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International Journalof

Special EducationVOLUME 25 2010 NUMBER 2

Reading Disabilities of Chinese Elementary School Students: Beyond the Phonological Deficits of Single-Character Identification

Academic and Cognitive Profiles of Students With Autism:Implications for Classroom Practice And Placement

Comparative Study of Motor Performance of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students in Reaction Time, Visual-Motor Control and Upper Limb Speed and Dexterity Abilities

The Prevalence and Characteristics Of Psychiatric Disorders Among Adolescent Bedouin with Mild to Moderate Intellectual Disability

Impact of the Special Education Vocational Education Program (VEP) on Student Career Success

Report on an Intervention Involving Massage and Yoga for Male Adolescents Attending a School for Disadvantaged Male Adolescents in the UK

Traumatic Brain Injury in K-12 Students: Where Have All The Children Gone?

Differences in Self-Concept Among Student with and without Learning Disabilities in Al Karak District In Jordan

Enhancing Orthographic Competencies and Reducing Domain-Specific Test Anxiety: The Systematic Use of Algorithmic and Self-Instructional Task Formats in Remedial Spelling Training

Inclusion of Children with Disabilities: Teachers' Attitudes and Requirements for Environmental Accommodations

The Comparative Effect of Fluency Instruction with and without a Comprehension Strategy for Elementary School Students

Raising Children with Disabilities in China: The Need For Early Interventions The Development Of Special Education in Macau Promoting Road Safety for Preadolescent Boys with Mild Intellectual

Disabilities: The Effect of Cognitive Style and the Role of Attention in the Identification of Safe and Dangerous Road-Crossing Sites

Rethinking Literacy Development of Bilingual Students with Special Needs: Challenges, Struggles and Growth

Students with Disabilities in Mainstream Schools: District Level Perspectives on Anti-Bullying Policy and Practice Within Schools in Alberta

Cross-Cultural Comparisons And Implications For Students With EBD:A Decade Of Understanding

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 25 No2 2010

International Journal of Special Education

REVISED EDITORIAL POLICY from 2009

The International Journal of Special Education publishes original articles concerning special education. Experimental as well as theoretical articles are sought. Potential contributors are encouraged to submit reviews of research, historical, and philosophical studies, case studies and content analyses in addition to experimental correlation studies, surveys and reports of the effectiveness of innovative programs.

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VOLUME 25 2010 NUMBER 2

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 25 No2 2010

I N D E XReading Disabilities of Chinese Elementary School Students: Beyond The Phonological Deficits of Single-Character Identification……………………………………………...1

Hua Jin, Dan Lin, Dake Zhang, Hongbo Wen, Huohong Zhu, Xianyou He, Lei Mo

Academic and Cognitive Profiles of Students with Autism:Implications for Classroom Practice and Placement…………………………………………………………….…...8

Jennifer A. Kurth, Ann M. Mastergeorge

Comparative Study of Motor Performance of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students in Reaction Time, Visual-Motor Control and Upper Limb Speed and Dexterity Abilities……………………………………………………………...………….15

Anastasia N. Gkouvatzi, Konstantinos Mantis, Antonis Kambas

The Prevalence and Characteristics of Psychiatric Disorders Among Adolescent Bedouin with Mild to Moderate Intellectual Disability….. ……………………….…………………...26

Iris Manor-Binyamini

Impact of the Special Education Vocational Education Program (VEP) on Student Career Success…………………………………………………………...……………………………...34

Nelly E. Ofoegbu, Reza Azarmsa

Report on an Intervention Involving Massage and Yoga for Male Adolescents Attending a School for Disadvantaged Male Adolescents in the UK………………………………………..……..47

LA Powell, L. Potter

Traumatic Brain Injury in K-12 Students: Where Have All the Children Gone?………….……………………….55Larry E. Schutz, Kenyatta O. Rivers, Elizabeth McNamara, Judith A. Schutz, Emilio J. Lobato

Differences in Self-Concept Among Student with and without Learning Disabilities in Al Karak District in Jordan.A Model For the Education of Gifted Learners in Lebanon……………….…...…..72

Mohammed AL Zyoudi

Enhancing Orthographic Competencies and Reducing Domain-Specific Test Anxiety: The Systematic Use of Algorithmic and Self-Instructional Task Formats in Remedial Spelling Training…………………………………………………………………………………………..…..78

Günter Faber

Inclusion of children with disabilities: Teachers' attitudes and requirements for environmental accommodations………………………………………………………………………….….….89

Eynat Gal, Naomi Schreur and Batya Engel-Yeger

The Comparative Effect of Fluency Instruction with and without a Comprehension Strategy for Elementary School Students…………………………………………...…………....100

Beverly Patton, Shane Crosby, David Houchins, Kristine Jolivette

Raising Children with Disabilities in China: The Need for Early Interventions……………………………….….113Linda H. Chiang, Azar Hadadian

The Development of Special Education in Macau…………………………………………………………...……119Diana Cheng Man Lau, Pong Kau Yuen

Promoting Road Safety for Preadolescent Boys with Mild Intellectual Disabilities: The Effect of Cognitive Style and the Role of Attention in the Identification of Safe and Dangerous Road-Crossing Sites……………..……………………………………………………….127

Alevriadou Anastasia

Rethinking Literacy Development of Bilingual Students with Special Needs:Challenges, Struggles and Growth …………..………………………………………………………….………..136

Pierre Wilbert Orelus, Mary D. Hills

Students with Disabilities in Mainstream Schools: District Level Perspectives on Anti-Bullying Policy and Practice Within Schools in Alberta………………………………………………...148

Małgorzata Gil, José da Costa

Cross-Cultural Comparisons And Implications For Students With EBD:A Decade Of Understanding...................................................................................................................................162

Sumita Chakraborti-Ghosh, Emily Mofield, Karee Orellana

VOLUME 25 2010 NUMBER 2

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Vol 25 No 2 2010

READING DISABILITIES OF CHINESE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS: BEYOND THE PHONOLOGICAL DEFICITS OF SINGLE-CHARACTER IDENTIFICATION

Hua JinSouth China Normal University

Dan LinChinese University of Hong Kong

Dake ZhangPurdue University

Hongbo WenHuohong ZhuXianyou He

South China Normal University and

Lei Mo – Corresponding Author

South China Normal University

This study investigated the contributions of single-word identification and compound word categorization to Chinese students’ reading achievement among 31 students with reading difficulties and 20 students without reading difficulties. The results suggested that, deficiency in single characters identification is not the primarily reason for dysfunction in reading Chinese. This is different from alphabetic language readers. Chinese students’ difficulty in accessing the meaning of compound words in a specific context contributes greatly to students’ reading achievement. The results call for researchers’ and school teachers’ attention to focus on teaching compound words during Chinese instruction. The results also suggested the need for further research on compound words.

Reading is a basic component of language that influences many other areas of academic functioning. Students’ problems with reading comprehension may seriously impair their development of cognitive and social skills (Benner, Beaudoin, Kinder, & Mooney, 2005). Although Chinese language is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, so far little research existed about Chinese students’ reading disorders (Penney, Leung, Chan, Meng & McBride-Chang, 2005; Shu, McBride-Chang, Wu, & Liu, 2006; Yin & Weekes, 2004).

There still is not an agreed-upon conclusion of the prevalence of reading disability among Chinese students. One of the reasons is the definition of Chinese reading disabilities is controversial (Shu, McBride-Chang, Wu, & Liu, 2006). In western countries, reading disability is defined as a specific language–based disorder of constitutional origin characterized by difficulties in single word identification, usually reflecting insufficient phonological processing (Lyon, 1995, p.9). Consequently, researchers reported that prevalence of Chinese reading disability is as low as1.92 % (Yin & Weekes, 2004); or as 2.9% (Kuo, 1978), and some researchers doubt the existence of dyslexia in logographic langages (Makita, 1968; Rozin & Gleitman, 1977). However, there is a large proportion of Chinese-speaking children who have an average or above average IQ and have difficulties reading Chinese, even though they do not have special difficulties with identifying single Chinese characters.

Reading disabilities have various manifestations in different languages (Miles, 2000). As the users of a non-alphabetic language, Chinese students with reading disabilities may demonstrate unique problems in learning reading (Ho, Chan, Tsang, Lee, & Luan, 2004). As such, the assertion that the failure in identifying single characters is the main feature for Chinese students who have reading difficulties is subject to dispute. Unfortunately, influenced by the dyslexia research of alphabetic languages, previous studies for Chinese reading emphasis on processing deficits at the single character identification (Ho, Chan, Tsang, & Lee, 2002；Ho et al., 2004; Shu et al., 2006), but little research addressed Chinese

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students’ difficulties in other areas such as compound word identification and passage comprehension (So & Siegel, 1997; Penny et al., 2005).

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the etiology of reading failure in children who experience difficulties reading, and to provide implications for researchers and educators about what should be the focus of Chinese instruction. Specifically, this study was designed to address the following questions: (1) Does the single-word character identification primarily account for students’ difficulty in Chinese reading? (2) What is the role of semantic identification for compound words in difficulties reading Chinese? And (3) What is the relation between word-level processing and passage comprehension in reading Chinese? Features of Chinese Words The unique deficits of students with Chinese reading disability are closely relevant to the special features of the Chinese sprits (Shu et al., 2005, 2006). Therefore, it is critical for researchers to thoroughly consider the characteristics of Chinese written language, which is greatly distinct from alphabetic languages (Ho, et al., 2002).

The first feature of Chinese vocabulary is its great amount of compound words.Similar examples of compound words exist in English, for example, the morpheme [work] occurs in the compound words workplace, homework, workforce, and overwork (Shu et al., 2006). The morpheme in English usually indicates the same semantic meaning in a variety of compound words, which means, if you know word A and B, then it is easy to access to the meaning of compound word AB. However, in Chinese language, even if you can recognize A and B as two single characters, you may have difficulties to understand what the compound word AB means. For example, a single word means flower in Chinese and means living, but the compound word means peanut. Additionally, the same single word A may have different meanings in compound words AB and AC. Therefore, readers need to identify the specific meaning of each character varying with the context. Reading problems may occur when students are unable to identify a particular meaning of a character in a specific compound word (Penny et al., 2005; Shu et al., 2006).

Another feature of written Chinese is that no obvious boundary exists between words. English writing, people use spaces to segment different words; however, there is no visual space between Chinese characters or words within a sentence. Chinese readers have to segment the sentence into several semantic units all by themselves. How to correctly combine the characters into semantic units in a sentence may greatly impact students’ reading performance. For example, in the sentence of

(How well the peanut grows.), the character could combine with the preceding character to make a compound word (peanut, a noun); or combine with the following character to make another compound word (grow, a verb). Therefore, the way a reader segments a sentence may lead to completely different meanings the sentence conveyed. If a reader regards the and as two independent semantic units ( ), the meaning of the sentence is how well the flower grows. In the contrary, if the characters and is grouped as a compound word ( ), the meaning is how well the peanut grows. Chinese readers have to decide how to segment the sentences into semantic units appropriately according to the context.

In conclusion, Chinese written language has its own characteristics, and these unique features of Chinese written language may greatly impact Chinese students’ reading process. This study is going to explore how Chinese students’ identification of compound words contributes to their reading achievement.

MethodParticipantsThirty one children (mean age =9.6, 17 boys, 14 girls) participated in the present study. Written consent forms for children’s participation in this study were obtained from each family. These subjects were screened from 1315 students from ten primary schools in the urban area of Guangzhou City. A standardized reading comprehension test was used to select participants. The inclusive criteria involved: (1) the student should demonstrate an achievement of the reading comprehension below 30%

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of peers of the same age; (2) with normal intelligence, specifically, students should have IQs of 85 or above, which is considered as the cutoff score for learning disabilities and mental retardation (Frankenberger & Fronzalio, 1991); and (3) without any labeled suspected physical or emotional problems. Subjects who met all of those three criteria were then involved and labeled as Low Achieving Readers (LAR) in this study. The demographic information of the participants was provided in table1.

Another twenty normally achieving children (10 boys and 10 girls) from primary schools matched in education level served as controls for the poor readers group, the average age was 9.4 years old. All participants in LAR group and control group are native Chinese speakers.

Table 1.Participating Student Demographic Information

Variable LAR Group Control GroupGender

Male 17 10Female 14 10

Grade3 31 20

Mean Age in months (SD)

114 (10.25) 112 (11.07)

RaceHan 31 20

SESLow incoming family 4 1

Classification LD 31 0

Remedial class students 24 2NL 0 17

Other 1 mild visual impaired 1 with emotional disorderIQ

Full Scale 89.04 NAAchievement

Reading PR(Media) 27% 64%Note: LD= learning disabilities; NL=not labeled; Han=the mainstream race of the Chinese population; SES=social economic status; IQ scores were obtained from the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children-Fourth Edition (Wechsler, 2003); PR=percentile rank.

Measures and ProceduresThe reading comprehension test was administered in small groups by four trained graduate research assistants during the after school program. Other tests were administered individually during daytime in a quiet room at school sites. To ensure that all participants could understand the tasks, researchers gave students informal trials before the formal testing.

Reading Comprehension Test. The Evaluation Scale of Reading Ability for Grade Three was employed to estimate the reading achievement of the subjects. This scale was a part of the assessment handbook of reading ability for Chinese elementary school students. It was developed and standardized with a national norm (China Education Bureau, 2005). The internal consistency reliability ( )was 0.701, and the split-half reliability was 0.746. These results from statistical analysis indicated that this scale had a good content validity.

Single Character Identification (SCI) Test. A self-developed rapid naming test was employed to measure students’ abilities in single-character–identification. E-Prime (Schneider, Eschmann, & Zuccolotto, 2002) programming software was used in the test. The test consisted of 40 frequently- used single characters chosen from Chinese elementary school textbooks. Each character was tested as a trial. In each trial, a fixation point was first displayed at the center of the screen for 1000 ms. After that, a single word showed up, and children were instructed to name it as fast and as accurately as possible. The computer recorded students’ responses and a trial was completed. A reappearance of fixation point indicated another trial would start. The reaction time (RT) of naming was recorded by computers and experimenters record the accuracy.

