science illustrated australia - issue 32 2014.pdf

8/10/2019 science illustrated australia - issue 32 2014.pdf

1/84ISSUE #SCIENCEILLUSTRAT

DAINTREE RAINFORESThe jewel in Australias crown

STORING CARBONCan it work? Can buryingCO

2save the world?

BODY ENERGYHow you can poweryour next smartphone

THE SOL R SYSTEMS

SE RET

PL NETS

MEET

SEDNA

ERIS

CERES

ND M N

MORE!

Beyond the 8 we know,dozens of worlds could be hiding

THE

RE L

RE SON

WE H D TO

DEMOTE

PLUTO

TWOYEARSON MARSCuriosity confirms: thiswill be our second home

ARE YOU ANEANDERTHAL?

Our nearest relativescould be a lot nearerthan you think!

OLDPLAGUES

RETURNWe thought wead them beatbut do we?


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The universality of science and the importance of inquisitive

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three-coin series, showcasing:

Crystallography Sir William Lawrence Bragg, 1912)

The pacemaker Dr Mark C Lidwill, 1926)

Penicillin Howard Florey, 1939)

IVF embryo freezing Professor Carl Wood, 1983)

Spray-on skin for burns victims Professor Fiona Wood, 1999)

This exquisite piece is a great reminder of the importance

of having big ideas and even bigger dreams.

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umans are

responsible for

some pretty terrible

things (as well as

some pretty great things)

but most of the atrocities

we feel properly bad

about - the genocides, the

slavery, the epic wars - are at least perpetrated

against our own species. And as for all those

animals we kill, eat, displace and drive

extinct... at least they dont really KNOW whats

happening to them, right?

Yet theres mounting evidence that not too

long ago - in geological terms anyway - we

systematically drove another intelligent species

to extinction: the Neanderthal.

As more fossils are uncovered, it seems

that in the last million or so years, there were

several species of intelligent human-like

animals. Modern humans are descended from

a plains-dwelling ancestor probably originating

from Africa. Neanderthals are different -

squatter, more physically powerful, but less

sophisticated in their tool-using, especially

when it comes to weapons. Their hunting

methods too, were possibly less effective than

ours, and that might have spelled their doom.

As humans moved up into Europe, they

followed an earlier migratory wave of

Neanderthal. Lets be clear - the difference

between humans and Neanderthal is pretty

minimal, sort of l ike the difference between

horses and donkeys. We could, and probably

did, breed with them. But we also forced them

out of their hunting grounds, drove them to the

sea, and eventually killed them.

Maybe we didnt do it in the same way we

practice genocide today. Maybe Neanderthals

simply slunk away whenever humans turned

up, and eventually there were too many humans

for the Neanderthal communities to survive.

But human nature hasnt changed much in

thousands of years. I suspect we did hunt them

down. I think some of our earliest true wars

would have been with Neanderthal tribes. Lithe

humans going up against a big, powerful but

sadly dumber enemy. Overwhelming them with

force of numbers or with clever traps.

And its possible the Neanderthals werent

our only victims. The evidence isnt in yet, but

its likely other species of hominid existed in

places like China or South East Asia, and we

out-competed them as well.

Perhaps there simply isnt room on a planet

as small as Earth for more than one intelligent,

technological species. It certainly seems strange

that humans are the only smart animals, since

for almost every other kind of animal you can

think of, there are many different species.

The explanation is grim, but obvious: there

were, and we killed them. Remember, most of

human history comes before we thought up the

concept of history. Our current civilisation only

goes back 2000-odd years. Then add another

2500 years for the Egyptians, and maybe go all

the way back to 10,000 BC for the founding of

Jericho and a few other settlements. But thats

only 12,000 years. The modern human, as a

species, could be as much as a million years old.

Nearly 90% of our past could still be waiting forus to discover or decipher.

Its a past populated by people who, if

they were born today, would be physically

indistinguishable from us (give or take

some body hair). It will be fascinating to see

what other truths - pleasant and disturbing -

archaeologists uncover in the years ahead.

Anthony Fordham

Twitter: @sci_illustrated

Facebook: facebook.com/ScienceIllustratedAus

Things we learned in this issue+The Curiosity rover has spent TWO

YEARS ON MARSand made an incredible

number of discoveries already.

+The Solar System has MAYBE 900 MORE

PLANETSthan we originally thought.

+The TREE LOBSTERShave survived

because birds mistook them for sticks!

+If we harness BODY ENERGYwe can

charge our phones just by walking around.

Issue #32 (2nd October 2014)

EDITORIAL

EditorAnthony Fordham

[email protected]

DESIGN

Group Art DirectorKristian Hagen

Art DirectorMalcolm Campbell

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Circulation Director Carole Jones

INTERNATIONAL EDITION

Editor-in-Chief Sebastian Relster

International EditorLotte Juul Nielsen

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MAGAZINES

International Licensing irector

Amy ManginoArt DirectorHanne Bo

Picture EditorsAllan Bagges,

Lisbeth Brnnich, Peter Eberhardt

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THE SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED CREDO

We share with our readers a fascination

with science, technology, nature, culture

and archaeology, and believe that through

education about our past, present and future,

we can make the world a better place.

E ITORS LETTER

The Neanderthal

Our Greatest Crime?

scienceillustrated.com.au 3
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4/84

ONT NTS

SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED AUSTRALIAN EDITION

PUBLISHED 2ND OCTOBER 2014

30NEANDERTHALS

Our extinct cousins came off second-best inthe battle for Earth. But were we really to

blame for their demise?

60OLD PLAGUES RETURN

If diseases like plague, smallpox, TB and

other historical killers came back, would

modern humans be able to withstand them?

ISSUE#32

24COVER STORY SECRET PLANETS

If youre still worried about Pluto

getting demoted, take heart: there

could be hundreds of undiscovered

planets in the Solar System...

4 SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED


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REGULARS

6

MEGAPIXELVolcanic lightning totally goes off!

8

EXTREME REMOTE

COMMUNITIESCould you live in genuine isolation?

1

SCIENCE UPDATEThe latest news and developments in

science!

18

ASK USWould getting painted gold kill you?

2

TREE LOBSTERLong thought extinct, this giant stick

insect survived - by looking like a stick.

8

TRIVIANow with more solar car supposition!

82

BIODIVERSITYA blue butterfly... that isnt really blue

46TWO YEARS ON MARS

The Curiosity rover has already madeamazing discoveries, and taken more selfies

than any other space robot in history...

54CARBON SEQUESTER

While we wait for renewable energytechnologies to become economical, will

storing carbon dioxide stave off disaster?

68DAINTREE RAINFOREST

One of Australias most remarkable

wildernesses is just a few hours drive

from Cairns. Heres why you should go.

76BODY ENERGY

Bored with having to plug your phone in to

charge every day? Soon you could generate

electricity - with your regular body movements.

SU SCRI E

NOW! 62Get Australian ScienceIllustrated delivered toyour door and save $$$!



6/84


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8/84 SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

GLOBAL EXTREMES TRISTAN DA CUNHA

The most remote

community

to the closest neighbour. That s the concept of

"local" for the 263 inhabitants of the South

Atlantic island of Tristan da Cunha, making theircommunity the most remote on Earth. The

nearest inhabited land, the island of Saint

Helena, is located 2,430 km to the north, or the

same as the distance between Moscow and

Amsterdam. The closest mainland is South

Africa, 2,800 km to the east.

Tristan da Cunha forms part of an archipelago

under British rule including a total of six islands.

The 98 km island mainly consists of a fertile

stratovolcano rising 2,062 m above the ocean

surface. The only flat area is located towards

the north-west, where you will find the

islanders homes in the village of Edinburgh.The Tristans go all the way back to 1816.

Napoleon was placed under house arrest on

the island of Saint Helena, and the British

feared that France would use other Atlantic

islands to launch an attack. So, the UK

stationed a corporal and his family on Tristan

da Cunha. Until 1908, the island experienced

limited immigration. Today, the population lives

by agriculture, fishery, and the sale of coins.

S UT

AMERICA

TRISTAN DA CUNHA IS A DOT IN THE OCEAN

Seven families All

Tristans descend from six

women and eight men, so

there are only seven family

names on the island: Glass,

Green, Hagan, Lavarello,

Repetto, Rogers, and Swain.

