8) ad 19.13-17; followed by Becker presumably (note 1) 149. Stan-

ley (note 1) 303 n. 1, draws our attention to the fact that Euripides at Electra 455-469 adds Perseus and Medusa to Achilles' (original) shield to make it seem more ominous




19.13-23 is said of the armor's glare, only the terrible noise as it strikes the ground. If the glare is so painful for the Myrmidons, how is it that Achilles can gaze upon these gifts in such prolonged examination? About Achilles' pleasure, commentators are equally at an impass. It is a commonplace now to hear that it derives from a delight in Hephais- tos' divine workmanship,19 a view perhaps to be inferred from the narrator's account of Achilles' "looking at the elaborately wrought work"

(6(Sai6 a ei8ooov) and from Achilles' own words to Thetis: "this is the work of the gods. No mortal man could make these arms." But what is the fear which prevents the Myrmidons from enjoying a similar pleasure? And why should we believe that Achilles is thinking only about Hephaistos' cunning at the forge at this point in the narrative?

About the shield's glare. Earlier in the poem, o-a x;was associated with Hektor, especially in his efforts to set fire to the Akhaian ships, but after Athene caused a aoax; to blaze from Achilles' head as he stood upon the Akhaian ditch (18.214), that noun is exclusively associated with Achilles and his armor, the armor's external glare verbally linked with an inner fire (also oaea;) emanating from Achilles' eyes. When Achilles prepares to put on his new arms at the end of Book 19, a radiance (otka) like that from the moon shines from his shield and a fire (ao lX), like a fire on a mountain peak seen by sailors lost at sea, shines from the shield with a glare that reaches to the aether (cf. 19.374-380). The image of brilliance is further associated with Hephaistos' helmet which shines like a star (cf. 19.381-382; cf. 22.134-135). Similar language describes Achilles: as he puts on his armor, his eyes "were gleaming like a radiance of fire" (cagn~Lro6lv t;0

ei'rl sE up6; oEa;, 19.366), as they gleam with fire when he first examines Hephaistos' gifts (Ev 8 oi oos / 8setv t6n pl3xeqibpcov, 0;g ri oag;, ipCiavOev, "his eyes / shone terribly, like a fire, under his brows," 19.16-17).20 That affinity of inner fire and outer gleam sug-

than its description in the Iliad, although he does not offer this, or any other reason, as explanation for the Myrmidon flight. In Euripides' play (lines 442-451), Achilles receives Hephaistos' arms in Phthia before he sails for Troy. For a full discussion of the Achilles' two sets of armor, see Judith Barringer, Divine Escorts: Nereids in Archaic and Classical Greek Art (Ann Arbor 1995) 17-48. Also see Lowenstam (note 14) and Edwards (note 30).

19 Becker (note 1) 149-150. Also see Rabel (note 5) 178. 20 See Oliver Taplin, Homeric Soundings: The Shaping of the Iliad (Oxford 1992)

226-227. More broadly for the association of Achilles with fire in Books 18 through 22,



36 Stephen Scully

gests likeness rather than difference between Achilles and the shield. Achilles' pleasure in the arms, we may surmise, stems not only from his aesthetic appreciation of their craftmanship but also from kinship with its power.

What of Achilles' growing anger when looking at Hephaistos' work? Most understand, rightly I think, that it derives from Achilles' desire for revenge. But one critic has suggested that the anger be linked with Achilles' reading of the shield-in particular with the scene of a king holding a scepter and feeling joy in his heart, presiding over a harvest and distributing honors in a fitting fashion to all members of his community (18.556-560). Reminded of Agamemnon, Achilles is filled with rage.21 In this reading anger is derived explicitly from a scene on the shield. But this line of thought puts great emphasis on Achilles' ret- rospective vision just at the point when his attentions are turning in a new direction. Only a few lines later in the assembly of the Greeks, Achilles declares that he is making an end of his anger (6Xoo;) against the king (cf. 19.67); with an eye to the future and with some urgency ("but come quickly"), he bids the king mobilize the Akhaians "in order that I may make trial of the Trojans face to face" (19.68 and 70).