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Compound Word Categorization (CWC) Test. A self-developed semantic categorizing test was employed to measure students’ ability to access the meaning to a compound word in a given context. There were forty trials in this task. In each trial, the subjects saw four words presented on the center of the computer screen. Three of them were under the same category, while one of them was not. Three

words of the same category provided a semantic context. For example, (pencil),

(ear), (rubber), (ruler) composed a trial, in which pencil, rubber, and ruler are all stationery, whereas ear is not. So the students need to access to the meaning of the four compound words and tell which one differed from others. Computers recorded the RT and accuracy for students’ response.

ResultsGroup Analysis Investigators analyzed the difference between means of the two tests of the LAR group and the control group (table 2). In the SCI test, the average accuracy of the LAR group was over 95%, but it was still lower than that of control group, t (49) =2.596, p<0.05. The average RT of SCI test in the LAR group is significant longer than that of control group, t (49) =2.722, p<0.01. The similar pattern was found on the CWC task: the accuracy of LAR group was lower than that of the control group, t (49) =4.883, p<0.01. Their RT also appeared longer than that of control group, although no statistically significant difference was found, t(49) =0.16, p>0.05.

In line with the previous studies on Chinese reading disabilities (e.g., Ho et al., 2002, 2004), the results showed that LAR performed worse than the control group at both single character identification and compound word categorization tasks.

Table 2.Means and standard deviations of tasks of two groups

Control group (n=20) LAR group (n=31)Reading Achievement 67.55(9.52) 30.08(7.44)**

RT of SCI (ms) 603.54(96.47) 697.61(133.52)*Accuracy of SCI (%) 98.7 (2.0) 95.9(4.5) **

RT of CWC (ms) 2771.72(617.48) 2743.77(673.95)Accuracy of CWC (%) 76(8.7) 59.3(13.5) **

Note: SCI=single character identification, CWC=compound word categorizing, RT=responding time, * p <0.05; **p <0.01.

Individual AnalysisThe purpose of individual analysis was to find out at which task certain individual performed poorly, and at which task they performed normally. With the means and standard deviations of the normal achieving students in the three tests, we set up a 95% confidential band (Ramus, 2003) to detect students who did poorly comparing to normal achieving students.

Table 3.The Number of LAR Students with Deficit in SCI or CWC Task

SCI normally SCI poorly Chi SquareCWC normally 5 6 0.22CWC poorly 9 11Note: SCI=single character identification, CWC=compound word categorizing.

The results suggested that single character identification deficits could not primarily account for the comprehension difficulty in Chinese reading. Table 3 showed that five individuals from LAR group performed well in two tasks of word processing, indicating that about 16.1% of poor readers have no problems in single word identification and compound word categorization. In addition, 19.4% (six children) showed only deficit in identifying single words, 29% (nine students) showed only deficit in categorizing compound words, and 35.5% showed deficits in both two tasks.

Correlation AnalysisTable 4 presents a matrix of the correlation coefficients between students’ reading achievement and the two tests for character identification and word semantic retrieving respectively. Reading achievements were found to correlate significantly with the recognizing test of single characters (r=0.509 for normal achieving group, p<0.05; r=0.562 for LAR group, p<0.01), and the compound word categorizing

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measure (r=0.60 for normal achieving group, p< 0.01; r =0.618 for LAR group, p<0.01), while the correlation between two word level tasks was not significant (r=0.140 for normal achieving group, r=-0.059 for LAR group). In both groups, compound word categorizing associated stronger with reading achievements, compared with single character identification.

Table 4.Pearson Correlation Coefficients among Measures Conducted in the Study

Reading Achievement Accuracy of SCI Accuracy of CWC Control group

Reading Achievement 1Accuracy of SCI 0.509* 1

Accuracy of CWC 0.605** 0.140 1LAR group

Reading Achievement 1Accuracy of SCI 0.562** 1

Accuracy of CWC 0.618** -0.059 1

Note: SCI=single character identification, CWC=compound word categorizing; * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

The investigators had a close look at the contributions of SCI and CWC to the reading achievement. As shown in Table 5, SCI and CWC together explained 54.9% of the variance in normal reading group; whereas these two tasks together explained 74.1% of the variance of reading achievement in LAR group. The results suggested that SCI and CWC are important predictors in identifying developmentally poor readers.

Moreover, when controlling CWC, SCI alone could only explain 18.3% of the variance of students’ reading achievement in normal achieving group; whereas it explains 35.9% of all variance of students’ reading achievement for the LAR group. This indicates that students’ ability in single-character-recognizing is one of the primary predictors for students’ reading comprehension achievement; it is especially important among students with reading problems; however, it is not the most vital predictor of Chinese students’ reading development as in English.

Table 5.Contributions of Single-character-identification and Compound-word-categorizing

to Students’ Reading AchievementVariable Beta R R2 △R2 F

Control CWC .54 .605 .366 .366 10.39SCI .43 .741 .549 .183 10.37

LAR CWC .65 .618 .382 .382 17.91.60 .861 .741 .359 40.09

Note: SCI=single character identification, CWC=compound word categorizing.

DiscussionThis study was aimed to investigate the roles of single word identification and compound word identification in Chinese comprehension. Results suggested that, single word identification made certain contributions to Chinese reading comprehension, however, the identification of compound words made greater contribution in Chinese reading. The results indicated that, due to the unique characteristics of Chinese language, the statement that the basic reading skills are primarily caused by deficits in phonological awareness (p.54, Lyon, 1996) is subject to much depute.

The Role of Phonological Processing for Single–characters in Reading Chinese The results found certain contribution of the single-character identification to Chinese reading achievement. Consistent with western researchers, the findings suggested that the identification of single word is important for basic reading skills, and it is prerequisite for comprehending the whole sentence and text (Kail & Hall, 1999). Group analysis showed that the poor readers performed worse in SCI task than normal readers.

However, it seemed that students’ comprehension difficulty in Chinese reading should not be attributed primarily to their deficits in single character identification. As shown in Table 3, the individual analysis

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of the data showed that 14 (45.16%) students performed well in SCI test. It indicated that although these students have difficulties in reading, they do not have problems in identifying a character phonologically. In addition, single word identification only explains 18.3% of all variance of Chinese students’ reading achievement.

The reason why single word identification in reading Chinese is not as important as in English may be due to the large amount of homophones in Chinese. The existence of a great amount of homonym in Chinese languages certainly hinders the access of character meaning by phonology (Li & Yip, 1998; Tan & Perfetti, 1997; Zhou, Huang & Yu, 2002). Only decoding the sound of a single Chinese character could not ensure the reader able to retrieve the meaning of the character, because there are some other characters sharing the same sound. Instead, identifying a character by its visual features appears to be an effective way in reading such homophones (Zhou & Marslen-Wison, 1996; Zhang, 2005). The meaning of a character could be activated by the visual form of the character, and the ability of character identification could hardly impose on this process. Therefore, the ability of single word identification contributes less in Chinese reading than in English reading.

The Role of Semantic Identification of Compound Words in Chinese ReadingResults suggested that compound-word-identification in Chinese played an important role in reading Chinese. In this study, among 31 low achieving readers, only six students purely displayed deficits in single-character -identification, nine students’ demonstrated deficits in semantic accession for compound words, and 11 students had problems with both. A larger number of students showed deficit in the semantic access than pure deficit in single-character-identification. Results of the correlation and regression analysis also supported the conclusion that the deficit in semantic identification for compound words is another important reason of students’ difficulties in Chinese reading. The results support the hypothesis that compound word identification makes great contribution to Chinese students’ reading achievement. As described, there is no visual boundary between Chinese semantic units, and the single word A may represent a definitely different meaning in a compound word AB, and another different meaning in the compound word AC. As thus, it is not surprising the decoding of compound words play an essential role in reading Chinese.

Conclusions and ImplicationsThe present study suggested that, as a specific type of ideographic script, Chinese reading difficulty is not primarily caused by single-word-identification; instead, the semantic identification of compound words largely contributes to students reading achievement. In addition, the comprehension of the context and word-level-processing seem to be closely interrelated to each other, which means, students need to refer to the context to decide how to segment a sentence into semantic units before they can understand the words.

Thus, in teaching and training, educational practitioners should not only emphasise students’ single character identification; instead, teaching multiple reading skills is necessary in Chinese literacy instruction, including how to segment sentences, how to identify compound words, and how to visually recognize a single character. In addition, researchers need to thoroughly reconsider how to define the Chinese reading disabilities, as phonological skill is not the primary feature of reading disabilities. As most of previous studies and interventions focus on phonological training for single-word identification, more research is needed on the cognitive mechanism of the compound word identification, as well as interventions to improve students’ ability to recognize the compound words. ReferencesAram, D. M. (1997). Reading without meaning in young children. Topics in Language Disorders, 17, 1-13.Benner, G.. J., Beaudoin, K., Kinder, D., & Mooney, P. (2005). The relationship between the beginning reading skills and social adjustment of a general sample of elementary aged children. Education & Treatment of Children, 28, 250-265.Biscaldi, M., Fischer, B., & Hartnegg, K. (2000). Voluntary saccadic control in dyslexia. Perception, 29, 509-521.China Education Bureau. (2005). Assessment handbook of reading ability for Chinese elementary school students. Beijing, China: China Education Press. (In Chinese)Frankenberger, W., & Franzaglio, K. (1991). A review of states’ criteria and procedures for identifying children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning disabilities, 8, 495-500.

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http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=318&pmid=13291&TS=1221567540&clientId=42456&VInst=PROD&VName=PQD&VType=PQD


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Zhou, X., Zhuang, J., & Yu, M. (2002). Phonological activation of disyllabic compound words in the speech of Chinese. Acta Psychologoical Sinica, 34, 242-247.

ACADEMIC AND COGNITIVE PROFILES OF STUDENTS WITH AUTISM:IMPLICATIONS FOR CLASSROOM PRACTICE AND PLACEMENT

Jennifer A. Kurth Northern Arizona University

Ann M. MastergeorgeUniversity of California, Davis

The rising incidence of autism and placement in general education necessitates a greater understanding of the impact of educational placement on academic achievement for adolescents with autism. In the present study, the academic profiles of adolescents with autism who have been educated in inclusive and self-contained settings are described using three measures: cognitive assessments, adaptive behavior, and academic achievement. Findings indicate significant between group differences (inclusion versus self-contained) in academic achievement measures. However, there were no significant differences in intelligence or adaptive behavior assessment scores for those adolescents education. Students who were included in general education obtained significantly higher scores on tests of achievement, including subtests measuring abstract and inferential skills; however, all students demonstrated emerging academic skills on standardized measures. The importance of academic inclusion for adolescents with autism is described.

IntroductionAutism spectrum disorders, including, Autistic Disorder, Asperger syndrome, and Pervasive Developmental Disorders - Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), are disorders with childhood onset characterized by core deficits in communication, social interaction, and repetitive behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Autism may be comorbid with other disorders, including learning disability in approximately 67% of children (Mayes & Calhoun, 2006). The percentage of students with autism who have a below average intelligence (full scale IQ below 70) has been found to range between 30% (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003a) and 75% (Dempsey & Foreman, 2001). Further results suggest that many students with autism have motor and visual strengths (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003b), and mean academic achievement test scores are generally commensurate with IQ for students with autism (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003b).

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 holds states and schools accountable for student achievement in the core curricular areas of math, reading/language arts and science, including students with autism (Yell, Drasgow, & Lowrey, 2005). Furthermore, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004 requires that students with disabilities have access to, and make progress in, the general education curriculum (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004). It is, therefore, increasingly important that students with autism be taught the core curriculum with accountability measures consistently implemented in order to document their academic progress.

Discussions of access to and progress in the core general education curriculum inevitably bring up the on-going debate of placement in general education, as opposed to special education (self-contained) classes, for adolescents with autism for core general education content instruction. The number of students with autism spectrum disorders being included in general education for instruction in core curriculum is rising each year (Boutot & Bryant, 2005). As of 2003, approximately 27% of all children with autism spent 80% of their full educational day in general education classrooms (27th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2007).

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The rising rates of inclusion have led some to question the effectiveness of this model (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1994; Zigmond, 2003), particularly for teaching academic skills. However, the support for inclusive education has received a great deal of attention in the empirical literature (Causton-Theoharis & Malmgren, 2004; Cawley, Hayden, Cade, & Baker-Kroczynski, 2002; Dore, Dion, Wagner, & Brunet, 2002; Fisher & Meyer, 2002; Hedeen & Ayres, 2002; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; McCleskey, Henry, & Hodges, 1998; Meyer, 2001). In a comprehensive review of the inclusion literature, McGregor and Vogelsberg (1998) concluded that placement in inclusive settings is associated with high levels of social interaction, skill development in academic areas, and communication skills for students with and without disabilities (McGregor & Vogelsberg, 1998). Nevertheless, much of the existing literature related to outcomes of inclusion has been based on findings from students with more mild disabilities as opposed to students with autism (Frattura & Capper, 2006; Rea, McLaughlin, & Walther-Thomas, 2002; Vaughn, Elbaum, Schumm, & Hughes, 1998).

Although rates of autism have been increasing dramatically over the past several decades (Centers for Disease Control, 2007), the academic skill development of students with autism is not well known, nor is the impact of placement in general versus special education settings on skill acquisition (Harrower & Dunlap, 2001). The purpose of this research is to address the following questions related to academic skill development in autism: (1) What are areas of relative academic strength and concern for adolescents with autism? and (2) What are the effects of setting (inclusion versus self-contained) on academic skill acquisition for adolescents with autism?