Volcanic refugees for1.5 years: In 1961, thevolcano of the island erupt-

ed, and the entire

population was evacuated

to England. Most chose to

return 18 months later.

Successful community:There is no unemployment

on Tristan da Cunha. People

are busy running for instance

a shop, a cafe, a school, and

two churches. Once a year,

a ship with supplies and mail

arrives from Saint Helena.

Animals and plants:The Tristans breed cattle and

chickens and they grow

potatoes in small gardens.

The island is also endemic

to several wild animal

species such as the

Tristan albatross.

2,430 km

By Bjrn Bojesen. Photo: Getty Images, Alamy/Imageselect, NASA, CERN

Tristan da Cunha

S UT

AFRICA


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9

The most remotebat speciesis the Hawaiian Lasiuruscinereus semotus,which lives 4,000 kmfrom its closest relativein North America.

The most remotetree was the Tnrtree of the SaharaDesert, located 400 kmfrom other trees, untila car struck and killedit in 1973.

The most remoteland mass is theBouvet Island territoryof Norway, 1,642 kmfrom the island ofGough and 1,700 km

from Antarctica.

The UK stationed CorporalWilliam Glass and his family in 1816.

Over the years, more men arrived,

and so, a whaler fetched five women

from Saint Helena. All islanders

descend from these five women

and Mrs Glass.

The most remoteprobe is the Voyager1, which has moved19 billion km away fromEarth since 1977 and

has now left ourSolar System.

OTHER REMOTE RECORDS

The 5 other islandsName Size Inhabitants Distance

1.Gough Island 65 km 6* 400 km

2.Inaccessible Island 14 km 0 45 km

3.Nightingale Island 2.6 km 0 35 km4.Middle Island 0.2 km 0 34 km

5.Stoltenhoff Island 0.14 km 0 33 km

2

5

3

4

* No residents, but the weather station is manned by around 6 people.

Tristan da Cunha

1


10/84

SCIENCE UPDATE


Editor: Rasmus Palludan

LATEST NEWS AND DISCOVERIES

One of the worlds most sophisticated deep sea

submarines, Nereus, has disappeared. The sub is believed

to have imploded at a depth of 10 km due to high pressure.

SUPER S TELLITES

BECOME E RTHS

GU RDI N NGELS

A new fleet of satellites will monitor Earth and protect it against threats.

TECHNOLOGY693 km above Earth, you willfind the Sentinel-1A satellite, which takes

extremely detailed photos of our planet,

using a 12-m-long radar antenna. At thispoint, the satellite has already captured

melting glaciers and flooding.

The 2.3 tonne satellite was launched on

3 April 2014, and that is only the beginning

of what ESA has named the most

extensive observation programme ever

focusing on the surface of the Earth.

Approaching 2020, a total of five Sentinel

missions will be initiated. The satellites will

monitor our planet and provide data and

high-resolution radar images of anything

from pollution, oceans, landscape changes,

and flooding to earthquakes.In 2016, the Sentinel-1A will be followed

by a twin, the Sentinel-1B. Together, the two

of them are capable of collecting data from

anywhere on Earth within a period of six

days. The special radar aerial of the

satellites enables them to take photographsof Earth when it is cloudy or even dark.

These qualities come in handy in connection

with emergencies such

as flooding, when relief

agencies need fast

access to data. The

future Sentinel

satellites will all be

assigned a set of

unique tasks.

Calving ice, Antarctica

Level differences, Antarctica

Dead 115-year-oldreveals limit of lifePHYSIOLOGYIn 2005, Hendrikje van Andel-

Schipper of the Netherlands passed away atthe age of 115. Scientists have studied her

body and discovered a possible connection

between the number of stem cells and age.

The woman was running out of stem cells.

Approximately two thirds of the white blood

cells she had left originated from just two

blood stem cells. That is very few, as we are

born with around 20,000 blood stem cells

and typically, 1,000 stem cells are

constantly producing vital white blood cells.

Studies of the woman

reveal that stem cells may

determine how old we get.

WRIST B ND DJUSTS

BODY TEMPERATUREThe Wristify wrist band decreases or

increases your body temperature at the

back of the wrist. The new temperature

spreads to the rest of the body, producing a

psychological effect: People feel warmer or

cooler than they really are.

ESA,

CLAUSLUNAU

WRISTIFY

FIORELLIETAL.

The Sentinel-1A has

already sent the firstdetailed images of ice and

mountains in Antarctica.


11/84scienceillustrated.com.au 11

1.Radar sendselectromagnetic signals

to and from Earth.

2.The Sentinel-1A transfersimages to the GEO satellittes.

3.The GEO satellitestransmit the images

to a radar station

on Earth at a speed

of 2 gigabits

per second.

Radar sees in the dark

The satellite takes clear images, even if Earth is

wrapped in clouds or darkness. The images are

taken with a 12-m-long radar that sends

electromagnetic signals towards Earth from

where they are reflected back to the satellite.

Photographing sea ice by thepoles.

Monitoring oceans and lakesto spot oil spills, etc.

Photographing disaster areasto get a general idea of thesituation.

Mapping out land surfaces,focusing on shifts inconnection with earthquakes,

volcanic eruptions, etc.

Monitoring city infrastructure.

SENTINEL 1AS

TASKS:Radar beam

ARCHAEOLOGYIn a grassyBronze Age burial site in

Northern Israel, workmen

installing a gas pipe found a

sarcophagus, complete withan approximately 3.300-year-

old skeleton of an adult man

and his golden seal.

The lid of the sarcophagus is

made of clay and shaped like a

human being, including a life-

like impression of a face with

hair, ears, and hands folded

across the chest.

The seal is the shape of the

holy Egyptian scarab beetle.

Attached to a finger ring, it

includes the symbol of Pharaoh

Seti I, who ruled Egypt from

1304 to 1290 BC and

conquered the region of Israel,in which the sarcophagus was

excavated. According to one

theory, the man in the

sarcophagus was a local, who

had been hired to be an

Egyptian government official.

He could also have been an

imposter, who copied

Egyptian burial rites. Scientists

believe he was an Israeli with

Egyptian relations.

Under a rare sarcophagus lid adorned with a human face, there were a wealth

of artefacts such as a knife, animal bones, and pottery.

WORKMEN FIND TOMB

ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY

12-m-longradar aerial

10-m-longsolar panel

GEO satellite

GEO satellite


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A 50-million-year-old bird fossilhas been discovered in Wyoming, USA. Named Eocypselus

rowei, the bird is believed to be an extinct cousin of modern humming birds and apodiformes.

ASTEROIDS COULD DESTROY CITIESGEOLOGYScientists have made a list of the

number of asteroids that hit Earth in 2000-

2013. A total of 26 times, our world wasstruck by violent explosions, which were

caused by asteroids.

The count demonstrates that asteroid

impacts are not rare, but it also shows us how

often we should expect asteroid impacts

that could ruin entire cities. According to the

scientists, an impact of this type takes place

every 100 years. The latest asteroid of this

force hit the Russian city of Tunguska in

1908. The asteroid had a 45 m diameter andan explosive energy of 5 megatonnes

(corresponding to 5,000 kilotonnes).

The impacts of the report ranked between

1 and 600 kilotonnes, as measured by a

global network of sensors. In comparison,

the Hiroshima nuclear bomb of 1945 had an

explosive power of 15 kilotonnes.

LOC L FOC L POINT

500 m from Nishino-shima Japan

A fuming volcanic island has risen out of the Pacific Ocean about

1,000 km south of the Japanese capital of Tokyo. The volcanic

island "vomited" magma, until after months of slow approaches

fusing with the nearby island of Nishino-shima. The new island

is approximately 1000 metres long and 60 metres

high at its most elevated point.

olcanic island doubled

SCIENTISTS REVEAL

KILLER FLY DNA

10,000 people die annually inAfrica, infected with sleeping

sickness by tsetse flies. Now,

scientists on the verge of

developing a cure for the

disease. After 10 years of work,

they have managed to sequence

the killer flys genome. The

scientists have already

identified genes in the fly that

can cripple it. The knowledge

can be used to manufacture

new types of insecticides.