With the news of Patroklos' death, the object of Achilles' anger shifts from the Greeks to the Trojans, and more narrowly from Agamemnon to Hektor (cf. 18.79-126). All of Book 19 prepares for that shift and the necessary mobilization for war-receiving his new armor, reconciliation with Agamemnon, the marshalling of the troops, and finally dressing in that new armor-before Achilles, "insatiate of war" (20.2), can engage the Trojans at the beginning of Book 20.22 If, on one level, the images on the shield are timeless, on another level they are located in time, more focused on future war than glancing backward to past grievances or might-have-beens.

In light of Achilles' reconciliation with Agamemnon and the

see Richardson (note 12) 108 and ad 22.317-321, and Whitman (note 4) 136-146, whose comments are influenced by Schadewaldt (note 1) 352-374.

21 Stanley (note 1) 25; cf. 3. Also see Becker (note 1) 149 n. 272. For another reading, see Rabel (note 5) 175-176.

22 For the narrative brilliance of Book 18, see Reinhardt (note 1) 349-411; Whitman (note 4) 199-206; Stanley (note 1) 186-192; for that of Book 19, see Lynn-George (note 10) 170-174; Stanley (note 1) 192-199. For Book 19 as a "sorry introduction" to Books 20-22, see Denys Page, History and the Homeric Iliad (Berkeley 1972) 314-315. For a review of Alexandrian book division between Books 18 and 19, see Taplin (note 20) 201-202.




Greeks, it has recently been suggested that Achilles' new armor plays a crucial role in the hero's "social reintegration."23 Made naked (pyutv6g, 17.711) after Hektor stripped Patroklos of Achilles' old armor, the hero undergoes what this critic describes as "a rebirth into human society" (p. 22) when Thetis presents her son with his new war gear. The poem suggests, however, that Achilles is not being reborn into human society but into a paradoxical form of mortal godhood.

First, the argument against social reintegration. Even when his mother suggests to Achilles that he call an assembly and renounce his

gilvtg against the Akhaians, her reasons are not social but a desire for Achilles to put on his war strength (19.36). In the agora, Achilles lis- tens to Agamemnon's long speech-66 lines-without interruption (in the speech, Agamemnon blames Ate for the past quarrel and goes on at length about the gifts he will give Achilles, 19.78-144),24 but Achilles' reply is brief. He speaks with disdain regarding the gifts-give the gifts, or keep them, as you wish-and he fails even to mention Briseis by name (19.146-153). Objects that once caused a rift in the Akhaian camp and were a hallmark of Achilles' social standing, now have little meaning for him. His mind, like Thetis', is not on social reintegration but slaughter: "But now, let us remember the spirit of battle / straightway" (vv "

v tgvlldt0a CXptrla

/ aFya .,i',

19.148-149);25 "straightway" (alW ot R,')

(cf. 19.36) is doubly emphatic by enjamb- ment and the adverbial intensifier

li,6'. There is no need, Achilles

continues, to waste our time chatting (ickoontElytv) or to delay

23 Thomas Hubbard, "Nature and Art in the Shield of Achilles," Arion 3rd series 2 (1992) 21. For different reasons, Leonard Muellner in The Anger of Achilles: Menis in Greek Epic (Ithaca 1996) 141-142, also sees Achilles' eventual acceptance of the gifts when they are placed "in the middle of the assembly" (19.249) as reinforcing his "bonds to the group."

24 For an analysis of Agamemnon's speech, see Dieter Lohmann, Die Komposition der Reden in der lias (Berlin 1970) 75-80; O. M. Davidson, "Indo-European Dimensions of Herakles in Iliad 19.95-133," Arethusa 13 (1980) 197-202. See also Robert Rabel, "Agamemnon's Aristeia," GRBS 32 (1991) 103-117; William Wyatt, "Homeric 'ATH," AJP 103 (1982) 247-276. For the speeches of Thetis, Achilles, and Agamemnon at the beginning of Book 19, see Taplin (note 20) 203-212.

25 For viv &6 ("but now") as characteristic of Achilles' emphactic speech patterns, see Paul Friedrich and James Redfield, "Speech as a Personality Symbol: The Case of Achilles," Language 54 (1978) 283. Cf. Jasper Griffin, "Words and Speakers in Homer," JHS 106 (1986) 50-57. For the process of Achilles' "remembering battle" in this speech, see Richard Martin, The Language of Heroes: Speech and Performance in the Iliad (Ithaca 1989) 79-80 and 200.