MethodParticipantsFifteen students with autism (12 males and 3 females) participated in this study, as depicted in Table 1. To determine the long-term impact of inclusive or self-contained education, the student participants attended in junior high school at the time of the study, or in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades, and ranged in age from 12 years 3 months to 15 years 9 months old. These students had diagnoses of autism; none of the students had a diagnosis of Asperger Syndrome. All students spoke English as their primary language, although their communication skills ranged from functionally non-verbal (that is they used pictures or tactile icons to communicate), to echolalia, to limited spoken language. All students were continuously

Table 1Student Assessment Scores & Demographic Information

ID Program Grade Age School Gender IQ VABS WJ-3

1 SC 8 14 A M 62 29 162 IE 9 15 C M 69 48 783 SC 7 13 B M 58 26 14 SC 7 12 A M 63 50 145 SC 7 13 A F 62 † 51 86 SC 8 14 B M 64 53 227 IE 8 15 C M 63 50 858 IE 9 15 C M 68 49 829 SC 8 14 B M 50 † 31 110 IE 7 13 C F 50 † 33 5211 SC 9 15 B M 61 54 4712 SC 9 15 B M 60 44 813 IE 7 12 C M 67 41 8314 IE 8 13 D M 70 47 8315 IE 7 13 D F 67 43 65ID Program Grade Age School Gender IQ VABS WJ-3

Mean IE 64.9 44.4 75.4

Mean SCp-ValueF-Value

60.0.66.851

42.3.88

1.029

14.6.000*56.115

† TONI was administered, * p < .001, SC: Self-Contained, IE: Inclusive Education enrolled in special education since Kindergarten, and participated in either an inclusive or self-contained program for the duration of their education. Seven students were enrolled in inclusion

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programs, spending 80% or more of their instructional day in general education. These students received math and language arts instruction in general education settings. Eight students were in self-contained settings, spending less than 50% of their instructional day in general education and receiving their math and language arts instruction in special education settings. The students were enrolled in four schools in three suburban school districts in Northern California. As this is a quasi-experimental design, students remained in their current educational placements (inclusion or self-contained); they did not change settings or classrooms as part of this study.

Instruments and ProcedureThree forms of assessment were collected with each student participant to gain a holistic view of their overall abilities in three broad domains: adaptive behavior, cognitive ability, and academic achievement. As the primary purpose of this investigation is to understand the academic achievement of adolescents with autism, the adaptive behavior and intelligence scores of students were collected solely to provide descriptions of students; the results from the academic achievement measures are analyzed for this study. All of the assessments were completed by a qualified administrator, including either school psychologists or credentialed teachers.

Cognitive Assessments. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition (WISC) or the Test of Non-Verbal Intelligence, 3rd Edition (TONI) was administered to the adolescents with autism, depending upon the language skills of the student. According to the technical manuals of both assessments, the TONI and WISC are both considered valid and reliable measures of intelligence for students with autism (Brown, Sherbenou, & Johnsen, 1997; Williams, Weiss, & Rolfhus, 2003). Students with limited verbal language skills (based on teacher report) were administered the TONI rather than the WISC. All subtests of the WISC or TONI were administered in order presented, following standard administration, ceiling, and basal rules. Administration of the WISC assessment took approximately one to one and a half hours to complete, while administration of the TONI was completed in approximately half an hour.

Adaptive Behavior Assessments. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 2nd Edition (VABS), an interview based measurement of adaptive behavior, was administered to provide additional information about the communication, daily living skills, social, motor, and maladaptive behavior of the students with autism in this study (Sparrow, Cicchetti, & Balla, 2005). In addition to being a reliable, valid measure of adaptive behavior, the VABS is commonly administered to school aged students with autism (Charman, Howlin, Berry, & Prince, 2004; Fenton et al., 2003; Tomanik, Pearson, Loveland, Lane, & Shaw, 2007). Teacher rating forms were administered for purposes of this investigation in keeping with the school-based focus of the present study. All five sub-tests of the VABS Classroom Edition were administered individually at a time that was convenient to the teacher interviewee; the interview took approximately 45 minutes to complete with each teacher. The scores collected were compared with the norming sample of same aged peers.

Academic Achievement Assessment. A standardized achievement assessment, the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ-3), was completed with each student following standard scoring, basal, and ceiling rules as outlined in the administration and scoring manuals of the test. The WJ-3 is an individually administered achievement test, is considered a valid measure of achievement for students with autism, and is commonly administered by school districts (e.g. Ozonoff et al., 2005).

Only those subtests of the WJ-3 needed to obtain reading, writing, and math scores (a total of nine subtests) were administered. The testing continued until the ceiling was reached; most students completed the entire assessment in approximately one hour. The scores collected were compared with the norming sample of same grade peers. If a student in the study had recently been administered the WJ-3, the alternate version of the test was administered so as to maintain test validity.

Based on the subtest descriptions provided from the WJ-3 Examiner’s Manual, it was determined that some subtests require students to apply rote or procedural skills to solve the tasks, while other subtests require students to apply abstract and inferential reasoning skills to complete the task correctly. Tasks are defined as rote/procedural when students reproduce answers using skills previously learned from memory (Mayer, 2002). The Letter-Word Identification, Spelling, Calculation, and Math Fluency subtests are all considered to require rote/procedural skills to obtain correct answers. Tasks are defined as abstract/inferential when students are required to transfer skills previously learned to tasks that are unfamiliar to the learner (Mayer, 2002). The Reading Fluency, Passage Comprehension, Writing

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Samples, Writing Fluency, and Applied Problems subtests have been deemed abstract/inferential for the purposes of this study. Data Analysis. Data analysis was completed using a multivariate analysis of variance to explore the impact of setting (inclusion versus self-contained) on the three dependent variables (scores on intelligence assessments, adaptive behavior assessments, and academic achievement assessments). To control for power in this small sample size, the alpha level was adjusted to a .15 level (Stevens, 1996). It is felt that this conservative level is best suited given the small sample size, although as shown in Table 2, a number of scores were significant at the .01 and .05 levels. Both statistical significance and effect size were calculated.

ResultsStudent Assessment ScoresStudents who are fully included in general education had a mean intelligence score of 64.9 and mean adaptive behavior score of 44.4, as shown in Table 1. Those students not included in general education had mean intelligence score of 60.0 and mean adaptive behavior score of 42.3. No statistically significant differences were detected between groups on measures of intelligence or adaptive behavior. This indicates that there is no association between placement in inclusion and self-contained on global measures of intelligence and adaptive behavior; likewise, students did not appear to be placed in inclusion or self-contained settings based on these scores. This conjecture is supported by a review of student Individual Education Program (IEP) records conducted as part of a larger study (Kurth & Mastergeorge, 2009) in which students with autism were placed in inclusion or self-contained programs primarily due to school district philosophy. That is, students who resided in school districts with an inclusion philosophy were included, whereas students who resided in school districts with separate classes for students with special education needs were in self-contained programs.

While all students in the sample had essentially equivalent intelligence and adaptive behavior scores, placement in general education has a significant impact on academic achievement, as measured on the WJ-3. Statistically significant differences were detected using MANOVA between students included in general education and those in self-contained settings: F (1, 13) = 9.382, p = .03 with a large effect size, calculated using eta squared, at .31.

Achievement ScoresA closer inspection of the achievement scores from the WJ-3 reveals further differences between students included and those in self-contained math and language arts classes. In all three subtests of the WJ-3 (reading, writing, and math) those students who are fully included outperformed the students who were not included, as seen in Table 2.

Table 2Mean Achievement Standard Scores

Subtest Included Self-Contained F-Value Skill Type

Broad Reading 67.6* 13.1 24.474

Letter-Word Identification 86.9* 18.5 25.810 Rote

Reading Fluency 79.3* 6.5 77.226 Abstract

Passage Comprehension 68.1* 7.0 40.747 Abstract

Broad Writing 83.6* 14.1 54.376

Writing Samples 84.0* 22.8 18.475 Abstract

Spelling 94.4* 16.3 36.88 Rote

Writing Fluency 78.6* 12.0 47.171 Abstract

Broad Math 77.4* 8.5 49.571

Calculation 96.1* 20.3 32.678 Rote

Math Fluency 83.6* 19.3 29.707 Rote

Applied Problems 70.9* 12.4 34.462 Abstract *Significant at p<.001

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In all cases, inclusion is associated with statistically higher standard scores on subtests of the WJ-3 as measured using MANOVA techniques, with F-values ranging between 18 and 77, p-values at .000 (writing samples is significant at .001), and large effect sizes calculated with eta squared ranging from .58 to .85. Mean scores for the students who were included ranged from within the average range (standard scores above 85) to two standard deviations below the mean (standard scores between 55 and 70). Students who were not included in general education have mean standard scores at least four standard deviations below the mean (standard scores lower than 40) on all subtests of the WJ-3.

Together, these results demonstrate that inclusion is associated with significant academic gains for students with autism. That is, students have comparable intelligence and adaptive behavior, yet made significantly greater academic gains in three broad areas (reading, writing, and math) when included in general education for instruction in these content areas.

Further examination of Table 2 reveals areas of relative strength and weaknesses for students with autism. Within the reading tests, Letter-Word Identification (reading decoding) was an area of relative strength. Reading comprehension, in both Passage Comprehension and Reading Fluency subtests, were areas of relative weakness. Within the writing domain, Spelling was an area of relative strength for both students who were included and were not included, while Writing Fluency was an area of relative weakness. Finally, within the mathematics domain, Calculation was an area of relative strength, while solving Applied Problems (e.g. word problems) was an area of relative challenge for both groups.

Previous research has described students with autism spectrum disorders as having strengths in rote and procedural skills and weaknesses in abstract and inferential skills (Goldstein, Minshew, & Siegel, 1994; Griffin, Griffin, Fitch, Albera, & Gingras, 2006; Myles, Barnhill, Hagiwara, Griswold, & Simpson, 2001; Myles & Simpson, 2002). The current study corroborates these findings in that all students with autism in our study, in both inclusive and self-contained settings, obtained their lowest mean subtest scores in abstract task areas. However, the current study extends these findings by noting that students with autism who are included in general education obtained higher scores in abstract and inferential skill areas than students with autism educated in special education settings. These findings suggest the importance of educational setting and participation in core general education curriculum on skill development for students with autism.

Discussion and ImplicationsThe present study aimed to describe the academic skills of adolescents with autism and the impact of instructional setting (inclusion versus self-contained) on academic skill acquisition. The findings indicate that students with autism have emerging academic skills in all three areas assessed with academic achievement scores that were generally one to four standard deviations below the mean expected based on student grade level. Students with autism in the present study were found to have areas of strength in concrete, procedural academic tasks. Students were less successful in performing abstract and inferential tasks, including passage comprehension, writing passages, and solving applied math problems (e.g. word problems).

In addition to describing the academic achievement profiles of adolescent students with autism, the present study signifies the importance of educational setting on skill development. In all academic areas, students with autism who had received all of their math and language arts instruction in general education outperformed those students who had received their instruction in special education settings in skill areas that are traditionally difficult for students with autism (abstract skills). These findings suggest that inclusion is academically beneficial to students with autism in this sample. The small sample size and geographically limited nature of the present study preclude broad generalizations; more research is thus warranted with larger sample sizes in more diverse areas.

These findings are especially interesting in that the participants were in junior high school at the time of this study. During junior high school, curriculum in general education typically becomes more rigorous, increasingly complex, abstract, and inferential (Adreon & Stella, 2001; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001). Future studies are warranted to examine the impact of delivery of instruction in special versus general education settings on student outcome in rote and applied tasks across curricular areas. Presumably adolescents engage in different activities and receive different types of instruction in general and special education settings. Understanding the impact of this instruction and instructional activities on student learning of both rote and applied skills is needed.

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The results of the present study further indicate the need for a challenging academic curriculum for students with autism. Evidence suggests that adolescents with autism are too often provided disjointed curriculum that focuses on activities, functional skills, or specific IEP objectives rather than instruction based on a general education core curriculum. As a result, a scope and sequence of curriculum and learning objectives are often omitted. As evidenced here, students with autism can and do learn academic skills, albeit at an emerging level. Therefore, it is necessary to provide a challenging and appropriate curriculum to students with autism to facilitate their learning of a range of skills, beyond merely functional skills.

ReferencesAdreon, D., & Stella, J. (2001). Transition to Middle and High School: Increasing the Success of Students with Asperger Syndrome. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36(5), 266-271.American Institutes for Research (2007). 27th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Web site: www.ed.gov/offices/osers/osep. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistic manual of mental disorders. (4th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author. Boutot, E., & Bryant, D. (2005). Social integration of students with autism in inclusive settings. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40(1), 14-23.Brown, L., Sherbenou, R., & Johnsen, S. (1997). TONI-3 Examiner's Manual.Causton-Theoharis, J., & Malmgren, K. (2004). Increasing interactions between students with severe disabilities and their peers via paraprofessional training. Exceptional Children.Cawley, J., Hayden, S., Cade, E., & Baker-Kroczynski, S. (2002). Including students with disabilities into the general education science classroom. Exceptional Children, 68(4), 423-435.Centers for Disease Control. (2007). Prevalence of the autism spectrum disorders in multiple areas of the United States, surveillance years 2000 and 2002 Charman, T., Howlin, P., Berry, B., & Prince, E. (2004). Measuring developmental progress of children with autism spectrum disorder on school entry using parent report. Autism, 8(1), 89-100.Dempsey, I., & Foreman, P. (2001). A review of educational approaches for individuals with autism. International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education, 48(1), 103-116.Dore, R., Dion, A., Wagner, S., & Brunet, J.-P. (2002). High school inclusion of adolescents with mental retardation: A multiple case study. Education & Training in Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities, 37(3), 253-261.Fenton, G., D'Ardia, C., Valente, D., Vecchio, I., Fabrizi, A., & Bernabei, P. (2003). Vineland adaptive behavior profiles in children with autism and moderate to severe developmental delay. Autism, 7(3), 269-287.Fisher, M., & Meyer, L. H. (2002). Development and social competence after two years for students enrolled in inclusive and self-contained educational programs. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 27(3), 165-174.Frattura, E., & Capper, C. (2006). Segregated programs versus integrated comprehensive service delivery for all learners: Assessing the differences. Remedial and Special Education, 27(6), 355-364.Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. (1994). Inclusive schools movement and the radicalization of special education reform. Exceptional Children, 60, 294-309.Goldstein, G., Minshew, N., & Siegel, D. J. (1994). Age differences in academic achievement in high-functioning autistic individuals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(5), 671-680.Griffin, H. C., Griffin, L. W., Fitch, C. W., Albera, V., & Gingras, H. (2006). Educational Interventions for Individuals with Asperger Syndrome. Intervention in School & Clinic, 41(3), 150-155.Harrower, J., & Dunlap, G. (2001). Including children with autism in general education classrooms: A review of effective strategies. Behavior Modification, 25(5), 762-784.Hedeen, D. L., & Ayres, B. J. (2002). "You Want Me to Teach Him to Read?" Fulfilling the Intent of IDEA. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 13(3), 180-189.Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act,, H.R. 1350 (2004).Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2001). Promoting inclusion in secondary classrooms. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24(4), 265-274.Mayer, R. (2002). Rote versus meaningful learning. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 226-232.Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2003a). Ability Profiles in Children with Autism: Influence of Age and IQ. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 7(1), 65-80.Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2003b). Analysis of WISC-III, Stanford-Binet: IV, and Academic Achievement Test Scores in Children with Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(3), 329-341.

