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James HuttonFRSE(/htn/;3 June 1726OS(14 June 1726NS)26 March 1797) was a Scottish

geologist, physician, chemical manufacturer,naturalist,and experimentalagriculturalist.[1]He originated

the theory ofuniformitarianisma fundamental principle of geologywhich explains the features of

theEarth's crustby means of natural processes overgeologic time.Hutton's work established geology as

a proper science, and thus he is often referred to as the "Father of Modern Geology".[2][3]

Through observation and carefully reasoned geological arguments, Hutton came to believe that

theEarthwas perpetually being formed; he recognised that thehistory of the Earthcould be

determined by understanding how processes such aserosionandsedimentationwork in the present

day. His theories of geology and geologic time,[4]also calleddeep time,[5]came to be included in theories

which were calledplutonismand uniformitarianism. Some of his writings anticipated theGaia

hypothesis.

Contents

[hide]

1 Early life and career

o 1.1 Farming and geology

o 1.2 Edinburgh and canal building

o 1.3 Later Life and Death

2 Theory of rock formations

o 2.1 Search for evidence

3 Publication

4 Opposing theories

5 Acceptance of geological theories

6 Other contributions

o 6.1 Meteorology

o 6.2 Earth as a living entity

o 6.3 Evolution

7 Works

8 See also

9 References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Waterston-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Waterston-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Waterston-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crust_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crust_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crust_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-MillennialPlaque-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-MillennialPlaque-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-MillennialPlaque-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-VestigeProspectAMNH-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-VestigeProspectAMNH-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-VestigeProspectAMNH-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_timehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_timehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TaylorReviewBaxter-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TaylorReviewBaxter-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TaylorReviewBaxter-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Early_life_and_careerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Early_life_and_careerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Farming_and_geologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Farming_and_geologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Edinburgh_and_canal_buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Edinburgh_and_canal_buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Later_Life_and_Deathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Later_Life_and_Deathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Theory_of_rock_formationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Theory_of_rock_formationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Search_for_evidencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Search_for_evidencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Publicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Publicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Opposing_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Opposing_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Acceptance_of_geological_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Acceptance_of_geological_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Other_contributionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Other_contributionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Meteorologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Meteorologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Earth_as_a_living_entityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Earth_as_a_living_entityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Evolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Evolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Workshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Workshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Workshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Evolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Earth_as_a_living_entityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Meteorologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Other_contributionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Acceptance_of_geological_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Opposing_theorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Publicationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Search_for_evidencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Theory_of_rock_formationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Later_Life_and_Deathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Edinburgh_and_canal_buildinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Farming_and_geologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Early_life_and_careerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TaylorReviewBaxter-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_timehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-VestigeProspectAMNH-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-MillennialPlaque-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-MillennialPlaque-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crust_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Waterston-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Stylehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh


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10 Further reading

11 External links

Early life and career[edit]

Hutton was born inEdinburghon 3 June 1726OSas one of five children of William Hutton, a merchant

who was Edinburgh City Treasurer, but who died in 1729 when James was still young. Hutton's mother

Sarah Balfourinsisted on his education at theHigh School of Edinburghwhere he was particularly

interested in mathematics and chemistry, then when he was 14 he attended theUniversity of

Edinburghas a "student of humanity" i.e. Classics (Latin and Greek). He was apprenticed to the lawyer

George ChalmersWSwhen he was 17, but took more interest in chemical experiments than legal work.

At the age of 18, he became a physician's assistant, and attended lectures in medicine at the University

of Edinburgh. After three years he went to the University of Paris to continue his studies, taking the

degree ofDoctor of MedicineatLeiden Universityin 1749 with a thesis onblood circulation.[6]Around

1747 he had a son by a Miss Edington, and though he gave his child James Smeaton Hutton financial

assistance, he had little to do with the boy who went on to become a post-office clerk in London.[7]

After his degree Hutton returned to London, then in mid-1750 went back to Edinburgh and resumed

chemical experiments with close friend, James Davie. Their work on production ofsal

ammoniacfromsootled to their partnership in a profitable chemical works,[8]manufacturing the

crystalline salt which was used for dyeing, metalworking and as smelling salts and previously was

available only from natural sources and had to be imported fromEgypt.Hutton owned and rented out

properties in Edinburgh, employing a factor to manage this business.[9]