38 Stephen Scully

(19.149-150).26 In certain contexts war itself may be considered a "social" act motivated by ai6t0g and a sense of human community,27 but that is far from the case for Achilles in Books 19-22.

In Thetis' imperative that Achilles "enter into, or put on, (86Geo) his war strength," Thetis employs the same verb which earlier in the narrative described the anger entering into ('8u

x6,o;) Achilles as he looks

at Hephaistos' gifts (19.16). When Achilles arms himself at the end of Book 19, the two meanings of the verb-putting on and entering into-- will be used again: "His eyes / glowed as if they were the radiance (oaag) of fire. Unendurable grief entered / into (86v') his heart. Rag- ing at the Trojans / he entered into (S1iaero) (i.e., put on) the gifts of the god which Hephaistos had made for him with much toil" (19.365-368). More specifically than in Achilles' speech to Thetis after having viewed his new gifts (19.21-27), this passage links Achilles' human grief for Patroklos with his divine armor; it further joins that grief with his rage at the Trojans, serving to amplify our understanding of the less specific anger (6Xoo;, 19.16) which grew in Achilles as he first took stock of Hephaistos' gifts; the flame (cXa ) in his eyes further links both passages at the beginning and end of Book 19.

When the Greek leaders delay battle to allow the army to fight on a full stomach, Achilles refuses to share in the meal (19.199-214), a clear indication of how far he is now from being assimilated into the human order.28 Anxious, however, lest "wretched hunger come upon his knees" (19.354; cf. 19.348), Zeus bids Athene distill nectar and

26 The meaning of choionerlEtv is not fully understood and may be colloquial, but the general sense of spinning out time under pretenses or chatting seems fairly certain from context; cf. M. Schmidt, "KLOTOPEUO," in Thesaurus Linguae Graecae: Lexicon des friihgriechischen Epos, ed. Bruno Snell (Gottingen, 1989).

27 On aiSd&g, see James Redfield, Nature and Culture in the Iliad (Chicago 1975) 113-119; D. Claus, "Aidos in the Language of Achilles," TAPA 115 (1975) 13-28. For different senses of ai8ctS for Trojans and Greeks in the context of war, see the contrasting speeches of Ajax and Hektor at 15.405-746; cf. Scully (note 10) 107-110.

28 Cf. Marilyn Arthur who speaks of this refusal as "a negative which locates him out- side the compass of the social order," in "The Dream of a World Without Women: Poetics and the Circles of Order in the Theogony Prooemium," Arethusa 16 (1983) 103; cf. Lynn- George (note 10) 172-174. For the symbolism of of a shared meal, see Oswald Murray, "The symposion as social organization," in The Greek Renaissance of the Eighth Century B.C. (ed. R. Haigg) (Stockholm 1983) 195-199; John Foley, Immanent Art: From Struc- ture to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic (Bloomington 1991) 174-189; Steven Nimis, Narrative Semiotics in the Epic Tradition: The Simile (Bloomington 1987) 23-42.




ambrosia into Achilles' chest, a complex gesture which tacitly acknowledges Achilles' mortality by recognizing his need for suste- nance but one which also assimilates the mortal hero not into the com- pany of the men but of the gods.29 Such divine intervention supports Cedric Whitman's eloquent claim that Achilles' old armor, given to Achilles' father on the day he married Thetis (17.194-197), "symbol- izes both the mortal and immortal aspects of Achilles. The new arms are to be wholly immortal, a miracle suited to a man whose mortal part no longer concerns him."30 Another study which diminishes Achilles in comparison to Hephaistos' arms calls the hero "small, limited, or merely human in the context of' the new arms,31 but the poem suggests something quite different. As Achilles arms himself for battle, his new clothing acquires a strange buoyancy: "The arms became like wings and raised up the shepherd of the host" (i^ 6' 'E'E" itteppX yiYVEv', ertpFe 86 &t ot~gPva caOv, 19.386). This is a remarkable conceit, unparal-

leled elsewhere in the Iliad,32 and further suggests a form of transcen- dence. The move toward deification is particularly hard for modern sensibility to recognize. Simone Weil, for example, can speak with power regarding the dehumanizing force Achilles becomes on his way to killing Hektor, a savagery she describes as making a thing of Achilles even while he lives, but she never acknowledges that in sav-