Nishino-shima

Nishino-shima

Volcanic island

Volcanic island

BEFORE

AFTER

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JAPANC

OASTGUARD

B612FOUNDATION


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SOLAR POWERED

PLANE TRAVELS

ROUND THE WORLD

TECHNOLOGYIn March 2015,the Solar Impulse 2 solar cell

plane will take off for a 35,000

km mission around the world

without consuming as much as

one droplet of fuel. More than

17,000 solar cells mounted onthe aircraft wings, which are

bigger than those of a jumbo

jet, will supply the energy

required for the flight.

The Solar Impulse 2 is made

of super strong and ultralight

carbon fibre composites with a

surface of integrated solar

panels which will supply all the

energy for four propeller

engines. The energy is stored

in lithium batteries, allowing

the aircraft to remain in the air

around the clock.

The solar plane was already

introduced in April 2014 and is

the successor of the SolarImpulse, which took off for the

first time in 2010. The

predecessor has completed

several missions, including one

from San Francisco to New York.

The man behind the plane is

engineer Bertrand Piccard. He

hopes that the winged solar

aircraft can inspire other solar

powered planes.

Solar cells supply energy 24/7.

Flying solar cell is ultralightThe plane body is made of ultralight carbon fibre,

consuming as little energy as possible. The top of the

plane is covered in 17,000+ solar cells, which supply

all the energy.

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bewatchedlater.

Pilots

2 (plus a supportteam of 60 peopleon the ground).

Fuel consumption:0 litres.

Weight:2,300 kg(about the same asa mid-sized car)

Top speed:140 km/h.

Average speed

70 km/h.

Cruising altitude

8,500 m in daylight,1,500 m at night.

Length of flight:35,000 km.

Duration of flight:10 laps lasting atotal of 500 hours.

Carbon fibrewings and bodyensure lowweight.

Four 17.4 hpengines

3.8 squaremetre cockpit

Wing span of70 m (more than a

jumbo jet).

17,248 solar cells coveran area of 269.5 square me-tres. The energy isstored in lithium batteriesweighing 633 kg.

MONASTERY SEALEXCAVATEDARCHAEOLOGYIn the BayitVeGan neighbourhood of Jerusalem,

archaeologists have found an

800-year-old seal from the Saint

Sabas Monastery.Sabas was a saint and one of the

most influential leaders of the

Byzantine period.

The seal provides historians with

new knowledge about the Bayit

VeGan neighbourhood. It was

found in a farming area, possibly

the same area that the monastery

bought in 1163-64, but whose

location was unknown.

The face of the seal depicts a saint

dressed in a frock and holding a cross

in his right hand.

FIO

RELLIETAL.

SOLARIMPULSE

BY THE NUMBERS


SCIENCE UPDATE

years-old: The age of an ice core that has been extracted in

central Antarctica. The ancient ice core will provide scientists

with the most detailed local ancient climate data so far.


17/84

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18/84

SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

HE ANSWERSO LIFESITTLE MYSTERIES

EDITOR:Anne Lykke

ow do astronautskeep healthy?

ROOM FOR EXERCISE

With an interior the volume two

Boeing 747s, the ISS can fit in

exercise, work, and

leisure activities.

SOYUZ SPACE CAPSULE

In case of severe disease or

accidents, the Soyuz space

capsule can bring astronauts

back to Earth in a few hours.

TREADMILL

The astronaut wears a safety harness, including

rubber bands, to hold him against the sur face.

Inside the ISS, the astronauts orbit Earth

in a state of weightlessness, and if theirstay lasts for weeks or months, keeping

fit is a specific challenge. The human body

is used to the gravity on Earth, and

without this effect, muscles and

bones will weaken fast. After just six

months in space, up to 15 % of the muscle

mass and up to 10 % of the bone mass

will disappear. Consequently, special

exercise equipment is required aboard the

station. The astronauts exercise in atleast three different ways, using

treadmills, exercise bikes, and a versatile

exercise bench, which can be utilised to

strengthen several different groups of

muscles. Although astronauts on long

missions exercise two hours a day, they

will still lose muscle and bone mass, but

not as much as without exercise.

If an astronaut is very unlucky and needs

medical treatment, at least one of the

astronauts on every mission ISS will have

high-level first aid and medication training

as the flight doctor. Moreover, the space

station is stocked with many types of

medication, equipment for infection

testing of saliva and blood, plus a heart

defibrillator. A sophisticated ISS monitoringsystem keeps an eye on the quality of the

air and sounds the alarm if toxic gasses or

unhealthy microbes are detected. And as a

matter of standard procedure, the staff

tests the water quality and whether there

are bacteria on any surfaces inside the

station. In the longer term, the astronauts

health may be affected by cosmic

radiation, which can cause a slightly

increased risk of developing cancer and

damage to the nervous system.

Space capsule Service module Control module Air lock anddocking

Laboratory

Control roomControl room and storageSleeping quarters

NASA,

CLAUSLUNAU

Sleepingquarters


19/84


WHI H DRUG

IS THE MOST

ADDICTIVE?

TOP5

WHY DOES CO

HEAT UP EARTH?

Heroin is the most

addictive drug, physically

and mentally.

EXERCISE BENCHVacuum cylinders can be

adjusted to provide a resistance

corresponding to weights of up

to 270 kg. The exercise bench

can be used in several ways,

exercising all big muscles.

WHAT DETERMINES BREAST SIZE?According to a US study from 2012, at least seven

genes determine the size of breasts, but twin

studies indicate that the genes can only

explain 56 % of breast size differences.

Another important factor is the womans

weight. If she gains weight, some of

the extra kilos will end up in the breast

tissue, providing her with bigger

breasts. Moreover, hormones such as

oestrogen play an important role.

Mental addiction Heroin 3.0

2 Cocaine 2.8

3 Nicotine 2.6

4 Alcohol 1.9

5 Hashish 1.7

Physical addiction Heroine 3.0

2 Nicotine 1.8

3 lcohol 1.6

4 Cocaine 1.3

5 Hashish 0.8

Laboratory and docking

CO2, also known as carbon

dioxide, is a so-called green-

house gas, as it retains heat.When the sunlight hits Earth,

Earth emits thermal energy

into space in the form of infra-

red radiation - which is just

electromagnetic radiation

with a lower frequency than

the light absorbed. At the low-

er frequencies, greenhouse

gasses absorb a major part of

the radiation energy, and the

thermal energy is sent backto Earth. So, heat remains.

Different greenhouse

gasses do not equally absorb

radiation energy in the

infrared spectrum. For

instance, methane is much

more efficient at holding

heat than carbon dioxide.

Addiction can be measured

physically, as the body

adapts to the drug, andmentally, as it provides

well-being and satisfaction.

Addiction is rated on a scale

from zero to three.

G S TYPE

GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL GWP IN 20 YRS

Methane (natural gas) 86

Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) 268

Carbon tetrafluoride coolant) 4,950

Without thegreenhouse effect,

the temperate zoneswould have eternal

winters

Carbon dioxide always

boasts a GWP of 1. Hence,

the GWP of a gas indicates

how much more heat the

gas absorbs over a period

of time compared to CO2

.

GREENHOUSE GASSES WORSE THAN CO2

CO2

is a very mild greenhouse gas compared to otherssuch as natural gas, coolants, and laughing gas.

Sleeping quartersand living room

THINKSTOCK

SHUTTERSTOCK

THINKSTOCK


20/84



ASK US id you knowthat some viruses attack

bacteria and live inside them? Such a

virus is called abacteriophage the

Latin word for bacterium eater

HOW THINGS WORK

Is an MRI scan dangerous

No, only if the

patient has metal in his body. If so, the magnet willpull at the metal, and that could be dangerous.

Even if we leave aside gas giants (which

are made of clouds!), any planet big

enough to hold an atmosphere can formclouds. But the clouds do not necessarily

consist of water droplets like on our

planet. Instead, they could be made up of

sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia,ammonium hydrosulphide, or methane.

Large moons can also have clouds.

Saturns Titan, has a weather system with

clouds. According to new scientific

studies, planets elsewhere in the galaxy

also have clouds. In 2013, astronomers

found signs that the big, hot planet

Kepler-7 b - which is 1,000+ light years

away - has clouds made of silicon

compounds, so it is raining minerals.