Farming and geology[edit]

Hutton inherited from his father theBerwickshirefarms of Slighhouses, a lowland farm which had been

in the family since 1713, and the hill farm of Nether Monynut.[10]In the early 1750s he moved

to Slighhousesand set about making improvements, introducing farming practices from other parts of

Britain and experimenting with plant and animal husbandry.[11]He recorded his ideas and innovations in

an unpublished treatise on The Elements of Agriculture.[12]

This developed his interest inmeteorologyand geology.[11]In a 1753 letter he wrote that he had

"become very fond of studying the surface of the earth, and was looking with anxious curiosity into

every pit or ditch or bed of a river that fell in his way". Clearing and draining his farm provided ample

opportunities. Playfair describes Hutton as having noticed that "a vast proportion of the present rocks

are composed of materials afforded by the destruction of bodies, animal, vegetable and mineral, ofmore ancient formation". His theoretical ideas began to come together in 1760. While his farming

activities continued, in 1764 he went on a geological tour of the north of Scotland with George Maxwell-

Clerk,[13]ancestor of the famousJames Clerk Maxwell.[14]

Edinburgh and canal building[edit]
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pedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-ag6-12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-ag3-11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-ag1-10https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berwickshirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-ent1-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-bio3-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloridehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloridehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-bio4-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-bio2-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer_to_the_Signethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_High_School_(Edinburgh)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#Further_reading


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In 1768 Hutton returned toEdinburgh,letting his farms to tenants but continuing to take an interest in

farm improvements and research which included experiments carried out at Slighhouses. He developed

a red dye made from the roots of themadderplant.[15]

He had a house built in 1770 at St John's Hill, Edinburgh, overlookingSalisbury Crags.This later became

the Balfour family home and, in 1840, the birthplace of the psychiatristJames Crichton-Browne.Huttonwas one of the most influential participants in theScottish Enlightenment,and fell in with numerous

first-class minds in the sciences includingJohn Playfair,philosopherDavid Humeand economistAdam

Smith.[16]Hutton held no position in Edinburgh University and communicated his scientific findings

through theRoyal Society of Edinburgh.He was particularly friendly withJoseph Black,and the two of

them together with Adam Smith founded the Oyster Clubfor weekly meetings, with Hutton and Black

finding a venue which turned out to have rather disreputable associations.[17]

Between 1767 and 1774 Hutton had considerable close involvement with the construction of theForth

and Clyde canal,making full use of his geological knowledge, both as a shareholder and as a member of

the committee of management, and attended meetings including extended site inspections of all the

works. In 1777 he published a pamphlet on Considerations on the Nature, Quality and Distinctions of

Coal and Culmwhich successfully helped to obtain relief from excise duty on carrying small coal.[18]

Later Life and Death[edit]

From 1791 Hutton suffered extreme pain from stones in the bladder and gave up field work to

concentrate on finishing his books. A painful (and dangerous) operation failed to resolve his illness.[19]

He died in Edinburgh and was buried in the vault of Andrew Balfour, opposite the vault of his

friendJoseph Black,in the now sealed south-west section ofGreyfriars Kirkyardcommonly known as

theCovenanter's Prison.

Theory of rock formations[edit]

Hutton hit on a variety of ideas to explain therock formationshe saw around him, but according to

Playfair he "was in no haste to publish his theory; for he was one of those who are much more delighted

with the contemplation of truth, than with the praise of having discovered it". After some 25 years of

work,[20]his Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition,

Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globewas read to meetings of theRoyal Society of

Edinburghin two parts, the first by his friendJoseph Blackon 7 March 1785, and the second by himself

on 4 April 1785. Hutton subsequently read an abstract of his dissertation Concerning the System of the

Earth, its Duration and Stabilityto Society meeting on 4 July 1785,[21]which he had printed andcirculated privately.[22]In it, he outlined his theory as follows;

The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the

sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find reason to

conclude:
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kipedia.org/wiki/Greyfriars_Kirkyardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Blackhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-ent2-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_and_Clyde_canalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_and_Clyde_canalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-soc2-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Blackhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-soc1-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Smithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Humehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Playfairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Crichton-Brownehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Cragshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-ag5-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh


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1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been

formed by the operation of second causes.

2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in

which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And,

Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained

plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at present.

Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by

operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the

operations of the waters, two things had been required;

1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials;

2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they

were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean.

Search for evidence[edit]

Hutton's Section on Edinburgh's Salisbury Crags

AtGlen Tiltin theCairngorm mountainsin theScottish Highlandsin 1785, Hutton

foundgranitepenetratingmetamorphicschists,in a way which indicated that the granite hadbeenmoltenat the time. This showed to him that granite formed from cooling of molten rock,

notprecipitationout of water as others at the time believed, and that the granite must be younger than

the schists.[23][24]

He went on to find a similar penetration ofvolcanic rockthroughsedimentary rocknear the centre

ofEdinburgh,atSalisbury Crags,[3]adjoiningArthur's Seat:this is now known as Hutton's

Section.[25][26]He found other examples inGallowayin 1786, and on theIsle of Arranin 1787.

Hutton's Unconformity on Arran
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=6https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=6https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Tilthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Tilthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Tilthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairngormshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairngormshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairngormshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moltenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moltenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moltenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Macfarlane-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Macfarlane-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Macfarlane-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Cragshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Cragshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Denby-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Denby-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Denby-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%27s_Seathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%27s_Seathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%27s_Seathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallowayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallowayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallowayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Arranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Arranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Arranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hutton%27s_Unconformity_-_geograph.org.uk_-_68546.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hutton%27s_Section,_Salisbury_Crags.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hutton%27s_Unconformity_-_geograph.org.uk_-_68546.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hutton%27s_Section,_Salisbury_Crags.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Arranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallowayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%27s_Seathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Denby-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_Cragshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Macfarlane-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Macfarlane-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moltenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairngormshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Tilthttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=6


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Hutton Unconformity atJedburgh.Photograph (2003) belowClerk of Eldinillustration (1787).

The existence ofangular unconformitieshad been noted byNicolas Stenoand by French geologists

includingHorace-Bndict de Saussure,who interpreted them in terms ofNeptunismas "primary

formations". Hutton wanted to examine such formations himself to see "particular marks" of the

relationship between the rock layers. On the 1787 trip to theIsle of Arranhe found his first example

ofHutton's Unconformityto the north of Newton Point nearLochranza,[27][28]but the limited view meant

that the condition of the underlying strata was not clear enough for him,[29]and he incorrectly thought

that the strata were conformable at a depth below the exposed outcrop.[30]

Later in 1787 Hutton noted what is now known as the Hutton or "Great" Unconformity at

Inchbonny,[4]Jedburgh,in layers ofsedimentary rock.[31]As shown in the illustrations to the right, layers

ofgreywackein the lower layers of the cliff face are tilted almost vertically, and above an intervening

layer ofconglomeratelie horizontal layers ofOld Red Sandstone.He later wrote of how he "rejoiced at

my good fortune in stumbling upon an object so interesting in the natural history of the earth, and

which I had been long looking for in vain." That year, he found the same sequence inTeviotdale.[29]
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An eroded outcrop atSiccar Pointshowing sloping red sandstone above vertical greywacke was sketched

by Sir James Hall in 1788.

In the Spring of 1788 he set off withJohn Playfairto theBerwickshirecoast and found more examples of

this sequence in the valleys of the Tour and Pease Burns nearCockburnspath.[29]They then took a boat

trip from Dunglass Burn east along the coast with the geologistSir James HallofDunglass.They foundthe sequence in the cliff below St. Helens, then just to the east atSiccar Pointfound what Hutton called

"a beautiful picture of this junction washed bare by the sea".[32][33]Playfair later commented about the

experience, "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time".[34]Continuing

along the coast, they made more discoveries including sections of the vertical beds showing strong

ripple marks which gave Hutton "great satisfaction" as a confirmation of his supposition that these beds

had been laid horizontally in water. He also found conglomerate at altitudes that demonstrated the

extent of erosion of the strata, and said of this that "we never should have dreamed of meeting with

what we now perceived".[29]

Hutton reasoned that there must have been innumerable cycles, each involvingdepositionon

theseabed,uplift with tilting anderosionthen undersea again for further layers to be deposited. On the

belief that this was due to the same geological forces operating in the past as the very slow geological

forces seen operating at the present day, the thicknesses of exposed rock layers implied to him

enormous stretches of time.[4]

Publication[edit]

Though Hutton circulated privately a printed version of the abstract of his Theory (Concerning the

System of the Earth, its Duration, and Stability) which he read at a meeting of theRoyal Society of

Edinburghon 4 July 1785;[22]the full account of his theory as read at 7 March 1785 and 4 April 1785

meetings did not appear in print until 1788. It was titled Theory of the Earth; or an Investigation of theLaws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globeand appeared

in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. I, Part II, pp. 209304, plates I and II, published

1788.[21]He put forward the view that "from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with

regard to that which is to happen thereafter." This restated theScottish Enlightenmentconcept

whichDavid Humehad put in 1777 as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will

resemble the past", andCharles Lyellmemorably rephrased in the 1830s as "the present is the key to

the past".[35]Hutton's 1788 paper concludes; "The result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we

find no vestige of a beginning,no prospect of an end."[21]His memorably phrased closing statement has

long been celebrated.[4][36](It was quoted in the 1989 song No Control"by songwriter and

professorGreg Graffin.[37])

Following criticism, especially the arguments fromRichard Kirwanwho thought Hutton's ideas

wereatheisticand not logical,[21]Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in

1795,[38][39]consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material

drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite.
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olONE-38https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TheoryEarthGutenbergVolONE-38https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TheoryEarthGutenbergVolONE-38https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TheoryEarthGutenbergVolONE-38https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TOE-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Kirwanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Lyrics-37https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Graffinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Control_(Bad_Religion_album)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-VestigeProspectAMNH-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-VestigeProspectAMNH-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TOE-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-KEY_TO_THE_PAST-35https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lyellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Humehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-TOE-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-abstract-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburghhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Hutton&action=edit&section=7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-VestigeProspectAMNH-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(sediment)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-monty-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-Playfair_RSE-34https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siccar_Pointhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunglasshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_James_Hall,_4th_Baronethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton#cite_note-monty-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockburnspathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berwickshirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Playfairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siccar_Point


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It included a review of alternative theories, such as those ofThomas BurnetandGeorges-Louis Leclerc,

Comte de Buffon.

The whole was entitledAn Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason,

from Sense to Science and Philosophywhen the third volume was completed in 1794.[40]Its 2,138 pages

prompted Playfair to remark that "The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly beobjected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves.

Opposing theories[edit]

His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popularNeptunisttheories ofAbraham

Gottlob Werner,that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that

theinterior of the Earthwas hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new

rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated

thesedimentinto stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed "Plutonist"in contrast

to the flood-oriented theory.

As well as combating the Neptunists, he also opened up the concept ofdeep timefor scientific

purposes, in opposition toCatastrophism.Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few

thousand years old, he maintained that theEarth must be much older,with a history extending

indefinitely into the distant past.[23]His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements

and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that

processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were

very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, to allow time for the changes. Before long, scientific

inquiries provoked by his claims had pushed back the age of the earth into the millions of yearsstill

too short when compared with the accepted 4.6 billion year age in the 21st century, but a distinct

improvement.

Acceptance of geological theories[edit]

It has been claimed that the prose of Principles of Knowledgewas so obscure that it also impeded the

acceptance of Hutton's geological theories.[41]Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his

thoughts on evolution) byJohn Playfairin 1802 and thenCharles Lyellin the 1830s popularised the

concept of an infinitely repeating cycle, though Lyell tended to dismiss Hutton's views as giving too

much credence to catastrophic changes.

Lyell's books had widespread influence, not least on the up-and-coming young geologistCharles

Darwinwho read them with enthusiasm during hisvoyage on the Beagle,and has been described asLyell's first disciple. In a comment on the arguments of the 1830s, William Whewellcoined the

termuniformitarianismto describe Lyell's version of the ideas, contrasted with thecatastrophismof

those who supported the early 19th century concept that geological ages recorded a series of

catastrophes followed by repopulation by a new range of species. Over time there was a convergence in

views, but Lyell's description of the development of geological ideas led to wide belief that

uniformitarianism had triumphed.
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Other contributions[edit]

Meteorology[edit]

It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of

theatmosphere.The same volume in which his Theory of the Earthappeared contained also a Theory of

Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain insolutionincreases with

temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a

portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available

data regarding rainfall andclimatein different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the

rainfall is regulated by thehumidityof the air on the one hand, and mixing of differentair currentsin the

higher atmosphere on the other.

Earth as a living entity[edit]

The idea that the Earth is alive is found in philosophy and religion, but the first scientific discussion was

by James Hutton. In 1785, he stated that the Earth was asuperorganismand that its proper study shouldbe physiology.[42]Although his views anticipated theGaia hypothesis,proposed in the 1960s by

scientistJames Lovelock,[43]his idea of a living Earth was forgotten in the intensereductionismof the

19th century.[42]

Evolution[edit]

Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures evolution,ina senseand even

suggestednatural selectionas a possible mechanism affecting them:

"...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and

propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must beassured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the

most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the

best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving

themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race."Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge,

volume 2.[40]

Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through "swiftness of foot and quickness of sight...

the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that

those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would remain, to preserve

themselves, and to continue the race". Equally, if an acutesense of smellbecame "more necessary to thesustenance of the animal... the same principle [would] change the qualities of the animal, and.. produce

a race of well scented hounds, instead of those who catch their prey by swiftness". The same "principle

of variation" would influence "every species of plant, whether growing in a forest or a meadow". He

came to his ideas as the result of experiments inplantandanimal breeding,some of which he outlined

in an unpublished manuscript, the Elements of Agriculture. He distinguished betweenheritable
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variationas the result of breeding, andnon-heritable variationscaused by environmental differences

such as soil and climate.[40]

Though he saw his "principle of variation" as explaining the development of varieties, Hutton rejected

the idea that evolution might originate species as a "romantic fantasy", according

topalaeoclimatologistPaul Pearson.[44]

Influenced bydeism,[45]

Hutton thought the mechanism allowedspecies to form varieties better adapted to particular conditions and provided evidence ofbenevolent

designin nature. Studies ofCharles Darwin's notebooks have shown that Darwin arrived separately at

the idea ofnatural selectionwhich he set out in his 1859 bookOn the Origin of Species,but it has been

speculated that he may have had some half-forgotten memory from his time as a student in Edinburgh

of ideas of selection in nature as set out by Hutton, and byWilliam Charles WellsandPatrick

Matthewwho had both been associated with the city before publishing their ideas on the topic early in

the 19th century.[40]

Works[edit]

1785.Abstract of a dissertation read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the seventh of

March, and fourth of April, MDCCLXXXV, Concerning the System of the Earth, Its Duration, and

Stability. Edinburgh. 30pp.

1788. The theory of rain. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 41

86.

1788. Theory of the Earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition,

dissolution, and restoration of land upon the Globe. Transactions of the Royal Society of

Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 209304.

1792. Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy.Edinburgh & London: Strahan &

Cadell.

1794. Observations on granite. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 3, pp. 7781.

1794.A dissertation upon the philosophy of light, heat, and fire.Edinburgh: Cadell, Junior,

Davies.

1794.An investigation of the principles of knowledge and of the progress of reason, from sense

to science and philosophy. Edinburgh: Strahan & Cadell.

1795. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations. Edinburgh: Creech. 2 vols.

1797. Elements of Agriculture. Unpublished manuscript.

1899. Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations, vol III, Edited by Sir Archibald Geikie.

Geological Society, Burlington House, London.atInternet Archive
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niformitarianismis the scientific observation that the same natural laws and processes that operate in

theuniversenow have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the

universe. It has included thegradualisticconcept that "the present is the key to the past" and is

functioning at the same rates. Uniformitarianism has been a key principle of geology and virtually all

fields of science, but naturalism's modern geologists, while accepting that geology has occurred across

deep time, no longer hold to a strict gradualism.

Uniformitarianism, coined byWilliam Whewell,was originally proposed in contrast tocatastrophism[1]by

Britishnaturalistsin the late 18th century, starting with the work of the ScottishgeologistJames Hutton,

which was refined byJohn Playfairand popularised byCharles Lyell's Principles of Geologyin 1830.[2]

Contents

[hide]

1 History

o 1.1 18th century

o 1.2 19th century

1.2.1 Lyell's uniformitarianism

1.2.1.1 Methodological assumptions

1.2.1.2 Substantive hypotheses

o 1.3 20th century

1.3.1 Modern Uniformitarianism includes periodic catastrophes

2 See also

3 Notes

4 References

5 External links

History[edit]

18th century[edit]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradualismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradualismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whewellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whewellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whewellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Playfairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Playfairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Playfairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lyellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lyellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lyellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#18th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#18th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#19th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#19th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Lyell.27s_uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Lyell.27s_uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Methodological_assumptionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Methodological_assumptionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Substantive_hypotheseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Substantive_hypotheseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#20th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#20th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Modern_Uniformitarianism_includes_periodic_catastropheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Modern_Uniformitarianism_includes_periodic_catastropheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Noteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Noteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=2https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Noteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Modern_Uniformitarianism_includes_periodic_catastropheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#20th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Substantive_hypotheseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Methodological_assumptionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Lyell.27s_uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#19th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#18th_centuryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#Historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lyellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Playfairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Huttonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Whewellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradualismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe


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Cliff at the east ofSiccar Pointshowing the near-horizontal red sandstone layers above vertically tilted

greywacke rocks.

The earlier conceptions likely had little influence on 18th-century European geological explanations for

the formation of Earth.Abraham Gottlob WernerproposedNeptunismwherestratawere deposits from

shrinking seasprecipitatedonto primordial rocks such asgranite.In 1785James Huttonproposed an

opposing, self-maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the Biblical record.[3][4]

The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the

sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find reason to

conclude:

1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been

formed by the operation of second causes.

2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in

which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And,

Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained

plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at present.

Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by

operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the

operations of the waters, two things had been required;

1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials;

2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they

were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean.[5]

Hutton then sought evidence to support his idea that there must have been repeated cycles, each

involvingdepositionon theseabed,uplift with tilting anderosion,and then moving undersea again for

further layers to be deposited. AtGlen Tiltin theCairngorm mountainshe found granite

penetratingmetamorphicschists,in a way which indicated to him that the presumed primordial rock

had beenmoltenafter the strata had formed.[6][7]He had read aboutangular unconformitiesas

interpreted by Neptunists, and found anunconformityatJedburghwhere layers ofgreywackein the
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lower layers of the cliff face have been tilted almost vertically before being eroded to form a level plane,

under horizontal layers ofOld Red Sandstone.[8]In the Spring of 1788 he took a boat trip along

theBerwickshirecoast withJohn Playfairand the geologistSir James Hall,and found a dramatic

unconformity showing the same sequence atSiccar Point.[9]Playfair later recalled that "the mind

seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time",[10]and Hutton concluded a 1788 paper

he presented at theRoyal Society of Edinburgh,later rewritten as a book, with the phrase "we find no

vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end."[11]

Both Playfair and Hall wrote their own books on the theory, and for decades there was a robust debate

between Hutton's supporters and the Neptunists.Georges Cuvier'spaleontological workin the 1790s,

which established the reality ofextinction,explained this by local catastrophes, after which other fixed

species repopulated the affected areas. In Britain, geologists adapted this idea into "diluvial theory"

which proposed repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a

changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood.[12]

19th century[edit]

From 1830 to 1833Charles Lyell's multi-volumePrinciples of Geologywas published. The work's subtitle

was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in

operation". He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on

the founding geology text,[13]and developed Hutton's idea that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-

moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. The

terms uniformitarianismfor this idea, andcatastrophismfor the opposing viewpoint, were coined

byWilliam Whewellin a review of Lyell's book. Principles of Geologywas the most influential geological

work in the middle of the 19th century.

Lyell's uniformitarianism[edit]

According toReijer Hooykaas(1963), Lyell's uniformitarianism is a family of four related propositions,

not a single idea:[14]

Uniformity of lawthe laws of nature are constant across time and space.

Uniformity of methodologythe appropriate hypotheses for explaining the geological past are

those with analogy today.

Uniformity of kindpast and present causes are all of the same kind, have the same energy, and

produce the same effects.

Uniformity of degreegeological circumstances have remained the same over time.

None of these connotations requires another, and they are not all equally inferred by uniformitarians.[15]
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