29 No where else in Homer is a living human being fed nectar and ambrosia, although Thetis, prompted by Achilles' anxiety, at 19.38-39 distills nectar and ambrosia through the nostrils of Patroklos' corpse to keep it fresh; for the delicacy of Achilles' speech to Thetis, see Martin (note 25) 33. As a sign of Odysseus' refusal of Kalypso's gift of immortality, he eats mortal food while she consumes the food of the gods (cf. Od. 5.194-199). In Hesiod's Catalogue of Women (fr. 23a MW 22-23) and perhaps in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (237) ambrosia appears to make a mortal immortal; cf. Edwards (note 8) ad 19.352-354. For Taplin (note 20) 210 n. 12, the Zeus-inspired feed- ing of Achilles marks the hero's uniqueness and perhaps his nearness to death. Stanley likens it to the "embalming" of Patroklos, (note 1) 195-196.

30 Whitman (note 4) 203; see notes 32 and 35, below. Mark Edwards in "Neoanalysis and Beyond," CA 9 (1990) 311-325, argues that in all other traditions, Thetis gave Hep- haistos' arms to Achilles in Phthia before he set sail for Troy. See note 18.

31 Schein (note 4) 142. 32 Edwards (note 8) ad 19.384-386 compares to 17.210-214 when Hektor puts on

Achilles' old armor: "In both the divinely made armour has a powerfully uplifting effect." But if a likeness, it is distant: "the armor was fitted to Hektor's skin. The terrible Ares, War God, entered him. His limbs were filled within of strength and might" (17.210-212). Whitman, somewhat narrowly, associates the image with "the swiftness and upward course of flames," (note 4) 139.



40 Stephen Scully

agery, fury, and indifference towards all mortality including his own, Achilles is paradoxically also moving towards godhood.33

How, if at all, do these themes relate to Achilles' obvious pleasure when looking at Hephaistos' creation? For many readers of the poem, the disjuncture between the god's and Achilles' vision of life means that the hero's pleasure can only derive from the how, not the what, of Hephaistos' work of art.

But readers tend to focus on the human scenes on the shield, paying scant attention to the opening and closing descriptions. Achilles' pleasure in the shield, I suggest, has less to do with its various individual human stories than a viewing of the shield as a whole. As if Hephaistos were creating the universe from its beginnings, he first fashions on the shield an image of Earth, Heaven and Sea, followed by the Sun, Moon, and stars (18.483--489). Only then does the god turn his attention to the human world, while at the end he fashions around the rim of the shield and around the realm of humankind an image of River Ocean (18.607-608).34 Such framing of the human within the broader settings of Earth, Heaven, Sun, Moon, stars, and River Ocean, is Olympian, and a distancing vision of the mortal that only Achilles in his transcendent fury can long sustain.35 Apollo, in the midst of gods warring against

33 Weil, "The Iliad, Poem of Might" in Intimations of Christianity Among the Ancient Greeks, tr. and ed. E. Geissbuhler, (London 1957) 24-55, esp. 24-29.

34 See Hubbard (note 23) 28. Edwards (note 8) argues that the depiction of the heavenly bodies and the two cities should be considered one scene because the heavenly bodies are "the eternal companions of human life" and "are watched closely" by humankind (p. 211). In arguing this point, Edwards ignores that Av gFv (483) intoduces the section on the heavenly bodies while iv &E (490) introduces the section on the two cities, and seven other sections of the shield (541, 550, 561, 573, 587, 590, 607). It is also noteworthy that different verbs describe Hephaistos' work on the heavenly bodies (i rev', 483) and on the two cities (noiroce, 490). In an overly subtle argument, Rabel (note 5) writes that Hephaistos intended to diminish the human figure by placing the universe in the center of the shield that the Muse-narrator subverted that intent by placing a happy king "in the center of the verbal construction" (p. 175).

351 I fully agree with Hollander (note 6) and Heffernan (note 6) who characterize this ekphrasis as "notional," an imaginary work of art which defies being rendered visually. For this reading, it does not matter whether the portrait of the heavenly bodies are located at the center of the shield, as its place in the narrative sequence of scenes on the shield might suggest, or on the outer edge of the shield. For the difficulties of drawing the shield and a criticism of placing the heavenly bodies at the center, see K. Fittschen, Der Schild des Achilleus = ArchHom N (Gbttingen 1973) esp. 3-5; challenging the view that the scenes are arranged in the order that they are presented in the poem, see H. A. Gart- ner, "Beobachtungen zum Schild des Achilleus," in Studien zum Antiken Epos, ed. H. Girgemanns and E. A. Schmidt, (Meisenheim am Glan 1976) 46-65.




each other over mortals, indicates that Olympian perspective in Book 21 when he calls mortals "insignificant" (6Seto() and likens them to leaves on a tree which "grow and then fade away" (21.463-466).

The shield's framing of the human with an astral perspective is par- alleled in only one other instance in the poem when Zeus, acknowledg- ing his love for Troy, is about to forecast its doom (4.44--47):36 "Of all the cities of men who live upon earth / which dwell under the sun and starry heaven / none has ever been more honored in my heart than sacred Ilios / and Priam, and the people of Priam of the good ash spear." The portrait of human existence on the shield and Zeus' fatal image of Troy are statements about the nature of man, not commentary about the good life or war; they are also, I propose, a way of understanding the fire in Achilles' eyes and the uncommon pleasure he finds in beholding a divine vision of the cosmos. In Achilles' quasi-divine state, he moves toward a divine synoptic perspective, one especially shared by Zeus among the Olympians and embodied on his shield. For Achilles Hephaistos' creation gives pleasure because the image as a collective whole transcends human partition. The immortal gods by definition feel no fear at that stark vision; only Achilles among mortals can find pleasure in it because he has no fear of his imminent death. It has seemed significant to some that Achilles and others in the poem fail to mention individual scenes on the shield. But such specificity is rarely the case with artifacts or descriptions of landscapes in Homer. Unlike Aeneas responding to sculpture on Juno's temple at Carthage, frieze by frieze, characters in the Iliad and Odyssey tend to react to objects synoptically, not piecemeal.37 It is just this synoptic taking in- the life-affirming and the death-dealing human enterprises cast in the frame of Olympian distance-that moves the Myrmidons and Achilles at the beginning of Book 19. It is a vision-for all its partial images of joy, renewal, and festival--of Gorgon-like terror, as the narrator

36 Cf. Scully (note 10) 124-127. In Euripides' depiction of Achilles' shield, he com- plements Homeric components with the conventionally horrific image of the Gorgon's head, but it is according to Euripides the images of sun and constellations which cause Hektor to panic (cf. Electra 468-469).

37 For descriptions of art in Iliad, see Becker (note 1) 51-77, and bibliography therein; on Od. 19.226-231, see Lynn-George (note 10) 188-189. Odysseus' reference to the city's twins harbors, its &yopd, and its city walls in his wonder at seeing Scheria from afar (Od. 7.43--45) is exceptional in this regard, but even this is a synoptic vision; see Scully (note 10) 2-3 and 45-47.



42 Stephen Scully

implies: death-dealing, the "thingness" of slaughter.38 Nor is this a vision for Achilles to savour when his spirit calms. In Book 19 in a speech over the corpse of Patroklos and before the elders, Achilles acknowledges with serenity an awareness of his own impending death, claiming in addition that his ties to his father Peleus are now severed, and his hope of having a protective link to his son Neoptolemos is now lost with the death of Patroklos (19.319-333). Only now in his indifference to past and future is Achilles in a position to be nourished with ambrosia and find pleasure in an image of the human world so circum- stanced.39

If in Homer's mind the shield is round and Hephaistos' composition consists of concentric circles which ever expand outward to the limit of River Ocean, the rotary pattern of expanding bands implies, on the one hand, an ordered boundedness of discrete scenes. Even within the shield, the god renders an image of man seeking to discover limit, as both parties in a litigation scene turn to an arbitrator to get a "limit" (nripap, 18.501). One party wishes the limit of murder to be the pay- ment of ransom, while the other wants the limit to be blood-revenge.40 The litigating parties search for closure within the sacred circle of the d(yopd (18.504) where the elders sit and listen, a group which is itself surrounded by a circle of townspeople eager to influence the verdict. Yet the narrative in this scene, as in all the other scenes on the shield,