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Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2006). Frequency of reading, math, and writing disabilities in children with clinical disorders. Learning and Individual Differences, 16(2), 145-157.McCleskey, J., Henry, D., & Hodges, D. (1998). Inclusion: Where is it happening? Teaching Exceptional Children, 30, 4-10.McGregor, G., & Vogelsberg, R. T. (1998). Inclusive Schooling Practices: Pedagogical and Research Foundations: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.Meyer, L. H. (2001). The impact on inclusion on children's lives: Multiple outcomes, and friendship in particular. International Journal of Disability, Development & Education, 48, 9-31.Myles, B. S., Barnhill, G. P., Hagiwara, T., Griswold, D. E., & Simpson, R. L. (2001). A synthesis of studies on the intellectual, academic, social, emotional and sensory characteristics of children and youth with Asperger syndrome. Education & Training in Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities, 36(3), 304-311.Myles, B. S., & Simpson, R. L. (2002). Asperger syndrome: An overview of characteristics. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. Special Issue: Asperger syndrome, 17(3), 132-137.Rea, P. J., McLaughlin, V. L., & Walther-Thomas, C. (2002). Outcomes for students with learning disabilities in inclusive and pullout programs. Exceptional Children, 68(2), 203-222.Sparrow, Cicchetti, & Balla. (2005). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Pearson.Stevens, J. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Tomanik, S. S., Pearson, D. A., Loveland, K. A., Lane, D. M., & Shaw, J. B. (2007). Improving the reliability of autism diagnoses: Examining the utility of adaptive behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(5), 921-928.Vaughn, S., Elbaum, B., Schumm, J. S., & Hughes, M. T. (1998). Social outcomes for students with and without learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Journal for Learning Disabilities, 31, 428-436.Williams, P., Weiss, L., & Rolfhus, E. (2003). WISC-IV Technical and Interpretive Manual.Yell, M. L., Drasgow, E., & Lowrey, K. A. (2005). No Child Left Behind and Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(3), 130-139.Zigmond, N. (2003). Where should students with disabilities receive special education services? Is one place better than another? Journal of Special Education. Special Issue: What Is Special About Special Education?, 37(3), 193-199.

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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE OF DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING STUDENTS IN REACTION TIME, VISUAL-MOTOR CONTROL AND UPPER

LIMB SPEED AND DEXTERITY ABILITIES

Anastasia N. GkouvatziKonstantinos Mantis

andAntonis Kambas

Democritus University of Thrace

Using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test the motor performance of 34 deaf – hard-of-hearing pupils, 6-14 year, was evaluated in reaction time, visual-motor control and upper limb speed and dexterity. The two-way ANOVA variance analysis for two independent variables, group, age, and the Post Hoc (Scheffe test) for multiple comparisons were used. The analysis indicated no statistically important differences between Deaf and Hard-of--Hearing, but showed statistically important differences in the age factor, visual-motor control (F3,16 =5.06, p< .05), speed and upper limbs dexterity (F3,16 = 3.65, p< .05) and interaction between group and age for the ability of visual-motor control (F3,16 =4.44, p< .05). The results will show if it is necessary to schedule suitable intervention programs for the improvement of the performance in the specific abilities in order to allow the inclusion in the Physical Education courses.

Hearing and consequently the acquisition of speech and linguistic abilities are an essential precondition for the further development of individuality. The lack of hearing and ability of speech from a very young age plays a determinative role in school, social and psychological development (Kourbetis, 1998) and it is assumed to be influencing the development of motor abilities. Physical education and sport activities play an important role in acquiring and maintaining the pupils’ corporal and mental health and also in gaining positive attitudes in nutritional and health matters (Guedes, 2007). Physical Education and other curriculum lessons taught at a Primary School for Deaf Children, like in Schools for Children with Hearing aim at developing balanced and harmonious psychical, corporal, intellectual and social pupils abilities in order to support their educational and social integration. Weekly Physical Education courses improve fundamental motor abilities. This improvement is not only a training result but depended from the increase of corporal mass, the ability to generate strength (Haywood, 1993) and the changes that take place with growing age in sensory and perceptual mechanisms. A large number of tools have been created for the measurement of the motor performance and the definition of the development level of different motor abilities, which help in diagnosing and defining the deficiency degree of an important number of disabilities. The investigations, till now, indicated that in most cases, deaf people fall short in the sector of natural condition compared to hearing people. When analyzing the results of ten researches, Goodman and Hooper (1992), found out that the levels of deaf and hard-of-hearing natural conditions are comparable. Specifically, in six out of ten studies, statistically important differences were found out between deaf and hearing persons, in three out of the ten no important differences were found, while in only one differences were noticed between deaf and hard-of-hearing. Many researchers attributed this difference to the delay in receiving the stimulus, (Gabler-Halle, & Bembern, 1989), and also to communication problems during the conduct of the tests (Dunn & Ponticelli, 1988). Brunt and Dearmond (1980) from the Louisiana University used the Bruininiks-Oseretsky test of Motor Proficiency in order to study and describe the motor profile of deaf and hard-of-hearing. They evaluated 150 pupils of primary school age, attending a hearing children primary school and a deaf children primary school of the State, suffering from moderate or heavy deafness and simultaneously to the motor evaluation they examined as well the communication

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strategies during the test conduct, reaching the same conclusions. The same general results were also reached by the evaluation of 94 pupils (47 hearing and 47 deaf - hard-of-hearing pupils) performed by Campell (1983) with the Youth Fitness Test (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Reaction [AAHPER], 1976). This study established that the performance of the hearing persons group was notably better than in the group of deaf and hard-of-hearing, while the performance of the deaf persons was similar to the one of the hard-of-hearing. At the same time, Winnick and Short (1986) using the Project Unique Physical Fitness Test (Winnick & Short, 1985) when evaluating 1730 pupils (686 hearing, 152 hard-of-hearing, 892 deaf), on the one hand they did not notice any differences between deaf and hard-of-hearing but on the other hand, the hearing had a supremacy on the others only in strength and stamina of the abdominal muscles. When comparing deaf boys and deaf girls, Carlson (1972), Lindsey and O’ Neal (1976) did not find out important differences in the average motor performance between the two genders, a view also formulated by Brunt and Broadhead (1982) in a relative study. Many researchers have worked in the direction of controlling the reaction time, all of them using the same simple evaluation test, on persons with moderate and heavy intellectual inadequacy, Baumeister and Kellas (1968), Berkon and Baumeister (1967), Lally and Nettelbeck (1977), Wade, Newell and Wallace (1978), reaching the conclusion that these individuals have a longer reaction time, although they follow the same developmental process (sequence) with the normal populations (Kelly , et al., 1987). According to the literature, the reaction time for fine abilities is shorter than in rough ones. Sage (1977) this is ought to the different distance between brain-hand finger and brain-leg, results as well confirmed by a similar research of Drowatzky (1981). However, on the contrary, Kelly, et al., (1987) did not agree with the results of the previous researchers. They maintain that no important differences are noted in reaction time between fine and rough abilities and the small differences appearing in the average mean values are attributed to the non-normal development of the CNS (Central Nervous System). They also attributed these differences to the disability of these persons to isolate the specific muscle group that should perform and to the activation of non-indispensable muscles during the performance, following an aural or visual excitation. According to Butterfield, et al., (1993) there is no difference only between deaf and hearing in reaction time, but as well, between congenital deaf and deaf with acquired deafness. The congenital deaf children were significantly inferior in reaction time and in speed of movement, that is the speed of the child’s motion from the instant of receiving the excitation until the instant that of completing the movement rhythm of the older children, Gruber, Hall, Kryscio and Humphreies, (1984) conducted the test as well on students’ aged 15, 16 and 17 years. The sample for the study consisted of 42 students (ten 15-years old students, twelve 16-years old students, twenty 17-years old students) originating from different socio-economic layers, equivalently distributed per gender (boys-girls), without any kind of other deficiency. An important number of researchers indicated that the deaf children significantly fall short when compared to the hearing. These differences appeared only in certain tests, when evaluating the reaction time ability, Butterfield (1988) and the limb coordination (Savelsbergh & Netelendos, 1992). The reaction time ability affects the visual-motor control and the coordination ability, given that in all these three abilities a good orientation is required. In relation to the reaction time, Taylor and Campbell (1976) sustain that a sudden [unexpected] aural prompting precipitates the procedure of visual stimulation, with regard to the subject on which it focuses. Similar information is not available for deaf and for this reason it is possible that this absence may increase the reaction time and inhibit the focusing ability on a target out of the visual field. Trying to justify the lag in deaf persons motor development, Savelsbergh and Netelendos (1992), conducted a research aiming at examining whether the problems of visual orientation affect the motor development, under the precondition, of course, that these children do not present other kinds of deficiencies. For this reason, their study had to answer to the following questions: Do deaf persons have problems in visual focusing? And if yes, are the problems appearing partially accountable for the perturbations in fine and gross motor abilities? Is there any association between eyes/head movements during the performance of gross capabilities in persons without incapacities? The results of the above research have initially indicated statistically important divergences between the two age categories and the two groups–deaf and hearing – and for the three dependent variables, time between reaction and eye and head focusing, and also interval between excitation and eye and

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head focusing. Deaf children had longer reaction times compared to hearing ones for targets outside their visual field (125ο), while no differences were found for targets inside their visual field (40 ο). No differences were noted between deaf and hard-of-hearing during the tests that were conducted. Carnahan and Marteniuk, (1991) dealt with the issue of visual-motor control that is the temporal organization of the eye, head and hand movements when the individual receives an excitation. They made two assumptions in their endeavor to explain how the three parts of the body, eye, hand and head are coordinated. The first assumption concerns the eventuality that these three parts of the body are controlled by the same motor system and the second is the existence of a special separate motor system for every part of the body. The results demonstrated that in situations of non-expectation (at a sudden, non expected excitation) the subjects being evaluated moved much quicker than in conditions of expectation. The three body parts – eye, finger, head – started to move at the same moment and with the same delay in all three targets of 10ο, 30ο and 50ο. First one to stop moving was the eye, followed by the finger and last the head. The movements requiring focusing at the 10ο lasted notably less than the movements focusing at 50ο. The time length of the 30ο movements did not differ notably from the movement of the 10ο or even the 50ο. With regard to the required movement time of every part, the head appears to be moving quicker, followed by the finger and the head with a longer retardation. Carnahan’s and Marteniuk’s, (1991) second experiment defined the impact of the eye and head synchronization on the limbs' movement. The results indicated that as regard the reaction speed, at 26 ο, eye and head started to move at the same instant and before the finger, while at 43ο the head was the first to start moving, followed by the finger and then the eye. In conditions of speed, the time of the head and finger movement was shorter than in conditions of precision. When they are asked to react with precision, the results change. When the target is at 26ο, the first to move are the eyes followed by the head and then the finger, while at 43ο, the eyes and the head start to move together and the finger is the last. Now, referring to the order in which they complete the movement, the results indicated the following order: eye, finger and head. The duration of the movement did not seem to differ from the one indicated in the results for both the speed and the accuracy. The percentage of wrong aiming in conditions of accuracy was smaller than the percentage in conditions of quickness. The focusing movements with speed started earlier than the focusing movements with preciseness and the eyes always started the movement earlier than the other members of the body. Most studies lead to the conclusion that deaf persons have orientation problems when asked to focus outside their visual field and the specific delay in orientation affects the motor behavior of the deaf. The importance in focusing of the eye-head system for the successful space control and synchronization was stressed by researchers; Marteniuk (1978), and Owen and Lee (1986). Savelsbergh, Netelendos and Whiting, (1991), also studied the orientation behaviour of deaf and hearing persons, that is the influence of the spatiotemporal orientation ability on the performance in the ability of receiving a tennis ball (rough performance), which requires a good synchronization of the limbs and the body. The increase of age leads to a motor maturing which on its turn modifies the motor performance, not only of normal populations but also deaf and hard-of-hearing pupils. Brunt and Broadhead (1982) using the short BOT evaluation set, studied the motor performance of 154 deaf pupils, 85 boys and 69 girls, with a degree of auditory loss >60 dB who did not present other kinds of psychological and medical deficiencies. The characteristics of the chronological age of the specific deaf sample were compared to those of the Bruinink’s standard national hearing sample. The results of this research indicated an important difference with the rise of the chronological age. And additionally, for certain abilities, children aged 11-14 years were notably better than children aged 7-9. Butterfield (1991) who studied the impact of age, gender, degree of auditory loss, static and dynamic balance in speed development in deaf children reached the same conclusion. Seeking to define the motor development rhythm of the older children, Gruber, Hall, Kryscio and Humphreies, (1984) conducted the test as well on students’ aged 15, 16 and 17 years. The sample for the study consisted of 42 students (ten 15-years old students, twelve 16-years old students, twenty 17-years old students) originating from different socio-economic layers, equivalently distributed per gender (boys-girls), without any kind of other deficiency. The test was conducted at the suitable surroundings and specialists made the measurements. The average mean values of the pupils' motor abilities in the eight abilities for all three ages were compared to the average mean values of the students that were 14 years old. The results indicated that all 42 students of 15, 16, 17 years performed