Mercury has no clouds,

as the planet is not big

enough to maintain

an atmosphere

DO OTHER PLANETS HAVE CLOUDS?

1.A radio transmitter in the key uses the same numbergenerator as the car's receiver, so transmitter and receiver will

always be synchronised. When a code is sent, the number

generator generates a new code, which is stored. The car does

the same thing.

2.When you press the remote control, the radiotransmitter sends the code to the car along with a function

code telling the car to lock, unlock, or open the boot.

3.The car's computer makes sure that its own code is the sameas the one received from the remote control. If so, the locking/

unlocking is carried out. Otherwise, nothing happens. Many

cars today do not even require the drive to press a button. The

car unlocks when it detects the remote nearby.

VENUS:Sulphur dioxide

MARS:Water and carbon dioxide

JUPITER:Ammonia,ammonium hydrosulphide, water

SATURN:Ammonia,ammonium hydrosulphide, water

URANUS:Methane

NEPTUNE:Methane

SOLAR SYSTEM CLOUDS

Radiotransmitter

ARCHIVE

NASA

A remote keyless entry system

involves a radio transmitter with a

reach of 5-20 m. By means of a random

number generator, a chip in the remote control

generates a code of 40 numbers either zeros or

ones. The chip can generate 240 different codes, so in

practice, it will never be the doors of your neighbours

car that unlock. The manufacturer hopes, anyway!

HOW DOES REMOTE

ENTRY WORK?


21/84


Super typhoon Nina, which hit China in 1975, was

the most severe considering both financial and

human costs. The number of people affected was:

The easiest language to learn

is Chinese Mandarin,

according to Norwegian

language professor Rolf Theil

from the University of Oslo.

Mandarin is spoken by

around 70 % of the Chinese

and ranks No. 1, as the

language is regularly

structured and easy to

pronounce. According to Rolf

Theil, Greenlandic is the most

difficult language to learn

due to sentence and word

complexity.

How can insects tolerate extreme cold

without suffering frost damage and dying?

Severe frost is a challenge for living

organisms, as cold weakens the

functionality of enzymes and cell

membranes, and ice crystals damage cells.

Insects feature low heat production and

poor insulation, so insects in cold regionshave developed enzymes and cell

membranes that can function at low

temperatures. Some insects can also avoid

ice formation in their tissue by producing

antifreeze proteins that lower the freezing

point of body fluids. Many freezing-tolerant

insects from the Arctic produce ice outside

cells in their bodies on purpose to protect

the cells' vital parts from ice, which takes

up much more space than water. The ice-

free environment inside cells means that

water tries to get out, making them shrink.

To avoid shrinking damage, the insects

have developed cryoprotectants often

proteins supporting the cell structure.Another cryoprotectant is glycerol, also

known from windscreen washer fluid. It

accumulates inside cells, preventing them

from being emptied of liquid. In some frozen

insects, glycerol may make up to 30 % of

the body fluid.

MOTH LARVAE

of the Gynaephora groen-

landica species can pass the

winter frozen. They tolerate

body temperatures down to

minus 70 degrees C.

I E OLD

SURVIVORS

GALL MIDGE LARVAE

grow inside the stem of the

goldenrod plant and survive

by means of special proteins

that lower the freezing point

of body fluids.

THIS ALASKAN BEETLE

contains antifreeze mole-

cules of sugar and fatty

acids enabling it to live on

even after winter months

of severe frost.

GETTYIMAGES,

K.W

ATERS/UNIVERSITYOFNOTREDAME,

SCANPIX

SHUTTERSTOCK

IN SHORT

Flavour enhancers have no

taste, but they can enhance

the flavour of other foods. The

most well-known is MSG,

also known as mono-

sodium glutamate, which has

traditionally been used in Asia.


22/84



ASK US

IN THE GROUND

Are strawberries nuts? The myth that the red berries are

nuts does not hold water. But they arent really berries either.

Technically, a strawberry is a swollen floral receptacle

carrying the fruits of the plant: the small, brown nuts.

HOW DID STONE AGE PEOPLE

CUT THE UMBILICAL CORD?Scientists most likely theory of how the

umbilical cord was cut is that the new mother

cut the cord using a sharp rock or shell.

However, this is pure guesswork, as no ar-

chaeological or written evidence exists.

The mother could also have

simply bitten the cord

WHAT IS A MINERAL?Three examples of minerals are salt (NaCl), diamond,

which is only made up of carbon, and asbestos

(MgSiO(OH)). Sugar is not a mineral, as it is organic

and full of carbon-hydrogen bonds. And glass

is not a mineral, as its atoms are not organised in a

crystal grid. But water ice (HO) meets all the

requirements of a mineral and falls within the definition.

Salt has a simple

crystal structure.

The crystal grid of salt

is made up of 50 %

sodium atoms and

50 % chlorine atoms

linked by ion bonds.

A MINERAL MUST MEET REQUIREMENTS

It must:

1.be solid

2.be expressible as

a chemical formula

3.have its atoms

organised in a crystal lattice

4.be produced naturally

5.be inorganic (not hold carbon-

hydrogen bonds)

Salt exists in nature and is often extracted from salt

mines, seawater, or salt water lakes.

Na+

CI-

THINKSTOCK

SHUTTERSTOCK

Placenta, including

umbilical cord


23/84


In Goldfinger,

Jill Mastersons (Shirley

Eatons) death is explained by

fictional skin suffocation.

The skin can absorb oxygen, but only for its

own use. Humans do not breathe through

their skin and consequently will not

suffocate after having their skin covered in

airtight paint. If a person were plastered with

gold paint in real life and died, the cause of

death would probably be something else.

Gold paint may contain heavy metals,

organic solvents such as turpentine, or other

toxins that have a damaging effect on body

cells. These substances are readily

absorbed through the skin, from where they

are taken to all corners of the body by the

blood system. A less likely cause of death

could also be overheating, as the paint

retains body heat.

Will gold on your skin kill you

In the Bond film Goldfinger, actor

Shirley Eatons character dies

after getting covered in gold paint

from head to foot by the baddies.

Were supposed to believe she

suffocated, as her skin couldnt

breathe. But would this happen?

ow can body

paint be lethal?

Heavy metals:The epidermis absorbs

substances from the surroundings such

as heavy metals and solvents, which

could be lethal in large quantities.

Vitamin D deficiency

The skin's production of

vitamin D depends on

sunlight. Hence, gold pain

could cause lethal vitamin

D deficiency over time.

Overheating:Sweat glands and blood

vessels control body temperature. Gold would

prevent the body from sweating and shedding

body heat - this could be lethal in

warm weather.

Possible

Most likely

Unlikely

HYPOTHESIS

SCANPIX

SPECIAL EFFECTS


24/84

THE

SOL R SY

SECRET


VICTORHABBICKVISIONS/SPL/SCANPIX

NEW DISCOVERY

2012 VP113Diameter:450 km

Distance to Sun:12 billion km

Orbital period:4,590 years


25/84

AU:

DICTIONARY

ALLANHJEN

MYSTERIOUS NEIGHBOURS IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM'S BACK YARD

Astronomers have discovered two dwarf planets, Sedna and 2012 VP113,

in a region far from the other inhabitants of the Solar System.

2012 VP113

Sednas orbit

DISCOVERED IN 2003

By Torben R. Simonsen

SEDNADiameter:1,000 km

Distance to Sun: 11.3 billion km

Orbital period: 11,400 years


26/84


2012 VP113 is its orbit. The dwarf planet

never gets any closer to the Sun than some

12 billion km, or 80 times Earths distance to

the Sun, and it is probably located in a region

called the Oort cloud.

Our Solar System is divided into a number

of regions relative to the Sun. At the closestrange, you will find the small rocky planets,

such as Earth, in a region 58 - 628 million km

from the Sun. After the rocky planets, the

asteroid belt follows, before the big gas

planets such as Jupiter in a region 748 million

- 4.5 billion km from the Sun. After the gas

planets, you will find the icy Kuiper belt, that

stretches 4.5 - 7.5 billion km from the Sun.

And beyond the Kuiper belt is the Oort cloud.