38 Whitman (note 4) 206 comments: "When he first receives [the shield], Achilles sees only the flash of its brightness, but before the Iliad is over, he lives up to the fullness of its classic implications-passion, order, and the changeless inevitability of the world as it is." There is very little in the text to suggest that Achilles does not "live up to" these implications from the time he first examines the shield so carefully. Compare Lynn- George's elegant perception of the shield as "a monument insistently loud with the music of mortality" (note 10) 187. Lynn-George argues that the art of the shield, "like the Iliad, does not so much preserve the living from destruction as, rather, indefinitely suspend and sustain the epic struggle in the certainty of destruction." This state of indeterminism con- firms a sense of inevitable destruction while the medium of epic produces a sense of "the impossible possibility of survival in art" (pp. 188-189; cf. 180-183, 210 and 220-227).

39 Like Achilles, Aeneas in Vergil's Aeneid takes pleasure in Vulcan's arms (8.730; cf. 8.617 and 619), and like Achilles he examines all the pieces with great care (cf. 8.618-619), but unlike Achilles he has little comprehension of the "text of the shield which is beyond telling" (clipei non enarrabile textum, 8.625; cf. 8.729-730). All characters in the Iliad, unlike those in Vergil, comprehend fully Hephaistos' text, I believe.

40 For the difficulty of interpretation of this scene, see R. Westbrook, "The Trial Scene in the Iliad," HSCP 94 (1992) 53-76, whose analysis I follow for the most part. For the relation of this scene to Ajax's speech in Book 9, see Andersen (note 2).




remains unresolved.41 As a critic has poignantly noted recently, "the logic of this story-within-a-story spills over into the logic of the story of Achilles," which reaches its limit in Book 24; and Homer's story, in expanding circles, spills over to those who hear the poem: "That is, the Iliad need not end where the linear narrative ends, to the extent that the pictures on the Shield of Achilles have an opening onto a virtual present, thus making the intent of the Iliad open-ended."42

The aspect of the shield most terrifying for mortals, however, is less this inconclusiveness of action than the sight of the separate bands as part of a unified whole. That synoptic and inhuman perspective breaks the sense of the special status of the human by placing it within the context of a larger cosmos and Zeus' will. In the early stages of the Iliad mortals look for a peaceful conclusion to the war, first in the form of the Akhaian army rushing to their ships to return home, then by for- mal truce and single combat between Paris and Menelaos, the victor to take Helen and spare Troy. It is the will of the gods, however, and particularly of Zeus that the war press on to its bitter end. Baiting his wife, he asks if "it is dear and sweet to all the gods" that friendship prevail, or evil war and grim warfare (4.15-17). The sweetness whih Zeus finds ultimately in the destruction of Troy, even as he loves the city dearly, stems less from a desire to punish the city for its failings-and they are many-than from an affirmation, by contrast, of the gods' free- dom from change, destruction, and death.43

Absent from much of the battle description in Books 20 and 21, Achilles' new armor and shield come back into the story as the Greek hero closes in on Hektor. The defender of Troy, after standing firm and re-affirming his resolve through inner debate, is emboldened to hold his ground and "see to which one the Olympian grants the glory" (22.130).44 Yet at the sight of Achilles shaking his father's ash spear,

41 Cf. Lynn-George (note 10) 180-190; Heffernan (note 6) 16-21. 42 "The Shield of Achilles: Ends of the Iliad and Beginnings of the Polis," in New

Light on a Dark Age, ed. S. Langdon, (Columbia, Missouri 1997) 203 and 195, respectively.

43 Cf. Sheila Murnaghan, "Equal Honor and Future Glory: the Plan of Zeus in the Iliad," in Classical Closure: Reading the End in Greek and Latin Literature, ed. D. Roberts et al., (Princeton 1997) 24. For complexities and contradictions in the poux of Zeus in the poem, see J. V. Morrison, "Kerostasia, the Dictates of Fate, and the Will of Zeus in the Iliad," Arethusa 30 (1997) 273-296, esp. 291-294.