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significantly better than the 14-year old children in the abilities of reaction time, visual-motor control and the upper limbs speed and dexterity. Ζaichkowsky, Ζaichkowsky and Martinek (1980) and Gruber et al (1984) reached the same results and attribute this improvement to the myo-skeletical development and the maturing of the nervous system. Dummer, Haubenstricker and Stewart (1996) examined the influence of the age factor on the deaf pupils' performance. Their sample consisted of 211 deaf students aged 4-18 years, from two deaf children schools from the West USA and Ontario, Canada. The degree of hearing loss of the evaluated pupils was more than 55 dB at the best ear. The final sample was 201, ten pupils with multiple disabilities, learning problems, vision problems, orthopedic injuries and behavioral problems were eliminated. Unknown reasons at a percentage of 53%, genetics 18%, meningitis 11%, rubella 7%, etc. have been mentioned as the deafness cause. Deafness was congenital at a percentage of 70%, pre-linguistic at 21% and acquired at 9%. In both schools, the pupils attended normally physical education programs and participated in different extracurricular activities, focusing on the good natural condition, and on acquiring and improving fundamental motor abilities. Particular accent was given to the training of those abilities that were indispensable for the participation in sports. There were no important differences for children of the same age, between the two schools, in the mode in which the instructions were given as well as their participation in extracurricular sport activities. The researchers and assessors participating in the study were beforehand trained in the use of the U.S. sign language and the test implementation. The Ulrich (1985) test seven was used as a measurement instrument and evaluated seven movement abilities (running, jumping up and down, galloping, sliding … and others) and 5 abilities of ball handling (hit, rebound, cast, catch, kick). The results indicated that in general the average mean values of performances for four through ten year old hearing children of both schools were better than the average mean values of deaf ones. So, it was noted that the age was a decisive impact factor, because the scores increased with the growth in age. Particular comparisons did not show a strong relation between natural condition and performance in both kinds of abilities that have been examined. Comparing the performance of deaf with the performance of the national hearing sample, retardation from one to three years was established in the performance of deaf compared to the hearing. Handling abilities in deaf pupils developed with the following order, catch (9-year), rebound of the ball, kicking (10-year), hit (12-year) and cast (13-year). In deaf children the movement abilities develop with the following order, running, slipping (4-year), gallop (7-year), jumping up and down (8-year), jump and jumping over (10-year), hurdles (16-year). Differences were noted in the performance between the two genders and are listed below. When evaluating the natural condition of deaf – hard-of-hearing and hearing, Winnick and Short (1988, 1985) amended the test by including signals for the initiation and ending of an activity. They used non-verbal means of communication and they also provided written instructions, but because of the low level of performance in English language, even this mode of acquiring information cannot be considered as sufficient, arising thereby questions that have to be clarified. Therefore, the researchers’ proposal that the teachers themselves, who will also respect the school philosophy, should conduct the tests seems quite logical. The conclusions of the above study will provide a clearer image about the Deaf and Hard of Hearing motor performance level at the Greek school environment. This will be the basis for the development of adapted Physical Education Programs.

Method The measurements were performed during the daily school program at the school unit of the 94th

Primary School, which accommodates the 10th Thessaloniki Primary School for the Hard-of-Hearing , as well as the Panorama Special Primary School for the Deaf - Hard-of-Hearing . During the conduct of the measurements at the Special Primary School for the Deaf was used total communication The total communication method is a combination of all communication systems: signs, lips reading, finger spelling (Lambropoulou 1989). The communication with the hard-of-hearing pupils was made using oral speech and lips reading. The instructions were given orally to the hard-of-hearing and using the total method to the deaf pupils. A demonstration of the exercise was made both by the physical education professor and using pictures. Before every performance, one or two testing attempts were made, during which it was checked to which extent the examined pupils had understood the exercise. At the end, the pupil performed alone the set of exercises and was evaluated in conformity to the instructions of the ΒΟΤ (Bruininks, 1978) manual and their performance was registered in the pupil’s individual index card.

Sample The groups were created with layered sampling, equivalently distributed for age and degree of auditory

18


loss. The sample included 17 deaf (MV=126.3months, SD=25.64) and 17 hard-of-hearing pupils (MV=127.7 months, SD=23.69) aged 6-14 years attending the National Institute for the Deaf, Special Primary School of Panorama and the 10th Primary School for the Hard of Hearing of Thessaloniki. These schools were selected because they are the only educational settings for this type of pupils in Northern Greece, and use the same physical education curriculum.

Measurement instrument The BOT (Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency), (Bruininks, 1978) was used for the definition of the children’s motor development level. It is a test commonly used in the United States, which evaluates individuals with developmental troubles and various motor specificities, it is well weighed and is used in a wide age spectrum (from 4½ - 14½) (Donaldson, Maurice, 1984). Beital and Mead, (1982) concluded that the BOT set is maybe, the most technically sound and credible evaluation tool for the level of motion development

The conduct of this test allows for teachers, specialists and researchers to evaluate the motor abilities of every individual, to identify the motor dysfunctions, but also, the developmental retardations that may appear, and also to check the suitability of the training programs in use (Gruber, Hall, Kryscio & Humphreies, 1984). The above researchers extended their research even to older ages 15, 16, 17 years, whose conclusions were mentioned previously. A time of about 45-60 minutes is required for the BOT test, which evaluates the rough and fine abilities and includes eight subjects with a total set of 46 tests. The scores for each one of the eight abilities of the test are worked out through the comparison of the performances in the particular test scores with respective table values resulting from the ΒΟΤ (Bruininks, 1978) weighing up. Thereby, the balance score e.g. is calculated as the sum of the transformed values of the tests.

Analysis Were formed two experimental groups of deaf (hearing loss >70dB) and hard of hearing pupils (<70 dB). For the definition of the performance level in the abilities of reaction time, visual-motor control and upper limbs speed and dexterity was made only one measurement. The experimental design is represented as 2X4 with two independent variables, group and age. The variable group has two levels: deaf, and hard-of-hearing and the variable age four levels for the four age categories: 7-8, 9-10, 11-12, 13-14.

Table 1The averages and the sample’s population for the comparison of Deaf and Hard-of-

HearingDeaf Hard-of-Hearing

Age MV months N MV months N7-8 years 84 4 87 49-10 years 105 4 112 411-12 years 137 5 136 513-14 years 151 4 151 4

Total 126.3 17 127.7 17 [*ΜV= Mean Value, SD= Standard deviation]

Descriptive statistics were made for each ability, group and age categories separately, in which are described the Average MV and the standard deviation SD. For the data analysis was used the two factors variance analysis (two-way ANOVA). The substantiality of the differences among the averages of the cells have been controlled using Scheffe΄s Post hoc, with comparisons among all the possible pairs of groups, in order to find out which one indicated a considerable statistic difference among them.

Results Reaction time

Table 2:Elements of descriptive statistic (ΜV + SD) of the research groups for the ability

of the reaction time.Deaf Hard-of-Hearing

Age MV SD MV SD 7-8 years 400 .00 4.00 1.41 9-10 years 6.00 2.83 3.50 2.12 11-12 years 7.00 2.74 6.60 2.51 13-14 years 6.00 3.00 7.67 2.52

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Total 6.08 2.50 5.92 2.61 [*ΜV= Mean Value, SD= Standard deviation]The two groups deaf and hard of hearing did not show important differences in performance. The MV and SD revealed that the ability of reaction time is improved with the increase of age in both groups, as shown in table 2 (above). The variation analysis and the multiple comparisons made using the Post Hoc demonstrated (table 3) that there was no statistically important interaction between the factors group and age, F3,16 =.57, p=.645. The group and age factor were not found to have any significant impact on the response speed with F1,16 =.08, p=.782 and F3,16 =1.74, p=.198 respectively (Table 3).

Table 3:Results of the statistic test for the establishment of main influences and interactions

between the investigating groups for the ability of the reaction timeTest for the impacts between the individuals

Freedom degrees

Average Squares

F P

Group 1 .50 .80 .782Age 3 10.94 1.74 .198Group *Age 3 3.55 .57 .645

Visual-motor control The score improvement of the visual-motor control ability, had a linear relation with the age. This ability improved with the growth in age. This linear relation was not noticed as well in the deaf group (this linear association does not seem to exist).

Table 4:Results of descriptive statistic (ΜV + SD) of the investigating groups for the ability of

visual-motor control.Deaf Hard-of-Hearing

Age MV SD MV SD 7-8 years 14.00 4.24 9.50 0.71 9-10 years 18.50 3.54 15.00 2.83 11-12 years 17.00 3.37 18.80 1.79 13-14 years 14.00 2.65 20.67 2.31Total 16.00 3.38 17.08 4.36

The factor group was not found to have F1,16=.01, p=.924, but the factor age was found to have a significant impact F3,16 =5.06, p< .05 (table 5). There was a statistically important interaction (Figure 1 next page) between the factors group and age in the performance of the ability of the visual-motor control, F3,16 =4.44, p< .05.

Table 5:Results of the statistic tests for the establishment of the main impacts and interactions

among the investigating groups on the ability of visual-motor control.Test for the impacts between the individuals

Freedom degrees

Average Squares

F P

Group 1 7.10 .01 .924Age 3 38.08 5 .012*Group *Age 3 33.41 4.43 .019*

For multiple comparisons used Post Hoc set. Founded that the performance in the visual-motor control of children aged 11-12 years was statistically better than for the children aged 7-8 years, with a dMV=6.15, p< .05. The children aged 13-14 performed statistically significant better than the children aged 7-8 years with a dMV=5.58, p<0.05. From the comparisons held among the age groups (7-8 & 9-10), (9-10 & 11-12), (9-10 &13-14), (11-12 &13-14) it appeared that there were no statistically important differences in performance with dMV respectively: (dMV=5, p=.126), (dMV=1.15, p=.917), (dMV=.58, p=.99), (dMV=0.57, p=.983).

Upper limbs dexterity and speed.

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The MV and SD for two groups did not show important differences in performance, but the upper limbs dexterity and speed ability increases along with the increase of age in both deaf and hard-of-hearing. (table 6 next page)

Figure 1. Impact of group and age in the visual-motor control.

Table 6:Elements of descriptive statistic (ΜV + SD) of the researching groups on the ability of dexterity

and speed of upper limbs.Deaf Hard of

HearingAge MV SD MV SD

7-8 years 28.50 2.12 32.00 4.24 9-10 years 38.50 14.85 31.50 3.54 11-12 years 42.20 3.63 39.00 8.22 13-14 years 41.00 3.46 43.00 4.36Total 39.00 7.30 37.58 7.22

The variance analysis for the control of impacts among individuals, as well as the multiple comparisons realized using the Post Hoc, (Table 7) that there were no statistically important interactions between the factors group and age, F3,16 =.67, p= .581. The group was not found to have any main impact on the performance of the upper limbs dexterity and speed ability, F1,16= .18, p=.677. The age was found to have a main impact on the performance of the specific ability, F3,16 = 3.65, p< .05

Table 7:Results of the statistic tests for the establishment of the main impacts and interactions between

the investigating groups on the upper limb speed and dexterityTest for the impacts between the individuals

Freedom degrees

Average Squares

F P

Group 1 7.20 .18 .677Age 3 145.94 3.65 .035*Group *Age 3 26.94 .67 .581

The control of the differences inside the cells has shown that the 13-14 age category presented a statistically better performance in the upper limbs dexterity and speed ability than the 7-8 age category dMV=11.75, p<0.05. In comparisons performed among the other age categories (7-8 & 9-10), (7-8 & 11-12), (9-10 & 11-12), (9-10 & 13-14), (11-12 & 13-14), no statistically important differences were

21

Mean eestimate of visual-motor control ability

ages

13-14 aged 11-12 aged 9-10 aged 7-8 aged

MV

22

20

18

16

14

12

10 8

groups

deaf Hard of hearing


noted in the specific ability with dMV respectively: (dMV=4.75, p=.772), (dMV=10.35, p=.092), (dMV=5.6, p=.540), (dMV=7, p=.427) and (Dmv=1.4, p=.979). Discussion In the particular comparisons for the deaf and hard-of-hearing performance divergences show and all the research conclusions mentioned in the introduction are not confirmed. The results show that there is no difference between deaf and hard-of-hearing in the abilities of the reaction time, the visual-motor control and the upper limbs speed and dexterity, conclusions reached by Goodman and Hooper (1992), who studied the results of ten researches concerning the motor performance of hearing, deaf and hard-of-hearing persons, and differences were noted in only one among them. Also, the results of the present study agree with the study results of Geddes (1978), Cambell (1983), Winnick and Short (1986), Butterfield (1989, 1991), Butterfield and Ersing (1987), Butterfield and Ersing (1988), who found out that the degree of auditory loss does not affect the level of the basic motor abilities development, since no statistically important differences appear in the performance between deaf and hard-of-hearing. The best performance of the deaf group compared to the hard-of-hearing in the upper limbs speed and dexterity ability, which is attributed by Brunt and Broadhead, (1982) to the training due to the use of the sign language – communication method which is not used at the 10 th Hard-of-Hearing primary school, where the pupils use as a means of communication, only the oral speech, was not noted in our research. For the impact of the factor age on deaf and hard-of-hearing for the abilities of reaction time, of the visual-motor control and the upper limbs speed and dexterity, our conclusions are in agreement with the conclusions of Dummer, Haubenstricker and Stewart (1996), Gruber et al (1984), Brunt and Broadhead (1982), Espenschance and Eckert (1980) as well as Ζaichkowsky, Ζaichkowsky and Martinek (1980) studies an increase in the scores of the abilities of the visual-motor control and the upper limbs speed and dexterity was found out, with the age maturing. The motor performance differentiates in regards with factor age, with the fourth age category performing statistically considerably better than the others. The improvement of this ability of upper limbs coordination, according to Butterfield and his associates (1993), Cleland and his associates (1993) is attributed to motor experience as well as the opportunities given to a child for playing. But Boyd (1967), Clarson (1971) attribute this improvement along the increase of age to the maturity of the Central Nervous System and the myo-skeletal development. Deaf and hard-of-hearing pupils appeared to stabilize the performance for the abilities of reaction time of the visual-motor control and upper limbs speed and dexterity at the age of 12 years. The fourth age group (13-14 years) show a better score in the abilities of speed, strength and coordination of upper limbs, conclusions on which Gruber and his associates (1984) agree, attributing this improvement to the continuing training of the motor dexterities. It is possible to attribute the differences noted by many researchers to the different learning pace, to socio-economic differences, to previous experiences and to the motivations as well as to the training of the motor abilities (Singer, 1975). The practice of the motor dexterities leads to the improvement of the motor performance. There are researchers who attribute the differences, when they appear, to environmental and socio-economic factors (Malina, 1974), to the type of school, (Decker, 1993), to the motor experience (Cleland, & Gallahue, 1993), to the level of linguistic development (Spencer, 1996), as well as to the opportunities the pupils have for free play, (Butterfield, Mars & Chase, 1993). Important is also the impact of other factors, like the means of communication between assessors and assessed and their experience, (Stewart, Dummer & Haubensticker, 1990), for this reason the communication principles of every school (sign language/oral speech) have been as well respected in the present research (Winnick and Short (1985, 1988).