Until recently, astronomers did not

believe the Oort cloud to contain much more

than dust or comets, and so far, they have

only found two objects in the region: Sedna

and 2012 VP113. Like the dwarf planet of

Pluto, their orbits are inclined compared to

the those of other Solar System planets. But

unlike Pluto, the newly discovered objects

leave the Kuiper belt, as their orbits are highly

elliptical. Sedna moves 140 billion km away

from the Sun, whereas the maximum

distance of 2012 VP113 is 67 billion km.

THREE THEORIES EXPLAIN

THE OORT CLOUD

The astronomers behind the discovery still

do not know how the two dwarf planets

ended up in the special orbit, but they areworking with three theories concerning

Spotted by several telescopesOfficially, the dwarf planet was discovered in

2012, but actually, the Gemini telescope imaged

2012 VP113 in 2011, without astronomers

discovering nor registering the small object.

The dwarf planetis captured twiceby the Gemini tele-scope of MaunaKea, Hawaii, but isnot registered.

System with the most remote orbit around

the Sun. The closest that 2012 VP113 ever

gets to the Sun is 80 AU (some 12 billion km).

The only other object orbiting the Sun, which

is also located outside the Kuiper belt, is

Sedna, whose closest distance to the Sun is

76 AU (some 11.3 billion km), ScottSheppard explains.

According to the astronomers, the

discovery of the new dwarf planet shows

that Sedna is no fluke or rogue, and that the

region outside the Kuiper belt has probably

got a lot more to offer.

ONLY 2 OBJECTS FOUND IN

THE REGION

The scientists spend the following months

making more observations to be sure

that they have a true and fair

impression of 2012 VP113, which

many astronomers now

consider a dwarf planet,

although it has not yet

been categorised (or

properly named).

F e a t u r i n g a

diameter of 450 km,

the dwarf planet has

ice on its surface as a

r e s u l t o f t h e

e x t r e m e l y l o w

temperatures on the

outskirts of our Solar

System. But what isvery special about

ne November night in 2012, two

American astronomers have taken

their seats at the Cerro Tololo

observatory in the mountains of Chile. From

an altitude of 2,200 metres, they are

looking for dwarf planets in the Solar

System, which are usually located farbeyond the belt of planets orbiting the Sun.

In 2003, one of the astronomers,

Chadwick Trujillo, discovered the dwarf

planet of Sedna in an unusual orbit around

the Sun, and ever since, he has been

looking for other dwarf planets, which could

tell us more about the birth of the Solar

System. Trujillo and his colleague, Scott

Sheppard, are particularly interested in the

vast unknown zone that makes up the

remote outskirts of the Solar System.

The astronomers adjust the telescope to

photograph a region beyond the area inwhich most planets are located. At regular

intervals, the scientists take photos with the

telescopes super-sensitive camera.

Sophisticated photo processing software

isolates objects which move over time as

compared to the stationary background

stars. And the two astronomers are lucky: A

new inhabitant, 2012 VP113, has been

discovered in our Solar System.

We have found an object of the Solar

2012 VP113

The dwarf planet was discovered in

November 2012 and has been

observed several times by the

Chilean Magellan telescope.

The radioactiveirradiation of ice,

carbon dioxide, and

methane gives this

dwarf planet a

weak reddish glow.

2011

CTIO&

SCANPIX

GIANT MAGELLAN TELESCOPE GMTO CORPORATION

OCTOBER 2011


27/84

1

23

4

5


Dry air fine tunes

super telescope

ONE HECK OF A DIGITAL CAMERA

On 5 November 2012, the 2012

VP113 dwarf planet was detected

by the Victor M. Blanco telescope in

the dry mountain desert of Chile.The observatory is in one of the

best locations in the world, as the

air surrounding the mountain

peaks is extremely stable and dry,

and that's ideal for astronomy.

The Victor M. Blanco telescopes camera is the worlds

most accurate digital camera. It can cover an area

20 times bigger than the Moon in one single shot.

The Victor M. Blancotelescope of the CerroTololo observatoryin Chile observesthe dwarf planetseveral times.

The 6.5 mMagellan telescopein Chile observes2012 VP113 anddeterminesits orbit.

More Magellantelescopeobservationsverify the smallworlds surfaceand orbit.

The surfacecomposition ofthe dwarf planetis determinedbased on newobservations.

Silicon blocksmake up the cameras light-sensitive film,

allowing 570 megapixel recordings.

Six steering armsadjust the objective to a degree of

accuracy of 0.00015 cm. The arms can carry 3,500 kg.

The camera filterscan be exchanged, allowing

astronomers to analyse the images at different wavelengths.

ive lensescorrect the incident light, so the images

across entire telescope diameter become accurate.

Electronicsdraw data from the camera, passing the

information on to computers.

A DIGITAL CAMERA

(Dark Energy Camera)records images ofthe starry sky.

A ROTATING WHEEL

keeps the telescope focusedat the same point duringlong recordings.

THE REFLECTORhas a diameter of 4 m.It captures light andsends it on to the camera.

THE APERTURE

of the dome allows faintlight from remote starsand galaxies to enter.

ALLANHJEN

GEMINI OBSERVATORY/AURA

1

2

4

5

3

NOVEMBER 2012 MARCH 2013 OCTOBER 2013AUGUST 2013

2012 2013 2014


28/84

the birth of the Oort cloud.

According to one theory, a stray planet

was pushed out from the gas giant region at

an early point, perhaps by Jupiter. On its way

out, the displaced planet pushed objects,

including 2012 VP113, into the Oort cloud,

where the planet may still be located,

according to Scott Sheppard.

The second theory involves that a star

from another solar system passed by our

Solar System at some point, leaving

objects, including the two dwarf planets, in

the Oort cloud.

Or perhaps the explanation is the direct

opposite: the Oort cloud may have been

formed, when, in connection with the

formation of our Solar System, another star

passed by the Sun, taking a number of

objects from our Solar System with it.

Today, no other stars affect Sedna and

2012 VP113, so astronomers do not know

with any certainty how the dwarf

planets got their odd orbits.

The Oort cloud objects are

mysterious due to their eccentric

orbits, and at some point in

history, they must have been

subjected to considerable forces.

Based on what we know about

the Solar System, there is nothing

here that could have affectedthe orbits of these objects,

Scott Sheppard explains.

900 HIDDEN

NEIGHBOURS

Once astronomers

have found at least 10

other objects in the

Oort cloud, Scott

Sheppard expects

scientists to be

The super sensitive camera in

Victor M. Blanco telescope

captures the faint light of the

starry sky using silicon blocks.FERMILAB

Scott Sheppard, astronomer.

SILICON BLOCKS



29/84

able to determine which theory is the

most likely one. The orbits of the

objects will be different, depending

on the applicable theory. According to

the astronomer, it should not be so

very difficult to track down new,

unknown dwarf planets in the

remotest regions of our Solar System.

We believe that the inner Oort

cloud contains more objects than the

Kuiper belt or the asteroid belt (region

occupied by rocks between Mars and

Jupiter), Scott Sheppard explains:

We expect the region to include at

least 900 objects sized 1,000+ km. A

few of them may even be bigger than

Earth, but most will be so far away that

they are impossible to discover.

In order for astronomers to spot

these remote neighbours, they need to

watch for when the distant member of

the planetary family gets close enough

to Earth for astronomers to make

observations and study the object long

enough to determine its orbit and how

it relates to the Oort cloud. This willrequire some luck, if the other objects

of the region have just as extreme

orbits as Sedna and 2012 VP113.

The two astronomers, Trujillo and

Sheppard, are still searching for

planets and dwarf planets in the inner

Oort cloud. At the moment, the

scientists are observing six different

objects that could belong in this

remote, unexplored, and dark corner

of our Solar System

Three types of planetsHuge gas planets, compact rocky worlds, and small

dwarf planets all exist in the Solar System.

The four so-called outer planets are called gas

giants. They are bigger and heavier than the

rocky planets and characterised by apart

from a small, solid core being made ofgas. The four worlds all have ring

systems and lots of moons.

GAS GIANTS

Astronomers have discovered and categorised

five dwarf planets, but the Solar System probably

includes several hundred. Dwarf planets often

orbit the Sun further away than Neptune.

DWARF PLANETS

The mountain desert of Chile is the

perfect place for telescopes,

as the air is both dry and stable.REIDAR HAHN/FERMILAB VMS

NASA&SCANPIX

The four inner planets orbitingthe Sun are called rocky planets.

They are relatively small and

boast solid surfaces consisting

of silicate rock and cores made

of iron and nickel.

ROCKY PLANETS

Mercury

Planet

Venus

Earth

Mars

4,879 km

Diameter

12,104 km

12,756 km

6,805 km

45,693,773 km

Distance to Sun

107,476,002 km

147,098,073 km

206,644,545 km

Pluto

Jupiter

Planet

Planet

Haumea

Saturn

Eris

Uranus

Makemake

Ceres

Neptune

2,390 km

142,984 km

Diameter

Diameter

1,600 km

120,536 km

2,400 km

51,118 km

1,420 km

950 km

49,528 km

4,436,824,613 km

740,742,598 km

Distance to Sun

Distance to Sun

5,259,666,499 km

1,349,467,376 km

5,670,000,000 km

2,735,555,035 km

6,850,000,000 km

382,520,000 km

4,459,631,485 km



30/84

3 SCIENCE ILLUSTR TED

e nd

the

truth

about THE

SCIENTISTS NSWER

THE BIG QUESTIONS

Due to incredible new discoveries, accurate DNA

sequencing, and detailed climate analyses, scientists have

managed to paint a complete portrait of our closest

relative, the Neanderthal for the very first time. And they

might be more human than we ever suspected.

VOLKERSTEGER

FEATURE| ARCHAEOLOGY


31/84

scienceillustr ted com u

|

3

PAGE

SPECIAL

rthal

By Rasmus Kragh Jakobsen

SYLVAINE

NTRESSANGLE&

ELISABETHD

AYNES/LOOKATSCIENCES


32/843 SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

t first he thought he'd found a bear,but in fact it was a very strong

hominid that Latin teacher

Johann Carl Fuhlrott found, when he came

across a heap of old bones in the German

Neander Valley in 1856. Indeed, scientists

initially believed that the massive bones were

those of a bear, but the discovery soon proved

to be much more sensational. The fossils were

from an unknown hominid, the Neanderthal,

who lived more than 40,000 years ago.

Since then, bones have proven a

veritable gold mine to scientists. Thanks to

new techniques, geneticists can now extractDNA from even small and very old bone

fragments. So these bones have not only

revealed the physiology of the Neanderthal,

they have also provided scientists with a

clear-cut idea of their abilities and ancestors.

Altogether, this knowledge has painted an

accurate picture of the Neanderthal and their

everyday life in Ice Age Europe.

NEANDERTHAL FOUND

IN 70 PLACES

Today, scientists have found the fossils of

more than 350 Neanderthal in 70 placesthroughout the world. Their territory

stretched from the Atlantic in the west tothe Altai Mountains of Siberia in the east.

Complete skeletons from France and

Croatia have provided us with substantial

knowledge about Neanderthal anatomy.

General ly, the bones are sturdy,

indicating very strong, compact people.

Modern man is designed to easily cross long

distances. Neanderthals were made for brief,

explosive power discharges.

Neanderthal genome sequencing has

revealed that, genetically, they parted from

modern humans 270-440 thousand years

ago, and that our common ancestor was atall, slim hominid from Africa named Homo

heidelbergensis. Whereas the Neanderthal

are the descendants of a branch that left

Africa, our branch remained in Africa. In Ice

Age Europe, the Neanderthals ancestors

experienced a rough, barren climate. In

slightly warmer Southern Europe, the

ancestors could survive the severe winters,

but over time, their bodies adjusted: the

Neanderthal became short and

compact with minimal heat loss

perfect for severe winters.

Ice age shapedthe eanderthalIn recent years, several hundred fossils have been unearthed,

providing us with an increasingly detailed impression of

Neanderthal physiology: they were a strong, stocky people,

well-adapted for biting cold.

Fossils of 350+ Neanderthals have been found

in Europe and Asia. This is the skull of a

3-year-old child from France.

BIG EYES

EXCELLENT EYESIGHT

2 NOSE HEATED

COLD AIR

3 BIG MUSCLES

HEAVY BODY

4 INFLEXIBLE

SHOULDER POOR

THROW

4

PHILIPPE PLAILLY/LOOK AT SCIENCES

ALAMY/IMAGESELECT

ELISABETH DAYNES/LOOK AT SCIENCES


33/84scienceillustrated.com.au 33

What did theylook like?

Wide pelvis.

rdy, curvedghbones.

The bones aregenerally sturdy,indicating greatstrength.

Sturdy kneeand elbow joints.

Low, ratherlong skull.

Low, recedingforehead .

The rear of the teethwere curved like theblade of a shovel.

Receding chin.

GOOD HEARING

TALENT FOR LANGUAGE

The Neanderthal had the same soundspectrum sensitivity as us, indicating

that they spoke. They had the samemutations of an important language

gene as we do.

5.EXCELLENT EYESIGHT

BIG BRAINS

The brain was 1.45 l on average in comparisonwith our modest 1.34 l. The size is attributable tothe fact that they had bigger eyes and used more

brain capacity to process visual impressions.

10.IRON GRIPMuscle attachments in

the hand reveal a very firm,clamp-like handshake.

8.THE TEETH WERE

SCOOPSHAPED

The rear side of teeth were curved

like the blade of a shovel,

as observed in some modern Asians.

11 SHORT LIMBS

KEPT OUT THE COLD

The short fingers, toes, lower legs,and forearms plus the powerful

chest and dense body build meant asmaller surface area, so the body

was easier to keep warm.

9 LIGHT SKIN

AND RED HAIR

Genetic studies have revealed thatsome Neanderthals had red hair and

pale skin. But not all of them.

6 SENSE OF BALANCE

FOR SHORT RUNS ONLY

The internal ear was different inthe balance area, as the rear canal

was located lower than ours,indicating less agile mobility and that

the Neanderthal did not run a lot.

Stocky and very strongThe Neanderthal body was perfect for life in Ice Age

Europe. The short limbs minimised the bodys

heat loss, and the wide nasal cavity heated the cold air.

2

1

6

87

9

10

11

5

IRA BLOCK/NGS

ELISABETH DAYNES/LOOK AT SCIENCES


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SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

Hominidsslept with

other hominidsGenetic sequencing has revealed

that different hominids mated with

each other. The family tree supports

the discoveries made so far. For

instance, the Denisovans of the Altai

Mountains had 0.5 % Neanderthal in

their genes.

HOBBIT LIVED ON ISLANDS

Until 12,000 years ago, people nicknamed"hobbits" by modern science, lived on theIndonesian island of Flores. They madestone tools and hunted dwarf elephants,using spears and arrows.

Range:the Indonesian island of FloresHeight:90-110 cmWeight:16-36 kgBrain: 380-400 mlLived:2 million-

12,000 years ago

he

world

was full

of people50,000 years ago, the Neanderthal

would come across both long-

limbed, modern humans and dark

Denisovans in Europe and Asia,

whereas several types of pygmies

roamed the East. The world of the

Neanderthal was full of intelligent

hominids, who lived side by side.

HOMO FLORESIENSIS

Africa

Europe

Asia

Oceania

MODERN MAN

DENISOVANS

NEANDERTHALS

%

%

AltaiUnknown

>

5

%

AltaiVindija

Mezmaiskaya

Unknown

Unknownhominid

The red arrows indicate thepercentage of genes from otherhominids in specific sites.

5

%

0

5

%

P. PLAILLY, E. DAYNES/EURELIOS/LOOK AT SCIENCES

RECONSTRUCTION ELISABETH DAYNES, PARIS

P. PLAILLY & E. DAYNES/LOOK AT SCIENCES


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NEW HOMINID INTRODUCED

Range:Height:Weight:Brain:Lived:

ange

Height:Weight:Brain:Lived:

NORTHERN ANCESTOR

ange

Height:Weight:Brain:Lived:

EUROPEANS REACHED ASIAHUNTER LEFT AFRICA

Range:Height:Weight:Brain:Lived:

HOMO ERECTUS IWO ELERU HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS HOMO NEANDERTHALEN

ne late night in 1996, Svante Pbo

has just fallen asleep, when thephone r ings. Confused, the

Swedish geneticist picks up to hear the

message: It is not one of us. Suddenly,

Pbo is wide awake.

The call comes from Matthias Kring, a

PhD student from Svante Pbos lab. Just

this morning, he began to sequence the DNA

of a 40-50,000-year-old Neanderthal bone.

When Pbo arrives at the lab, he sees

sequences of DNA letters, which would

seem like random sequences of letters to

a layman. But Matthias Kring is thrilled.

The sequence of letters does not matchany sequences of modern humans, and

Svante Pbo is immediately aware that

the dream has come true: The first

genetic material from an extinct hominid

has been properly sequenced.

SUCCESSFUL WORK

Ever since then, the continued successful

sequencing of fossil DNA and epoch-making

results have been produced en masse,

boosted by a combination of the genome

sequencing technological revolution and

improved capacity for isolating andsubsequently sequencing even tiny amounts

of DNA molecules.

In 2010, scientists discovered an

unknown hominid based on fossil DNA from a

small bone fragment. The hominid, who lived

at the same time as the Neanderthal, was

named the Denisovan - a dark and still rather

mysterious stranger who we need to learn

more about. And last year, Pbos team

sequenced the complete genetic material of

a 50,000-year-old Neanderthal.

We are allNeanderthalThe sequencing of fossil genetic material has revealed a world in which a wealth of different

hominids lived side by side and even mated with each other, producing hybrid children.

SYLVAIN ENTRESSANGLE & ELISABETH DAYNES/LOOK AT SCIENCES PHILIPPE PLAILLY/LOOK AT SCIENCES E.DAYNES/LOOK AT SCIENCES P. PLAILLY/SPL/SCANPIX

Who were theirneighbours?


36/84 6 SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

All the new molecular data from

hominid fossils have provided scientistswith new knowledge of the world of the

Neanderthals, in which several different

hominids lived side by side.

DNA REVEALS

HOMINID KINSHIP

The sequencing has shown that modern

man and the Neanderthal met again, long

after they parted genetically, 400,000

years ago, and that the two even mated.

Scientists compared the Neanderthal

genome to genetic material from modern

peoples, concluding that populationsoutside Africa are more closely related to

the Neanderthal than Africans. The two

hominids must have mated on their way

out of Africa. Scientists can see that they

met 40-80,000 years ago where the

African continent ends.

Both the Neanderthals and modern

man even mated with a third hominid, the

Denisovan, who lived in Asia until some

30,000 years ago. New DNA sequencing

has revealed that the Denisovan includes

0.5 % Neanderthal DNA, while Aboriginal

Australians include 3-6 % Denisovan DNA.This indicates that the Denisovan did not

only live in the close vicinity of the

Siberian cave, where the bone was found,

and scientists think that Eurasia was

inhabited by Neanderthal in the West and

Denisovans in the East.

Sequencing also reveals that the

Neanderthal included several different

peoples or societies, and that the

encounters with other hominids took

place between local groups.

This knowledge allows scientists to

look at the fossils with fresh eyes. Forinstance, the last Neanderthal in Europe

have more features in common with

modern humans than older fossils,

indicating that the two hominids mated

several times during this period.

In Israel, archaeologists have found a

40-50,000-year-old fossil, which could be

a crossbreed. The person was

Neanderthal, but had several modern

man features such as a protruding chin

and a long, slim body structure.

Range Worldwide

Height: 150-185 cmWeight:55-85 kgBrain:1,350 ml

Lived:200,000 years ago-the present

Modern humans originated in Africa200,000 years ago and subsequentlyspread to all continents. Our long-limbedspecies made a broad range ofsophisticated tools such as rope, fishingnets, and delicate sewing needles.Moreover, burials, carved figurines, andbeautiful cave paintings reveal ouradvanced intellectual capacity.

WE CONQUERED THE WORLD

PYGMY RULED CHINA

A type of Chinese pygmies weredescribed in 2012. The bonesreveal a mixture of primitivefeatures from much older homi-nids and modern characteristics.

Range:Southern ChinaHeight:120-150 cmWeight:25-35 kgBrain:1,000 mlLived:14,500-

11,500 years ago

Range sia

Height:UnknownWeight: UnknownBrain:UnknownLived:300,000-

30,000 years ago

DARK HOMINID LIVED IN ASIA

Genetic material from a bone fragmentrevealed the existence of an unknownspecies, the Denisovan. The brown-skinned, black-haired hominid was so-phisticated, spreading to most of Asia.

Low, recedingforehead.

Receding chin

Compact body

HOMO SAPIENSDENISOVAN RED DEER CAVE PEOPLE

PETER SCHOUTEN/UNSW


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7

High, steep forehead

Protrudingchin

Tall, slender body

Homo sapiens DNA

Sequences of

Neanderthal DNA

Chromosome No. 22

8.UV PROTECTION

In Asians, 18 genesprotecting against UVradiation carry Neanderthalmarks. In Southern China,it is 49 % of the sequences.

3

AUTOIMMUNE

DISEASES

Neanderthal marks on fourchromosomes may be thecause of a series of autoim-mune diseases such as lupus.

2

METAB

OLISM

Part of cell meta-bolism is controlled by

genes with Neanderthalmarks on them.

5 KERATIN FOR SKIN,

HAIR, AND NAILS

Several keratin genes areNeanderthal, providing us withan advantage in the shape offor instance thicker skin.

4

STRONGER

IMMUNE SYSTEMThe Neanderthals influenced200 immune system genes,giving us weapons againstnew, unknown diseases.

6

SKIN CELL

PRODUCTION

Asians have a gene markedby Neanderthal, whichregulates the productionof epidermis cells.

1

BREAKDOWN OF

FAT IN BRAINEuropeans have 38 geneswith Neanderthal marks.They are involved in thebrains breakdown of fat.

SKIN

PIGMENTATION

70 % of all Europeans haveNeanderthal sequencesin a gene that affectsepidermis pigmentation.

The Neanderthal gave us thick skinOur ancestors intimate encounters with other hominids can be observed in our genes

today. At least 1.5 % of the chromosome DNA of all non-Africans come from the Neanderthal,

whom we can probably thank for both a strong immune system and thicker skin.

4

6

1

5

55

3

8

2120

1918

15

14

1312

1110

98

76

5

4

3

2

1

x

16

17

2

Who were theirneighbours?


38/84 8 SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

The Neanderthals lived in

Woolly rhinos and packs

of wolves. That was what

the Neanderthals

encountered in freezing

cold Europe. Scientists

have found fossils of 350

Neanderthals in 70

places. The fossils bear

witness to a hominid who

forced by hunger andcold evolved differently

in different places.

HALF SIBLINGSMATED,

PRODUCINGCHILDREN

Where:Altai Mountains, SiberiaWhen:50,000 years ago

T

he sequenced genetic materialof a Neanderthal from the Altai

Mountains of Siberia reveals thatthe individuals parents could havebeen half-siblings. The inbreedingis probably due to the groupsof the region being small andextremely isolated.

FAMILYDEVOURED

BYPEERS

Where:El Sidrn, SpainWhen:45-50,000 years ago

S

panish scientists have found anentire Neanderthal family

who was killed and devoured bytheir peers. The slaughtering mayhave happened because theNeanderthals starved after a coldperiod, or a victory over anothergroup was ritually celebrated.

EARLY PEOPLES

LIVEDLIKE US

Where:Mount Carmel, IsraelWhen:100-120,000 years ago

F

ossils from Israel haverevealed that some 100,000

years ago, modern man and theNeanderthal used the sametools and buried their dead.So in spite of physical differences,the behaviour of thetwo species was similar.

1 2 3

1

SIBERIA

BENCE VIOLA/MPI

MANIMAL WORKS, ROTTERDAM

ICE AGEEUROPE


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9

DIFFERENT PLACES

DIFFERENT LOOKS

Where:Krapina, CroatiaWhen:120,000 years ago

A

lmost 900 fossils from upto 82 individuals have been

found in Krapina. The discoveriesreveal that the Neanderthalappearance changed over timeand from place to place as theydid not yet have the classic looksuch as a projecting face.

CLASSIC APPEARANCE

BLURRED OVER TIME

Where:Amud, IsraelWhen:45-50,000 years ago

T

he Israeli Neanderthal havemore modern features.

They were quite tall andfeatured a protruding chin.They still had classic characteris-tics such as heavy brow ridges.Our ancestors may have matedwith Neanderthals here.

MARKEDFEATURES

DISAPPEARED

Where:Saint-Csaire, France

When:35,000 years ago

F

or the last Neanderthals in Eu-rope, the classic features such

as heavy brow ridges are less

striking. This may be due

to crossbreeding with humans

who came to the re-

gion at this point

in time.

4 5 6 WEMATED WITH

NEANDERTHALS

Where:The Middle EastWhen:50-100,000 years ago

N

eanderthals and modernhumans took turns at

conquering the same Middle Eastcaves and probably mated.

WHAT WHO WHEN

YELLOW 30,000-45,000 years ago

RED 45,000-135,000 years ago

BLUE 135,000-250,000 years ago

Homo sapiens discovery

Neanderthal discoveryDNA from fossils

Ice sheet

Tundra

Permafrost

DesertWater

Steppe

Cold fauna

El Sidrn

Neander Valley

Hayonim

Skhul

Kebara

Amud

TabunQafzeh

Mezmaiskaya

Vindija

EUROPE

FR NCE

SP IN

CRO TI

ISR EL

MIDDLE EAST

42

6

AFRICA

3

5

P PLAILLY/SPL/SCANPIX

MIKKELJUULJENSEN


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TOOLS

Wooden spears, perhaps with stone points

Stone knivesStones for sharpening toolsStone points

MEDICINE CABINET

Medical plants such as camomileand yarrow were frequentlyconsumed, probably due totheir effect as drugs.

MUSICAL

INSTRUMENTS

Scientists have found a 10-cm-long thighbone from a bear,carved into a flute.Dating back 55,000 years,

the flute is the oldest knownmusical instrument, meaningthat Neanderthal played music.

TOOL BOX

The Neanderthals used sophisticated toolsincluding fine scrapers, points, and knifeblades. The stone tools were used for a widerange of purposes such as butchery, plantprocessing, woodwork, and as spearheads.

UNIVERSITY OF TBINGEN

SHUTTERSTOCK

SCANPIX

How didthey live?


42/84

4 SCIENCE ILLUSTR TED

SHANIDAR, IRAQ

A skeleton surrounded by flowersbears witness of a ritual burial.In other graves, scientists foundskeletons that had been treatedfor bone fractures and wounds.One man lived for at least 20years with an amputated arm.

The eanderthal

buried their deadIt has been debated for years whether theNeanderthals ritually buried their dead. Recent

studies of a tomb near La Chapelle-aux-Saints,

France, determine that Neanderthals had

funerals. The hole, in which the fossils were found,

was dug, and as it is located in a hard soil layer, the

digging must have taken hours to complete. The bones

had been carefully placed and had no damage from

scavengers, so the body must have been left alone

and covered immediately. This kind of ritualised

burial shows solicitude and abstract thinking.

LA CHAPELLEAUX

SAINTS FRANCE

Scientists have found a 60,000-year-old tomb which containedan elderly, gout-ridden, andtoothless man. He probably onlysurvived because other peoplein the group took care of him.

AFRICA

EUROPE

SHUTTERSTOCK

C.BEAUVAL/ARCHEOSPHERE/CNRS

J.CONNELL/FLICKR


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SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

he climate killed

the NeanderthalsNew analyses show that the cl imate

59-74,000 years ago and 37-44,000

years ago was extremely unstable,

swinging between freezing cold and

a relatively mild climate within a few

centuries. The Neanderthals

needed to adapt to flora and faunachanges. This pressure isolated the

small family groups, which could no

longer support themselves.

PROS:The theory is supported byboth climate data and DNA studies.

CONS:The Neanderthal had survivedin a rough ice age climate for hundreds ofthousands of years prior to this.

PROS:

The Neanderthalgoes extinct atthe same time asmodern humans arrive.

CONS:

Few archaeological sitesshow evidence of fight,

murder, and cannibalism.

Deliberate genocideIn France, scientists found a Neanderthal child jaw with marks

indicating that the flesh was cut off. The jaw was found

among animal bones with similar cut marks, so the butcher

did not distinguish between animals and Neanderthals. The

butchers tools are part of a tool culture associated with

modern man. The theory of the Neanderthals going extinct in

a genocide is supported by other finds, of which the

murderers were definitely modern humans.

A conical chestwith big lungsdesigned for lotsof physical activity.

The skull was lowand rather longwith a big brain.

The rather shortarms and legswere verymuscular.

Compact body used lots of energy

In cold periods, the Neanderthals were restricted by their

robust bodies, which required more energy than our bodies.

9,200kilojoulesper day

Cut marks on a child's

skull demonstrate that

someone cut off the flesh.

Cut marks

Modern humans were

the first artists.

This is a 32,000-

year-old figurine.

THEORY 1

THEORY 2

KENNETH GARRETT

F. RAMIREZ ROZZI & M. VANHAEREN

CLAUS LUNAU

18,000kilojoulesper day


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scienceillustr ted com u

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5

Three theories explainNeanderthal 'extinction'For more than 200,000 years, the Neanderthals thrived in a huge region ranging from Portugal

in the west to Siberia in the east. But 40,000 years ago, the species began to dwindle, and 12,000

years later, the last families died out at the southern point of Europe. Scientists do not know

exactly why, but several theories have been put forward.

Outcompeted by Homo sapiensModern human genetic material has

revealed that all non-Africans descend

from a small group who left Africa

75-100,000 years ago. This new hominid

- an effective hunter - defeated their

more ancient cousins everywhere.

In Europe, archaeologists have found

new tools such as sewing needles and

fishing nets as well as art in the form of

cave paintings and carved figurines. This

indicates a so far unknown intelligence,

making scientists describe Homo sapiens

as a creative superpower in a league of

its own compared to previous hominids.

Modern people gave up nomadic life,

settling down to develop a new social

structure, including trade across long

distances. This meant that they utilised

their resources more efficiently, allowing

the population to grow, and the growth

forced the Neanderthals

to leave their

usual hunting

grounds.

PROS:

The theory is based on several different types of evidence infossils, DNA sequencing, and discoveries of tools and art.

CONS:

Between the arrival of the first modern humans and the emer-gence of art and advanced tools, there is a time gap of around10,000 years. So, the theory is on the retreat, and today, scientists be-lieve that other factors such as the climate were also important.

THEORY 3

KENNIS & KENNIS RECONSTRUCTIONS & K . WEBB/NHM

KENNETH GARRETT

CORBIS/ALL OVER

Why did theygo extinct?


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R


FEATURE| SPACE TRAVEL

With its cargo of sophisticated measuring equipment, the

Curiosity roverstruggles across Mars to explore rocks and river

deltas for signs of life. The rover has discovered that there were

once favourable conditions for life on Mars and that the planet

boasted foaming rivers of water. Scientists are more than content.By Lone Djernis Olsen. Photos: NASA & ESA


47/84


TH ROV RS FIV

MAJOR DISCOVERIES

1.Evidence of flowing, fresh waterand elements that are vital for life.

2.

Evidence of a several-m-deep, prehistoric river.

3. The atmosphere does not contain methane,which could otherwise be a sign of life.

4. The radiation is no more intense than what theInternational Space Station is subjected to.

5. The newly developed Skycrane, that loweredCuriosity onto the surface, has proved that heavy

craft can be landed in this way in the future.

Gale Craterlanding site

The Skycrane landerlowers Curiosityonto the surface.

Here, a few weeks after

landing, Curiosity looks for

prehistoric water and life

on the Red Planet.


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CURIOSITYS ROUTE

3 4

5

6

7

SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED

Curiosity is a mobile labCuriosity is an automatic research station crammed with equipment.

Its laser boils rock into vapour, which is analysed by an arsenal of

cameras and instruments. The results are sent back to Earth.

Laser and

cameraChemCam

Navigational cameras

NavCamsNAVIGATE THROUGH TERRAIN)

HazardcamerasHazCams

(MONITOR ANYHAZARDS IN TERRAIN)

Cameras(two)

MastCam

X-rayspectrometer

APXS

Camera onrobotic armMAHLI

Monitoring stationREMSCONTINOUSLY MEASURES AIR HUMIDITY, PRESSURE,TEMPERATURE, WIND SPEED, AND RADIATION)

RadiationdetectorRAD

Sample analysisinstrumen

science illustrated australia - issue 32 2014.pdf

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