44 22.99-130. In imagining the secret whispers between a young man and maiden, Hektor uses a word not found elsewhere in the poem except for the mention of maidens on Achilles' shield; there is no room at war-ravaged Troy, apparently, for rtapOFvot



44 Stephen Scully

his bronze armor gleaming like the rays of a blazing fire or the rising sun (22.131-135), Hektor's resolve evaporates and he takes flight (22.134-137):

1i niup o V ai;o vo, ii iou o &vt6ovto;.

"Eicropa 8', 60; FvdqoEv, GeV O x pPo, oRi;8' i'p' C' CT 7kT

aOt Ovctv, 6TccGo& 8irnaC ;ince, fi & (pooo;S"

The bronze that closed about him was blazing like the rays of burning fire or of the sun rising. Fear seized Hektor, when he perceived. No longer did he dare stand his ground there but left the gates behind and fled, frightened.

Hektor's flight and Myrmidon fright are the only two passages in the Iliad where the sight of arms instills terror.45 While both the Myrmi- dons and Hektor are seized by fear ("-' 4rp6gog;, this phrase only at 19.14 and 22.136), in the first passage no one of the Myrmidons dared (o?{6 rt; X"Irl) to look straight on the arms but trembled while in the second Hektor, like Achilles, looks upon the bronze (shield) (d;g v6ri- oev) but loses courage (oi6' 8p' -9r' ~XTrl) and takes flight.46 If glare is not mentioned in the case of the Myrmidons, it certainly contributes to the terrifying aspect of Achilles' armor in Book 22, but glare alone can-

except in Hektor's reminiscences of a world long past (compare 22.127-128 and 18.567 and 593).

45 Parts of phrases or parallel phrases like those in 22.136-137 are found elsewhere but nowhere in this combination. iFe Xp6gooq appears twice before the bucolic diaresis (10.25 and 18.247; cf. 6.137); eXlv is used once with tp6iog; (5.862). oi)8 rt; itgF-rl after the bucolic diaresis is common;

oit' iap' irt' F'rb is used once again, also with Hektor in the face of Achilles, but to different effect (20.421). On the phrasing of these lines, see Richardson (note 12) ad 22.136-138; on Hektor's flight and bravery here, see Schade- waldt (note 1) 303-306.

46 If iErpeaav at 19.15 were translated as "tremble and run away," then the parallel is even stronger. Shannon (note 5) argues that the "bronze" of 22.134 refers exclusively to Achilles' spearhead and it is that which causes Hektor to flee (p. 81). Two passages in particular point against this view, I believe: first, the parallel between 19.14-15 and 22.134-137; second the parallel between

~XaXl ix 6sroEro (22.134) and xaXCb 'j AagE

at 22.32 where bronze clearly refers to the armor. Perhaps it is not a coincidence that this bronze shines like the rising sun and Thetis brought Achilles his arms at dawn (cf. 19.1-2). Also, "Fully armed, Achilles went forth, allshining in his armor like the beam- ing sun Hyperion" (19.397-398). See further Carrol Moulton, Similes in the Homeric Poems = Hypomnemata 49 (G6ttingen 1977) 108.




not explain Hektor's fear and flight. The outer glare of armor, like Achilles' eyes mentioned repeatedly in Book 19, evokes the hero's divine brilliance. Three books, and over 1500 lines of hexameter, separate these two passages. Some might suggest that formulaic parallels cast over such a wide canvas should be ignored as coincidence,47 but I believe that it is within the capacity of Homeric artistry for these parallel formulae, like an extended ring composition in the story of Achilles' return to battle, to encompass a broad narrative span, linking the moment when Hephaistos' arms are brought down from Olympus and the culminating duel of the poem. The Myrmidons' terror provides the clue for understanding Hektor's flight, the first instance a pattern of action repeated in a major key in the second. In neither case is the gleam of armor sufficient explanation of this flight. Rather than see the shield as depicting a "world which [the Greeks and Trojans] have left behind and to which they hope to return,"48 as one critic sees it, I suggest that the shield depicts a vision which unnerves even the most reso- lute of human heroes.

Robert Rabel also believes that Hektor reads the shield, but in a different sense. Noting verbal parallels between descriptions of scenes on the shield and phrases in Hektor's soliloquy, Rabel argues that Hektor's meditations are triggered by those scenes. In particular, it is proposed, Hektor thinks of dividing up the city spoils (22.120-121) because Hep- haistos sculpted such a discussion of truce (18.511-512), and later in a poignant last-minute reverie, Hektor imagines the love-talk between a young man and a maiden because of a war-like crane-dance of young men and maidens in a public choral space depicted on the shield (18.593-606).49 Intriguing as the idea is, it does not respond fully to Hektor's sudden loss of nerve after the soliloquy. I suspect, rather, that the armor, exemplified especially in the shield, evokes in Hektor a sense of godhead made present. In their collectivity the scenes on the shield offer a "literary" version of this presence, Gorgon-like in its effect upon humankind.

In the final moments before Hektor's death the shield reenters the narrative with lines which echo Achilles' arming scene (22.312-316):

47 For recents words of caution regarding overreading formulaic parallels, see Charles Beye, Ancient Epic Poetry: Homer, Apollonius, Virgil (Ithaca 1993) 19.

48 Taplin (note 20) 205. 49 See Rabel (note 5) 191-194.



46 Stephen Scully

6pOtrI0 68' 'Axtx 6;, v-Eo; 68' attC(Too 0Igbv

dypiou, rp6o(e6v 8 odlTKog oTrpvoto K(XdlAFev KaXov 8xatdlaov, K pvut 8' rCnveI)E (pOletvi erpactpdXlo

- Kaxai &, neptooeiovto 6C Etpat Xp~aeat, &"Hy(atorTo; i'etl 6qpov &At(pi Oagletd;. Achilles rushed; in his spirit he was full of a savage strength; the shield, beautiful and elaborately worked, covered his

chest in front; he nodded with the glittering helmet with its four horns; and beautiful about it waved the golden horse-

hair plumes that Hephaistos had set thick about the crest.

Again, the collocation of savagery within divine dress. From reference to the crest of Hephaistos' helmet, the narrative turns to simile (22.317-321):

oto; 6 ' dorip etot Ytet' ourpiot vUrt(t ; &IooXy aitoepog, ; KAAXXtorog ;v opXavo ioarxt 9otrip,

nhXEv ettepii (ppov&ov KaKObv'B"Eiropt &c0, eicop6cov Xp6da KaX6v, n rOl ei~ete lcdatoa.

As a star moves among the stars in the night's darkening, the evening star, the most beautiful star which stands in the heavens, such was the gleam from the sharp point of Achilles' spear which he wielded in his right hand as he devised evil for godlike Hektor, eyeing the beautiful flesh where it might especially yield.

The beauty of the flesh seems to be in the eye of the beholder as he anticipates the thrust of his spear consummating a long-held rage, but the sudden expansiveness and feeling of serenity in the likeness of that spear point to the most beautiful evening star moving through a distant sky lifts our eye from Achilles' pressing ill-will to an unexpected remove.50 Since Achilles' reentry into battle, we have come to associate

50 Cf. Carrol Moulton, "Similes in the Iliad," Hermes 102 (1974) 392-394 and (note 46) 76-86; cf. Richardson (note 12) ad 22.317-321.




just this synergism of beauty and violence, of serenity and brutality, with the hero's temperament. His combination of ruthlessness and calm when facing his own death, and his chilling sense of fellowship with Lykaon whom he is about to kill support the point (cf. esp. 21.97-113). The image of the evening star bringing on night befits Hektor's movement towards death, but it ultimately tells us more about Achilles, his many affinities with the stars in Books 18-22, and the con- cordance between him and Hephaistos' sculptures on the shield. Like the shield, the beautiful evening star seems strangely removed from the violent human drama towards which the poem has been moving.-' But in both shield and evening star, the familiar and the beautiful turn unfa- miliar, or rather familiar in a trembling perspective, both instruments of death in an image of an impersonal cosmos that only Achilles, among mortals, can gaze upon with pleasure.52

BOSTON UNIVERSITY

51 Cf. Whitman (note 4) 143-144. 521 wish to thank the audiences at Brown University, Swarthmore College, and the

American Academy in Rome where different versions of this paper were presented, as well as Andrew Becker, Michael Lynn-George, Charles Segal, Laura Slatkin, Irene Tay- lor, David Weiss, and the referee of this journal for their many helpful comments and sug- gestions regarding this paper.



scully - reading the shield of achilles

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