Conclusions No statistically significant differences have been found between deaf and hard of hearing in performance for the three abilities. Differences have been reported among the four age group categories. The performances of the fourth age category (13-14) showed significant differences compared to the other age groups for the visual-motor control and the upper limbs speed and dexterity. Interactions were reported between the factors group, age only for the ability of the visual-motor

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control. This may be due to the degree of hearing loss which is referred from Loovis and Ersing, (1979) and the reason which caused deafness fact which was assumed from Geddes (1978), Butterfield (1986) and Gayle and Pohlman (1990) researches outcomes. The lesson of Physical Education actually follows the general Analytic Programme in both its targets and the content of teaching. In the present research no statistically important differences between deaf and hard-of-hearing pupils showed up in the motor performance. However, the international literature indicates important differences between hearing, deaf and hard-of-hearing pupils and consequently, there is a need for the elaboration of a special program of physical education for deaf and hard-of-hearing pupils. Additional research is required for the other abilities aiming at reaching conclusions necessary in order to adapt and develop special programs that will cover the needs of deaf and hard-of-hearing pupils. If we want to develop suitable physical education programmes in order to allow the inclusion in the Physical Education courses, is necessary to take into consideration the following factors: (a) The reason that caused the deafness, the kind of auditory loss (sensor neural) as well as the time period when deafness appeared (prenatal or acquired deafness), (b) The requirements of every test, that is if the exercise is simple or complex and if the performance technique and precision is assessed, (c) The previous motor experiences of the pupils as well as the opportunities they have in their daily life for playing, (d) The suitability of the Physical Education is being followed in the school attended by the pupil, (e) The kind of school that is if it is a typical deaf school, parallel classes or school functioning within the frame of integration philosophy and (f) The family, school and society structure and philosophy as well as the communication method that they use. Because of, deaf sport participation is a tradition and part of the Deaf Community culture, school should not face physical education as simply time away from classroom studies but as an essential part of the entire curriculum. It is especially important that physical educators and youth coaches be familiar with the specific needs of Deaf pupils and youth. It is a necessity to support and encouragement them to learn and improve motor skills beyond school-based physical education and competitive sport program. Promoting and integrating a variety of physical activities into daily routines could be facilitated the concept of Active living as a health objective.

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Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Netelentos, J.B. & Whiting, H.T.A. (1991). Auditory perception and control of spatial coordinated action in deaf and hearing children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 489-500.Savelsbergh, G.J.P. & Netelentos J.B. (1992). Can the Developmental Lag in Motor Abilities of Deaf Children be Partly Attributed to Localization Problems? Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 9, 343-352.Spencer, E.P. (1996). The association between language and symbolic play at two years: evidence from deaf toddlers. Child Development 67,3, 866-876.Stewart, D.A., Dummer, G.M. & Haubensticker, J. L. (1990). Review of administration procedures used to assess the motor skills of deaf children and youth. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 7, 231-239.Taylor, R.L. & Campbell, G.T. (1976). Sensory interaction: Vision is modulated by hearing. Perception, 5, 467-477.Ulrich, D. (1985). Test of Gross Motor Development. Austin Texas: producedWade, M. G., Newell, K. M. & Wallace, S. A. (1978). Decision time and movement time as a function of response complexity in retarded persons. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 83, 135-144.Winnick, J. & Short, F. (1985). A comparison of physical fitness of segregated and integrated hearing impaired adolescents. Clinical Kinesiology, 42,104-109.Winnick, J. & Short, F. (1988). Physical fitness of adolescents with auditory impairments. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 3, 58-66.Zaichkowsky, L.D., Zaichkowsky L.B. & Martinek T.J. (1980). Growth and development. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.

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THE PREVALENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS AMONG ADOLESCENT BEDOUIN WITH MILD TO MODERATE INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

Iris Manor-BinyaminiHaifa University

The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and types of psychiatric disorders among Bedouin adolescents with mild to moderate intellectual disability. This is the first study ever conducted on this topic within the Bedouin community in the Negev in Israel. The issue of psychiatric disorders among adolescents with intellectual disability is a complex one in general and even more so among the Bedouin population in the Negev, because of the large number of intellectually disabled children and adolescents in this community. The research population included 30 parents of 30 Bedouin adolescents with a mild to moderate intellectual disability attending a special education school in the Bedouin sector. The study used four research tools: the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged Children (6-18 Years) Kiddie-Sads Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL); the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (CY-BOCS); the Autism Screening Questionnaire (ASQ); and the Severity Scale of the Stereotyped Behavior Scale (SBS). The research results confirmed the initial hypothesis that there would be a high rate of psychiatric disorders in the research sample. Research findings indicated that 77% of the adolescents had at least one psychiatric disorder during the evaluation. The most common of these were autism-spectrum disorders 70% (21); disruptive disorders 47% (14); attention deficit and hyperactivity 47% (14); and anxiety disorders 40% (12). Other psychiatric disorders of lower frequency were also found and discussed in the findings. It is essential to continue the work started in this research, of examining the kinds and rates of occurrence of psychiatric disorders, on a larger sample of the same population, as well as paying closer attention to the disorders that this research found to be less common. On the level of practical implications, the main recommendation of this research is the need to develop diagnostic services and psychiatric and educational care for children and adolescents with intellectual disability in the Bedouin community in the Negev.

The issue of psychiatric disorders among adults with intellectual disability is complex for several reasons. Firstly, there is a dispute as to the psychopathological definition of intellectual disability. Secondly, researchers and professionals in the field are still trying to understand the nature of the interaction between disability and psychopathology. Thirdly, there is insufficient evidence as to the reliability and validity of current DSM or ICD systems in the population (Einfeld & Aman, 1995). The fourth point is defined by Reiss (1994) who coined the phrase for the phenomenon whereby severe emotional problems may appear less important than they actually are, when viewed in the context of the debilitating effects of Intellectual Disability.

Carvill and Marston reinforce this point by emphasizing that symptoms of psychiatric disorder in people with intellectual disability may go undiagnosed for long periods because of diagnostic overshadowing (Carvill & Marston, 2002). In addition, most of the diagnostic criteria used to diagnose the normal population are based on verbal symptoms. The verbal component in the existing criteria may be rendered invalid when diagnosing children with limited verbal skills (Cooper et al., 2003).

Finally, it may be that due to the complexities and difficulties presented, psychiatrists and psychologists are inclined to diagnosing psychiatric disorders among adults with intellectual disabilities by relating them to emotional and behavioral symptoms as an integral part of the disability. There might also be a misdiagnosis of the disorders. Wrong diagnoses are connected to the fact that children

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with intellectual disability express their symptoms less clearly (for example feelings of anxiety or depression) and present symptoms that are less familiar to child psychiatrists, for example, stereotypical behavior and self-injury.

Despite the above, study findings indicate that the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among children with intellectual disabilities is higher than among children without intellectual disabilities (Whitaker & Read, 2005; Emerson, 2003; Rutter et al, 1970). Einfeld and Aman (1995) state that intellectually disabled children are reported to have about two to four times the level of emotional disturbance compared to other children. There is also evidence that the rate of psychiatric disorder is higher for children with a greater degree of intellectual disability. Stromme and Diseth (2000) and Gillberg et al. (1986) found higher rates of psychiatric disorders among children with IQ levels below 50 or 60. A study by Gostason (1985) also provides evidence that the rate of psychiatric disorders is greater in people (both children and adults) with severe intellectual disability.

There are a number of disadvantages to the data based on the existing research findings: as of today, most studies on psychiatric disturbances among adults with intellectual disabilities relate to children and adults as one group without distinguishing between them. Another disadvantage of previous studies is that most of them were based on behavioral questionnaires that yielded numerical marks for a broad group of psychiatric symptoms. Only a few studies were based on structured psychiatric interviews leading to a clear psychiatric diagnosis (see e.g. Molteno et al., 2001).

A diagnosis distinguishing between mental disorder and intellectual disability in early childhood is particularly difficult since the child is still developing and experiencing frequent changes. It is also difficult to reach a diagnosis because the information received from the surroundings is not clear-cut. Obtaining a definitive diagnosis for adolescents is also difficult due to the nature of adolescence as a period of complex developmental challenges that often constitute a crisis for many of those with an intellectual disability.

In Israel, there is a lack of information about the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among adolescents with an intellectual disability for both the Jewish and the Arab populations. An examination of the subject among the Bedouin population in the Negev is even more complex since there is only partial information regarding the number of intellectually disabled children within this community. Existing information regarding the percentage of children with special needs in the Arab population mentions 9.7% compared with 7.6% for the Jewish population (Or-Noy, 2007). It can be assumed that this rate actually underestimates the true rate among the Arab-Bedouin population of the Negev due to the difficulty of conducting diagnostic tests and poor awareness among the population (for more information about the difficulties in diagnosing children with special needs within the Bedouin community, see Manor-Binyamini, 2007). In addition, a significant number of children in the Negev Bedouin population have intellectual disabilities, the main reason for this being the tradition of marrying within the tribe and even within the family (Raz, Atar, Rodnay, Shoham-Vardi & Carmi, 2003). Bedouin villages are characterized by lower than average family income in Israel, and the acute socio-economic distress of numerous Bedouin families is another contributing factor to intellectual disability (Lithwick, 2002, p. 2).

In this context, it is important to point out the research findings of Koskentausta et al. (2007), who state that low socio-economic status of the family increased the risk of disruptive behavior. A diagnosis can contribute to the clinical and educational care system, other support services, and to continued research in the future (Cooper et al., 2003). Also, a better understanding of the ways in which psychiatric disorders are expressed in people with intellectual disabilities can give insight into the nature of both psychiatric disorders and intellectual disabilities. This kind of understanding in the Bedouin sector is essential. Researching the subject will facilitate raising awareness of diagnostic issues and subsequent work towards more standardized and improved clinical diagnostic practices.

The goals of this research are, first, to examine the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among adolescents with mild-moderate intellectual disability in the Bedouin sector, and secondly, to examine the types of psychiatric disorders among this population. The hypothesis of this research is that there will be a high rate of psychiatric disorders in the study sample – Bedouin adolescents with intellectual disability.

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MethodResearch Participants PopulationThe research population included adolescents with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities who attended a special education school in the Bedouin sector. The students were defined as having intellectual disability according to the following definition of the Ministry of Education, based on the Israeli Welfare Law: Care of the Mentally Retarded (2000):

Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.

The school attended by the research participants had 14 classes with seven students in each. There were a total of 98 students in the school. The research participants had been officially diagnosed as having mild or moderate intellectual disability as determined by the Ministry of Education.The Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Education authorized the study. The adolescent students themselves were not interviewed, only their parents. It is important to point out that the reliability and validity of psychiatric interviews with intellectually disabled children and adults have not yet been confirmed from a research point of view. Consequently, most of the studies of this population relied on reports by the parents or professionals providing them with support services and therapy. Furthermore, it can be difficult to elicit psychopathology when a person has limited verbal communication skills with which to describe inner emotional experiences. Hence the assessor must heavily rely on informant information (Cooper et al., 2003). Thus, the present study also relied on informant information from the parents. Out of the 98 sets of parents of the students in the school, 30 agreed to be interviewed (31%). The aim of the study was explained to the parents in a personal meeting (one parent was interviewed from each set of parents) and they gave their consent to be interviewed. All the interviews were conducted in the parents' homes or tents, which presented unique challenges for this study and special research preparation for several reasons.

First, Bedouin custom does not welcome psychiatrists in the community. Bedouin society is traditional and secluded and views strangers entering their villages with suspicion. This meant that comprehensive preliminary work was needed before entering the villages where the interviews were to take place. For each village, the researcher made contact with the local leaders and obtained their cooperation. Secondly, physical access obstacles had to be overcome due to the lack of paved roads and due to difficult weather conditions – extreme heat in the summer, and mud and rain in the winter. In addition, locating the tents and houses of the study sample according to maps of the settlements required on-the-spot orientation skills.

The students in the study were aged 12-21; there were 21 boys and 9 girls. All of the subjects were Bedouin from different tribes; some were from permanent known settlements while others were from unknown encampments scattered throughout the Negev. Out of the 30 adolescents who participated, 71% had genetic syndromes such as fragile-x, velocardiofacial, Down and Williams syndrome. The rate of genetic syndromes in the study sampling is higher than the rate reported for populations of children and adults having mild-moderate intellectual disability in other studies. This is because of the unique characteristics of the population in this study (Manor-Binyamini, 2007).

Research Tools Four research tools were used in this study: Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged Children (6-18 Years), Kiddie-Sads-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL); the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) for children; the Autism Screening Questionnaire (ASQ), and the Stereotyped Behavior Scale (SBS) Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School AgedChildren (6-18 Years): Kiddie-Sads-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL).A certified psychiatrist who translated the English diagnosis into Arabic interviewed all the parents. In cases where for certain categories of symptoms in the screen interview there were suspicions about the diagnosis, the full version of the relevant interview was offered for the same possible diagnosis. Psychiatric disorders present that were not included in the interview were evaluated using screening questions based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The DSM was used even though previous literature has

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demonstrated that it has certain limitations when used with adults with intellectual disabilities. Despite criticisms, mental health professionals use the DSM-IV widely and there have been a number of attempts to modify it for use with subgroups, such as adults with intellectual disability.

Two child and youth psychiatrists analyzed a summary of the information collected from the diagnostic process, and the diagnosis was presented by consensus according to the DSM-IV-TR.. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) for children was passed on to parents as a semi structured interview. The questionnaire has become the most widely used assessment instrument for evaluating the severity of symptoms in obsessive-compulsive disorder (McKay et al., 2003).

The questionnaire is composed of five items for obsessions and the same five items for compulsions. The five items are: time spent, interference, distress, resistance, and control. A severity scale of zero to four is used to give marks for each of the items. The three marks from the conclusion were calculated. These included obsessions (0-22), compulsion (0-20), and a general mark (40). This questionnaire is reliable and valid for studies on adults with genetic syndromes expressed as an intellectual disability (Dykens, 2004).

Autistic symptoms were evaluated using The Autism Screening Questionnaire (ASQ). This questionnaire is structured in such a way that one of the parents can fill it in without guidance. It contains 40 questions. Every item in the questionnaire receives a mark of one (for the existence of deviational behavior) or zero (for the absence of deviational behavior), the total number of points ranging from 0-40. The questionnaire is valid for distinguishing individuals with Autism Syndrome Disorder from individuals with other psychiatric and developmental disorders and from individuals with learning disabilities (Berument et al, 1999). Marks of 15 or more in this questionnaire distinguish between children/adults with autism spectrum disorders and those without. There is a sensitivity of 0.85, specific of 0.75, and a positive prediction of 0.93.

The Stereotyped Behavior Scale (SBS) consists of 24 items, each item describing one kind of stereotypical behavior. On this scale, zero indicates absence of a behavior while three indicates a degree of behavior defined as severe. Behavior evaluation was based on the interview with the parents. The SBS has good internal consistency and high reliability. High correlations were found between this questionnaire and other scales that check stereotypes, such as the 'Stereotypy' scale of the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (Rojahn et al. 2000).

ResultsAs the first study of its kind, most of the data it presents at this initial stage relate to the examination of prevalence and distribution of disorders by type. The distribution of highly prevalent types of disorders in the study population is shown in Table 1. Table 1

Distribution of the most prevalent types of disorders among adolescent Bedouin with mild-moderate intellectual disability

Diagnosis Study FindingsN=30 (number of participants)

Psychiatric disorder (any type) 77% (23)Autism spectrum disorder 70% (21)Disruptive disorder (any type) 47% (14)Attention and hyperactivity disorder 47% (14)Anxiety disorder (any type) 40% (12)Specific phobia 17% (8)

Out of the sample, 77% were described as having at least one psychiatric disorder at the time of the evaluation. The average number of psychiatric disorders per subject was 2.1. Only one significant difference was found between boys and girls: impulse control disorders were found among boys, but not among girls: fourteen percent of boys compared with zero percent of girls.

The most prevalent diagnosis was autism spectrum disorder. Seventy percent (21) of the participants in the study answered the criteria of the DSM-IV-TR for autism spectrum disorders, i.e. 70% (21) of the participants scored 15 (or higher) on the autism-screening questionnaire, 15 being the cut-off point for autism spectrum disorders. An interesting finding was that some of the adolescents belonging to this group had co-morbidities. These included: oppositional defiant disorder 50% (15), general anxiety

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disorder 40% (12), and stress disorder 20% (6). Co-morbidity was clearly higher in this sub group (average – 2.9, standard deviation – 1.9) than in those without this disorder.

In addition, the score for obsessive-compulsive disorder was clearly higher among adolescents with autism-spectrum disorder than those without (average = 15.7, standard deviation = 5.3 compared with an average of 10.0, standard deviation = 5.1, z=2.8, P0.01). A significant correlation was also found between the scores on the Autism Screening Questionnaire and on the Stereotyped Behavior Scale (r=0.33, P 0.01). Other highly prevalent diagnoses were disruptive disorder, in 47% (14) cases, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, in 47% (14) cases. Combined disorder was found among 17% (5); attention deficiency was found among 13% (4),; and hyperactivity-impulsivity was found among 7% (2). Anxiety disorders were found among 40% (12). Overall, the most common symptoms among the autistic children were: any anxiety disorder 33% (10), separation anxiety 13% (4), and generalized anxiety 17% (5). Bipolar affective disorder was found among 3% (1), and enuresis among 7% (2).

Anxiety disorders existed among 14% (4) of the participants in the study (boys only) 13% (4) fulfilled the criteria for impulse control disorder (trichotillomania); 10% (3) for intermittent explosive disorder; 3% (1) for pyromania, and only 7% (2) of the participants for psychotic disorders: schizophreniform disorder for one participant, and psychotic depression for the other. One type of panic was reported by 23% (7) of the participants, but the panic included adaptive disabilities among only 20% (6) of the participants and fulfilled the criteria of the DSM-IV-TR for specific phobia. The most common phobias were fear of the dark 17% (5); fear of loud noises 13% (4); anxiety caused by factors in their natural environment 7% (2), and animals 7% (2). Thirteen percent (4) answered the diagnostic criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder. The most common symptoms in this group were aggressive obsessions, repetitive questions, repetitive actions, and somatic obsession.

The average number of obsessions for each participant in this sub group was 2.6, and their average severity according to the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale questionnaire for children in the interview was 9.7. The average number of compulsions (standard deviation) was 3.2 and their average severity was 12.5%. The findings of this study regarding aberrant behavior show oppositional defiant disorder 13% (4) and behavioral disorder 10% (3). In addition, disorders having low prevalence were found: bedwetting 10% (3), tic disorders 7% (2), eating disorders 7% (2), suicidal thoughts 3% (1), suicide attempts 3% (1), and impulse control disorder 3% (1).

DiscussionThis is the first study in the Bedouin sector to examine the prevalence and characteristics of psychiatric disorders among adolescents with intellectual disability. The data are based on examining the division of the types of disorders compared with existing research data about this research group. The lack of data regarding the adolescent population with mild to moderate intellectual disability within the Bedouin sector in Israel does not enable a comparative evaluation. Therefore a comparison with previous literature was made.

In the study, psychiatric disorders were found at a rate of 77% among these adolescents. The initial hypothesis, that the percentage of psychiatric disorders among adolescent Bedouins in the Negev would be higher than the percentages presented in literature on adolescent groups with intellectual disability, was reinforced in this study: in the literature, the incidence of psychiatric disorders was reported to be 45.1% (clinical diagnosis) or 52% (DC-LD diagnosis) (Cooper et al., 2007). It may be that the high rate presented in this study, which included only adolescents, is derived from the unique characteristics of the population studied, or, as explained by Dykens (2002), in some adolescents with mental retardation there are also biological vulnerabilities that mediate increased risk of psychopathology.

The most common finding in this study was an autistic disability 70% (21). This finding is uncommonly high compared with the corresponding figures in the literature, which fluctuate between 8.7% (Emerson, 2003) and 21.9% (Dekker & Koot, 2003). However, this finding is not surprising, because other researchers have also reported autistic behavior to be more prominent in persons with intellectual disability (Hardan & Sahl, 1997; Koskentausta et al., 2001).

It is interesting to note that the severity of the autistic symptoms explains 39% of the variance of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Kanner & Eizenberg (1957) noted that children with autism desire

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similarity, which is expressed in their engagement in rituals. It is also worth mentioning that children with neurogenetic syndromes related to intellectual disability, such as Prader- Willi, and velocardiofacial syndrome, have high rates of autism-spectrum disorders. It is, therefore, important to look for genetic syndromes and autism-spectrum disorders together among adolescents with intellectual disability.

The common high incidence of autism-spectrum disorders found in this study is compatible with the ethological and pathophysiological brain paths, which are seemingly common for both obsessive-compulsive and autism-spectrum disorders, as reported in a study by Bejerot (2006, 2007) and Gross-Isserhoff et al. (2001). The study findings showed that attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders were also highly prevalent, occurring in 47% (14) of the cases. In comparison, Koskentausta, Livanainen, and Almqvist (2001) reported 12% of hyperactive behavior in children with intellectual disability. The findings of this study regarding aberrant behavior were oppositional defiant disorder (13.8%) and other behavioral disorders (4.6%), which were lower than the corresponding rates reported in the literature (Stromme & Diseth, 2000: Emerson, 2003; Linna et al., 1999).

Limitations of the StudyThe study presented in this article has several limitations. First the sample was small. Also, all psychiatric evaluation was carried out only by interviewing the parents. No clinical evaluation of the adolescents was conducted, and neither was information collected about the parents or the members of the team working with the adolescents. An evaluation of the adolescents and the members of the team working with them would have provided additional important information and would have strengthened the diagnoses found in the study. Another limitation was the lack of a control group of adolescents in the Bedouin community who did not have intellectual disability. A comparison with a control group would have enabled an evaluation of the prevalence of different psychiatric diagnoses among adolescents with intellectual disability compared to adolescents without intellectual disability in this community.

ConclusionThis is the first study made on this subject in the Bedouin sector in the Negev, Israel. The results show a very high incidence of psychiatric disorders among adolescent Bedouin with intellectual disability (77%). The hypothesis that there would be a high incidence of psychiatric disorders in this population was confirmed in the sample. Such high incidence suggests that psychiatric disorders in this population are under diagnosed. This finding is groundbreaking for the simple reason that this group has not been studied before. This study also had important practical implications for the participants of the study sample, who had never been diagnosed by a psychiatrist or any other professional before the study, and were referred for treatment following the study’s findings,

Overall, the current research has several implications. Firstly, it emphasizes the need for developing diagnostic services and psychiatric and educational care for children and adolescents with intellectual disability in the Bedouin sector. Diagnosing psychiatric disorders in populations with intellectual disability is a complex and time-consuming task since they often fail to communicate their hardships clearly. This causes professionals to sometimes mistakenly interpret the behaviors and hardships they express. Without a diagnosis, adolescents with a learning disability do not receive psychiatric and behavioral care that addresses their problems, or receive treatment that suits neither their needs nor their diagnosis. Therefore, it is recommended to provide the multi-disciplinary teams in special education schools with the following information: characteristics of the disorders commonly found in this study, the questions that need to be asked and behaviors to be expected, so that they can give students an initial diagnosis. Alternatively, they could be trained to use a structured survey, which would constitute an initial diagnosis. A diagnosis is the first step that provides a basis for continuing treatment for this population.

Secondly, it would be beneficial to give a course on the aspects of psychiatry for populations with intellectual disability as a first step in training specialists to diagnose the population with intellectual disability within the Bedouin sector. Extensive educational programs also need to be encouraged.There is clearly a need for further research that will extend the study sample to the populations of two other schools in the Bedouin community, and compare the present study’s findings with a control group of adolescents in this community who do not have intellectual disability. Finally, there is a need for methodologically sound studies of children with special needs in the disparate Bedouin community who do not attend special education schools.

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ReferencesAmerican Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Bejerot, S. (2006). Autism spectrum disorders, autistic traits and personality disorders in obsessive-compulsive disorder. In: Gross-Isseroff R, Weizman, A (eds). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and co-morbidity. Nova Science, Hauppauge, 59-102.Bejerot, S. (2007). An autistic dimension : a proposed subtype of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Autism. 11, 101-110.Berument, S. K., Rutter, M., Lord, C., Pickles, A., & Bailey, A. (1999). Autism screening questionnaire: Diagnostic validity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 444-451.Carvill, S., & Marston, G. (2002) People with intellectual disability, sensory impairments and behavior disorder: a case series. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 46 (3), 264-272. Cooper, S. A., Melville, C. A., & Einfeld, S. L. (2003) Psychiatric diagnosis, intellectual disabilities and diagnostic criteria for psychiatric disorder for use with adults with learning disabilities/mental retardation (DC-LD). Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47 (1), 3-15. Cooper, S. A., Smiley, E., Finlayson, J., Jackson, A., Williamson, A., Mantry, D., & Morrison, J. (2007) The prevalence, incidence, and factors predictive of mental ill-health in adults with profound intellectual disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 20, 493-501.Dekker, M. C., & Koot, H. M. (2003) DSM-IV disorders in children with borderline to moderate intellectual disability: Prevalence and impact. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 915-922. Dykens E. M. (2002) Psychopathology in children with intellectual disability. Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 407-417. Dykens E. M. (2004) Maladaptive and compulsive behavior in Prader-Willi syndrome: New insights from older adults. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 109, 142-153. Einfeld, S. L., & Aman, M. (1995) Issues in the taxonomy of psychopathology in mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol. 25(2). Emerson, E. (2003) Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescent with and without intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47, 51-58Gillberg C., Presson E., Grufman, M., & Themner, U. (1986) Psychiatric disorders in mildly and severely mentally retarded urban children and adolescents: epidemiological aspects. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 68-74.Gostason, R. (1985) Psychiatric illness among the mentally retarded: a Swedish population study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 71 (Suppl. 381), 1-117. Gross-Isseroff, R., Hermesh, H., & Weizman, A. (2001) Obsessive-compulsive behavior in autism - towards an autistic obsessive-compulsive syndrome? World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 2, 193-197.Hardan, A., & Sahl, R. (1997) Psychopathology in children and adolescents with developmental disorders. Development Disability Research, 18, 369-382.Kanner, L., & Eisenberg, L. (1957) Early infantile autism, 1943-1955. Psychiatry Research . American Psychiatric Association. 55-65. Koskentausta, T., Livanaine, M., & Almqvist, F. (2007). Risk factor for psychiatric disturbance in children with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 51(1), 43-53.Koskentausta, T., Livanaine, M., & Almqvist, F. (2001) Psychiatric disorders in children with intellectual disability. Nord Journal of Psychiatr,. 56, 126-131. Linna S. L., Moilanen I., Ebeling H., Piha, L., Kumpulainen, K., Tamminen, T. & Almqvist, F. (1999) Psychiatric symptoms in children with intellectual disability. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 8, 77-82. Lithwick, H. (2002). Policy lines for reviving Bedouin settlements. The Center for Social Policy Studies, Jerusalem (In Hebrew). Manor-Binyamini, I. (2007) Special education in the Bedouin community in Israel's Negev region. International Journal of Special Education, 22(2), 109-118McKay, D., Piacentini, J., Greisberg, S., & Graae, F. (2003) The Children`s Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale: Item structure in an outpatient setting. Psychological Assessment 15(4), 578- 581. Molteno, G., Molteno, C. D., Finchilescu, G., & Dawes, A.R ( 2001) Behavior and emotional problems in children with intellectual disability attending special schools in Cape Town, South Africa. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 45, 515-520. Or-Noy (2007) The Dorner Committee for examining the special education law and its implementation in Israel. Protocol of the Fifth Conference. The Israeli Ministry of Education.

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Raz, A., Atar, M., Rodnay, M., Shoham-Vardi, I., & Carmi, R. (2003) Between acculturation and ambivalence: Knowledge of genetics and attitudes towards genetic testing in a consanguineous Bedouin community. Community Genetics, 6, 88-95Reiss, S . (1994) Psychopathology in mental retardation. In: Mental Health in Mental Retardation: Recent Advances in Practice (ed. N. Bouras), 67-78. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Rojahn, J. Matlock, S. T., & Tasse, M.J (2000) The stereotyped behavior scale: Psychometric properties and norms. Journal of Research Development Disabilities, 21, 437-454.Rutter, M., Tizard, J. & Whitmore, K. (1970) Education, health and behavior. Longman, London. Stromme, P. & Diseth, T, H. (2000) Prevalence of psychiatric diagnoses in children with mental retardation: Data from a population-based study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 42, 266-270. Welfare Law: Care for the Mentally Retarded (1969, last updated 25.06.2000), the State of Israel. Whitaker, S., & Read, S. (2005) The prevalence of psychiatric disorders among people with intellectual disabilities: An analysis of the literature. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 19, 330-345.

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IMPACT OF THE SPECIAL EDUCATION VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAM (VEP) ON STUDENT CAREER SUCCESS

Nelly E. OfoegbuLong Beach Unified School District

Reza AzarmsaArgosy University

The Vocational Education Program (VEP) was established by the special education department in the Long Beach Unified School District (LBUSD) in an effort to assist students with disabilities to graduate from high school and be gainfully employed. This study investigated the impact of VEP on students’ careers success after graduation. The participants included eighty-one graduates between 2004-2007 schools years. Manual computation and descriptive analysis using the SPSS® Software was used to determine the job acquisition and job retention rate of participants. Results indicated that 67% of participants in the 2004-2006 school years were able to acquire and retain employment, while 57% of graduates in 2006-2007 school year acquired a job and 53% retained their employment. The study implications indicate that there is a significant relationship between students’ career success and participation in the VEP. The VEP design and method of service delivery supports the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, focusing on meeting the Individualized Transition needs of students. The data collected in this research will provide meaningful information that educators can use during transition planning and Individualized Education Plan (IEP) meetings. Educators can also use the information to make relational predictions about student career outcome and participation in a transition program, thereby ensuring that students are engaged in programs and activities that will best serve their needs, while recognizing and considering their individual preferences and abilities.

Students classified as Seriously Emotionally Disturbed (SED) and those who are Learning Disabled (LD) experience a high rate of academic failure, social adaptation challenges, as well as high drop out rates, and a disposition toward high incarceration rates either before or after high school graduation (Al-Yagon & Michal, 2007, Boreson, 2006). These students won’t likely engage in any career activities and as a consequence, they have low employment opportunity, poor employment histories, and a high rate of involvement with the judicial system (US Department of Education, 2006; Wagner, 2006.) After high school, these students are also less likely than their peers to participate in any form of adult learning or continuing education (Levine & Edger, 1995; Zigmond & Miller, 1992 as cited in Zigmond, 2006). Both school districts and health care providers are mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 to provide assistance with transitions and other necessary interventions to help these students. In an effort to fulfill the legal mandates of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Long Beach Unified School District (LBUSD) established the Vocational Education Program (VEP). The primary objective of this program was to assist students with disabilities to perform on an equal basis with their non-disabled peers in an integrated setting. Students with Emotional Disabilities (ED) and Learning Disabilities (LD) are one of the target populations for the Transition and Intervention Program. The program’s implementation is also a collaborative effort with Long Beach City College, the Department of Rehabilitation Center, and the Harbor Regional Center in the transitional process of Seriously Emotionally Disturbed and Learning Disabled students who had an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) in the K-12 school setting.

This study was conducted in order to determine the effectiveness of VEP program in assisting students with acquiring and retaining a job after high school graduation. The investigation addressed two research questions. The research questions are:

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1. What is the job acquisition rate of students who received Vocational Education Program intervention after high school graduation?

2. What is the job retention rate of students who received Vocational Education Program intervention after high school graduation?

Researchers (Armstrong, Dedrick, & Greenbaum, 2003; Boreson, 2003; Cameto, Levine, & Wagner, 2004; Wagner, 2006) have conducted studies on academic and behavior intervention in the K-12 setting. Most of the research on interventions and transitions such as the ones conducted by Paul, Michael and Reid (2003); Quinn and McDougal, (1998); Reddy and Richardson, (2006); Reschly and Christenson, (2006); and Wagner, (2006) focused on elementary, middle, and high school curricular and behavior interventions. Review of the current literature also reveals that limited research has been conducted in determining generalizations of the learned intervention strategies by the students in relation to post high school career outcome.

This research is important and unique when compared to other research such as An analysis by gender of long-term post school outcomes for youths with disabilities a study conducted by Levin and Edger in 1995. In this study the authors focused on analyzing the post high school outcome of students with disabilities by gender, without relating the outcome to any transition program. Another study Effective programs for students with emotional behavioral disabilities conducted by Boreson in 2006, discussed transition strategies and the importance of developing an effective intervention programs for students with emotional disabilities, but the current study concentrated on establishing a direct relationship between students post high school outcome and participation in a transition or intervention program. The data collected in this study helped establish a relationship or a direct correlation between students post high school outcome and participation in (The Vocational Education Program) a transition program for students with disabilities. The data will also provide meaningful information pertaining to possible relational predictions about student success in post high school career achievement; the acquired information will then be used during Individualized Education Plan (IEP) meetings to develop an appropriate Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) and procedures for students with disabilities (see appendix A)

Review of LiteratureApproximately 470,000 American youths are receiving special education and related services under the eligibility or category of emotional disturbance and that number is growing (US Department of Education, 2006). Statistical figures indicate two percent increase from 2000 the previous year and a 20% increase from ten years ago (US Department of Education, 2002). Since the passage of public law 94 – 142 known as Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), millions of school age children and adolescents with SED and LD have been served.

Over the years, studies by Armstrong et al. (2003); Boreson, (2003); Cameto et al., (2004); Wagner, (2006) have shown that children and adolescents under the category of SED function a year or more below their grade level across all subject areas and risk failing to master basic academic skills (Kauffman, 2005). These students often encounter academic and social difficulties. Academic difficulties include lower grades, failing grades, greater retention rates, and a greater likelihood of dropping out of school (Sinclair, Christenson & Thurlow, 2005; Wagner, 1995). About 73% or more of students with SED drop out of school and do not attend or aspire to attend college or vocational training institutions. This leads to high levels of unemployment, poor employment histories, and involvement with the judicial system (US Department of Education, 2002). Bender and Wall (1994), states that students with LD also display more behavioral problems, somatic problems, and solitary behaviors than their peers who don’t suffer these impairments. These authors also indicates that LD may cause students with average or above average intelligence to experience difficulty in listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, and or math.

Learning disability has been defined by the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD, 2006) as a varied group of disorders of presumed neurological origin manifested differently and to varying degrees during the life span of an individual. The NJCLD indicated that these disorders are developmental, are exhibited prior to kindergarten, and continue into adulthood. Delays in speech and language development are early indicators, as are motor skills coordination, perception reasoning, and social interactions that are prerequisites to academic achievement and other areas relevant to meeting educational goals (NJCLD, 2006). According to Al-Yagon(2007), internal neurological factors such as information-processing disorders, impulsivity, performance, and production deficits, all of

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which affect the academic skills of these children, may also affect their social and emotional understanding and interpretations. And these impaired interpretations may affect their social, emotional, and behavioral skills (Bender & Wall 1994). Researchers (Polloway, Smith, & Patton, 1984; White, 1992) revealed that students with LD who are preparing for post secondary education are more likely than their non-disabled peers to exhibit: (a) lack of study skills such as note-taking, comprehension, and test preparation (b) lack of organizational skills (c) below grade level performance in academic areas such as reading and writing (d) low self-esteem (e) a high dropout rate. In an effort to protect the educational rights of these students, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act were enacted.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997; a law protecting the rights of students with disabilities was re-authorized in 2004 and is currently known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (Grigorenko, 2008). School districts and mental health care providers are mandated by this law to have a transition plan included in an IEP for students classified SED, LD, as well as other categories of disabilities starting from age fourteen to sixteen and continuing annually thereafter (Grigorenko, 2008). The objective of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 is to reduce the number of students with disabilities who drop out of school. Another objective is to work with students and their families to plan for a post secondary education, career and life afterwards by engaging the students in transition programs that will help them to acquire and utilize pre-requisite skills needed for a successful transition to life after high school. The law requires that the student be invited to IEP meetings that include transition planning. If for any reason the student does not attend, provisions must be made to ensure their interests and preferences are considered.

TransitionIn 1990, United States Congress emphasized the promotion and enhanced transition from school to adult life for students with disabilities. This emphasis brought about the enactment of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997 (IDEA) (P.L 105-17) and the Act of 2004, which stipulates that a transition plan should not only provide academic knowledge, but also teach skills that prepares students with disabilities for transition from school to adult life or post secondary education. Research suggested that the degree of success in adult life for these students is determined by the quality of education and training received during elementary, middle and high school years (Dowdy & Evers, 1996).

Halpern (1994) defines transition as a change in one’s status, from being and behaving like a student to assuming the roles of an adult in the society. These roles include employment, postsecondary education participation, maintaining a living accommodation, being positively involved in the community and experiencing satisfactory interpersonal relationships. Over the past couple of years researchers have established that young adults with disabilities have experienced school failure which translates into unemployment, underemployment, isolation, and often trouble with the criminal justice system occurring during or after high school (Armstrong et al., 2003; Boreson, 2003; Cameto et al., 2004; Wagner, 2006; Wagner, Blackorby, Cameto, Hebbler & Newman, 1993).

Barclay and Cobbs (2001), also state that adult life starts right after the completion of high school. This is the time where free and appropriate entitlement to public education ends and disabled youths and their families have difficult decisions to make about the future. Assistance through intervention programs are offered by schools and other governmental agencies. The assistance is comprised of modules and strategies that may include all or a combination of the following (a) pursuit of postsecondary education, (b) vocational training, (c) employment, and (d) independent living.

Levine and Edgar (1995) collected interview data from youths with SED/EBD at six-month intervals following high school for two years. The first interview showed more than half of the youths with SED/EBD were employed with one fifth of them earning the minimum wage or higher. Eighteen months after the initial six-month interviews, none of the youth who were employed reported earnings at that same level. As well, the number of those not involved in any formal school or work related activities increased from 10% at six months to 30% at two years. Neel, Meadow, Levine and Edgar (1988), as cited in Zigmond (2006), reported those in a comparison group without disabilities were significantly more likely to be enrolled in post secondary training and to be employed than their SED/EBD counterparts. Studies also reveal that 33% of the youths with SED/EBD were neither in

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school or employed compared with a lower 10% that described their non-disabled peers (NLTS-1). The same study also indicated that within three years of leaving high school, only half of the youths with SED/EBD were employed while nearly two thirds of youth with learning disabilities were employed. Only 29% of youth with SED/EBD compared to 37% of youths with LD had a post secondary education. Youths with SED/EBD were also found less likely to complete their chosen course of study (Wagner et al., 1993). The post school outcome of these students has been discouraging and to ensure a more positive outcome for the students a transition intervention program should be initiated and properly implemented.

Transition intervention implementation is comprised of the following components: vocational education, career development, postsecondary education, work adjustment and independent living skills (Bullis & Cheney, 1999; Will, 1984; Zetlin & Turner, 1985). The knowledge that an efficient and effective transition program and or services could assist students with special needs make a smooth transition to postsecondary activities resulted in advocacy for amendments and changes in the special education laws (McAfee & Mann, 1982). Transition planning involves a long term coordinated effort and process. Transition is accomplished by the participation of school personnel, caregivers, families and students. The ultimate goal is to make plans and preparations from high school to adult life. The major components of a transition plan are goals and objectives that are geared towards the areas that the student is expected to function in after leaving school.

According to Dee, Byers, