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h’s SphereAtmosphere:layerof air that surrounds the earth. Mixture of gases, 99%b oxygen (21%)+nitrogen (78%), acts as shield against incoming objects, radiation deflectket, and source of chemical energy Lithosphere:solid layer which forms the surface of the earth. Hydrosphere:area of earth that contains the major water bodies such as und

er, oceans, seas, lakes and rivers. Biosphere: part of the earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere that supports life.Layers of the Earth’s AtmosphereTroposphere:the densest ph’s atmosphere, starts at the Earth's surface and extends to about 15 kilometers (9 miles) high. As you climb higher in this layer, the temperature drops from about 17° to -5ost all weather is in this region. Thetropopause separates the troposphere from the next layer, the stratosphere. The tropopause and the troposphere are known as the lower atsenger jets fly in the upper portion of this layer.Stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. Compared to the troposphere, this osphere is dry and less dense. The temperature in this region increases gradually to -3 degrees Celsius, due to the absorbtion of ultraviolet radiation. The ozone layer, which abters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of "air" is located in the troposphere and stratosphere. Thestratopause separates the stratosphere from the nozone layer is located here and supersonic jets fly hereMesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. In this region, the temperatas low as -93 degrees Celsius as you increase in altitude.The stratosphere and the mesosphere, along with the stratopause and mesopause, are called the middle atmontists. This area was closely studied on the ATLAS Spacelab Mission series. Meteors burn up in this layer and weather balloons gather data in this layer.Thermosphere starts jumesosphere and extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. The temperatures go up as you increase in altitude due to the Sun's energy. Temperatures in this region can go7 degrees Celsius.This layer is known as the upper atmosphere. Satellites and the Space Shuttle orbit (orbited) in the upper portion of this layer.Exosphere is the uppermost laosphere. Its lower boundary is at the edge of the thermosphere, which is estimated to be 500 km to 1,000 km above the Earth's surface; while its upper boundary extends 10,00

Earth extending into outer space. Energy: Radiation, Conduction, and ConvectionThe earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of radiation. The Earth reflects about 3ming solar radiation. The remaining 70% is absorbed, warming the land, atmosphere and oceans. As the land and ocean warms, heat is transferred by way of conduction to themolecules. As the air molecules warm they move further apart from one another causing the heated air to be less dense than the surrounding air. As a result, the warm aintually cools in the upper atmosphere. The warm rising air is replaced by drier, cooler air, which we feel as wind, which is the movement of air from high to low pressure. This mer air rising and cooler air falling is referred to as a convection cell and is the primary way in which heat is circulated throughout the earth’s atmosphere. Earth’s axis is tilterees. This tilt is responsible for the earth having distinct seasons. Equinoxes occur in Spring and Autumn when the direct rays of the sun shine on the equator. In contrast, theur in winter and summer when the direct rays of the sun shine on the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn respectfully.The Coriolis Effect is a force resulting from the roth which deflects moving bodies such as winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern HemisphereWarm Fronts and Cold FrontsWarm Front: trans cold air to warm air. A warm front is defined as the transition zone where a warm air mass is replacing a cold air mass. Warm fronts generally move from southwest to northe

behind a warm front is warmer and moistert than the air ahead of it. When a warm front passes through, the air becomes noticeably warmer and more humid than it was befsing: Winds s-se.temp: cool, slow warming. Press. Failing. Clouds: Ci, Cs, As, Ns, St, fog, Cb in summer. Precip: light-miderate rain,snow, sleet, drizzle visibility: bad. Dew poDuring:wind:variable, temp:steady rise, press: leveling off. Clouds:stratus-type. Precip: little-none.visibility: poor, improving. Dew point: steady.After: wind:s-sw. temp:warmer, thes: slight rise, then fall. Clouds:scattered Sc. Cb in summer. Precip: usually none. Vis.: fair in haze. Dew pt. rise, then steady..Cold Front: transition zone from warm air to cold at is defined as the transition zone where a cold air mass is replacing a warmer air mass. Cold fronts generally move from northwest to southeast. The air behind a cold front iser and drier than the air ahead of it. When a cold front passes through, temperatures can drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.Before passing: Wind:s-sw, temp: war

ng steady, clouds: increasing; Ci,Cs, Cb. Precip: short period of showers.Vis.:fair-poor Dew pt: high, steadyDuring:Winds:gusty;shirfting, press:minimum, then sharp rise. Clcip: heavy rain; (hail,thunder,lightning) Visibility:poor, improving. Dew pt: sharp dropAfter: Wind:w-w, temp:steady drop, press:steady rise, clouds:Cu, precip: showers, thenbility: good, except showers. Dew point:lower Stationary Front:a front that is not moving. When a warm or cold front stops moving, it becomes a stationary front. Once this mes its forward motion, it once again becomes a warm front or a cold front. A stationary front is represented by alternating blue and red lines with blue triangles pointing to

mer air and red semicircles pointing towards the colder air. A noticeable temperature change and/or shift in wind direction is commonly observed when crossing from one

onary front to the other Occluded Front:when a cold front overtakes a warm front A developing cyclone typically has a preceding warm front (the leading edge of a warm moista faster moving cold front (the leading edge of a colder drier air mass wrapping around the storm). North of the warm front is a mass of cooler air that was in place before the sred the region. As the storm intensifies, the cold front rotates around the storm and catches the warm front. This forms an occluded front, which is the boundary that separates t

mass (to the west) from the older cool air mass already in place north of the warm front. Symbolically, an occluded front is represented by a solid line with alternating triangles ting the direction the front is moving. On colored weather maps, an occluded front is drawn with a solid purple line.Changes in temperature, dew point temperature, and wind d

ur with the passage of an occluded front. In the map below,teperatures ahead (east of) the front were reported in the low 40's while temperatures behind (west of) the front were30's. The lower dew point temperatures behind the front indicate the presence of drier air.Air Masses An air mass is a large body of air that has similar temperature and

perties throughout. The best source regions for air masses are large flat areas where air can be stagnant long enough to take on the characteristics of the surface below. Maritmasses (mT), for example, develop over the subtropical oceans and transport heat and moisture northward into the U.S.. In contrast, continental polar air masses (cP), which ornorthern plains of Canada, transport colder and drier air southward. Once an air mass moves out of its source region, it is modified as it encounters surface conditions different d in the source region. For example, as a polar air mass moves southward, it encounters warmer land masses and consequently, is heated by the ground below. Air masses type middle latitudes, producing some very interesting weather.Supercells and Tornadoes The thunderstorms that we see are composed of one or more individual convection cellsposed of a cluster of cells will contain cells in various stages of development and decay. Each cell goes through a definite life cycle which may last from 20 minutes to 11/2 houruster of cells, with new cells forming and old ones dissipating, may last for 6 hours or more. Individual thunderstorm cells have many variations in growth and behavior, but tugh three stages of development and decay. These are the cumulus, mature, and dissipating stagesTornadoes and supercells What is a tornado? a violently rotating column ofcends from a thunderstorm to the ground. No other weather phenomenon can match the fury and destructive power of tornadoes. Tornadoes can be strong enough to dedings, leaving only the bare concrete foundation. In addition, they can lift 20-ton railroad cars from their tracks and they can drive straw and blades of grass into tree and teleph

w do tornadoes form? scientists don't fully understand how tornadoes form. Typically, tornadoes develop several thousand feet above the earth's surface inside of a sevederstorm. This type of storm is called a supercell thunderstorm. The spinning of these supercell thunderstorms is visible via Doppler radar. What is a supercell thunderstorm?an oderstorm that contains a very strong, rotating updraft. This rotation helps to produce severe weather events such as large hail, strong downbursts, and tornadoes. Supercell

ally isolated from other thunderstorms because it allows them to have more energy and moisture from miles around. These storms are rare, but always a threat to life and propedifference between a funnel cloud and a tornado? A tornado begins as a rotating, funnel-shaped cloud extending from a thunderstorm cloud base. A funnel cloud is made visibleplets, however, in some cases it can appear to be invisible due to lack of moisture. When the funnel cloud is half-way between the cloud base and the ground, it is called a toado's high-speed winds rotate about a small, relatively calm center, and suck up dust and debris, making the tornado darker and more easily seen.What is the path length of to

w long do they last? How fast do they move?Tornado paths range from 100 yards to one mile wide and are rarely more than 15 miles long. They can last from several seconds to our, however, most don't exceed 10 minutes. Most tornadoes travel from the southwest to northeast with an average speed of 30 mph, but the speed has been observed to r

ost no motion to 70 mph. When and where do tornadoes occur? Most tornadoes occur in the deep south and in the broad, relatively flat basin between the Rockies and the Appno state is immune. Peak months of tornado activity in the U.S. are April, May, and June. However, tornadoes have occurred in every month and at all times of the day or nighof occurrence is on an unseasonably warm and sultry Spring afternoon between 3 p.m. and 9 p.m.What causes tornadoes? Tornadoes form under a certain set of weather con

ch three very different types of air come together in a certain way. Near the ground lies a layer of warm and humid air, along with strong south winds. Colder air and strohwest winds lie in the upper atmosphere. Temperature and moisture differences between the surface and the upper levels create what we call instability. A necessary ingado formation. The change in wind speed and direction with height is known as wind shear. This wind shear is linked to the eventual development of rotation from which a to. A third layer of hot dry air becomes established between the warm moist air at low levels and the cool dry air aloft. This hot layer acts as a cap and allows the warm air und

m further...making the air even more unstable. Things start to happen when a storm system aloft moves east and begins to lift the various layers. Through this lifting processoved, thereby setting the stage for explosive thunderstorm development as strong updrafts develop. Complex interactions between the updraft and the surrounding winds mayraft to begin rotating-and a tornado is born. The Great Plains of the Central United States are uniquely suited to bring all of these ingredients together, and so have become nado Alley." The main factors are the Rocky Mountains to the west, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and a terrain that slopes downward from west to east. During the spring aths southerly winds prevail across the plains. At the origin of those south winds lie the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, which provide plenty of warm, humid air needed to fuderstorm development. Hot dry air forms over the higher elevations to the west, and becomes the cap as it spreads eastward over the moist Gulf air. Where the dry air and t

t near the ground, a boundary known as a dry line forms to the west of Oklahoma. A storm system moving out of the southern Rockies may push the dry line eastward, wderstorms and tornadoes forming along the dry line or in the moist air just ahead of itEnhanced Fujita Scale EF-0 Light damage Wind 65 to 85 mph. 105-137km/hr.RF: 53.5%e damage to siding and shingles. Branches broken off trees. Tornadoes with no repoted damage are always 0.EF-1. Moderate damage Wind 86 to 110 mph. 138-178 k.moderate damage. Winds can uproot trees and overturn single-wide mobile homes or severly damaged. Loss of exterior doors, windos+glass broken. Flagpoles bend.EF-2. Con

damage Wind 111 to 135 mph. 179-218 km/hr. RF:10.7Most single-wide mobile homes destroyed. Permancan shift off foundation. Flagpoles collapse. Softwood trees debarked. Cars lifted off ground. Light objemade. EF-3. Severe damage Wind 136 to 165 mph. 219-266 km’hr. RF: 3.4.Hardwood trees debarked. Allportions of houses destroyed. Trains overturned. weak structured homes blown away.EF-4. DevastatingWind 166 to 200 mph 267-322 kmph.RF: .7 Complete destruction of well-built residences, large sectionsbuildings.EF-5. Incredible damage Wind above 200 mph. >322.PF:>.1Significant structural deformation ohigh-rise buildings.Strong frame houses blown away, steel reinforced structures crucially damaged.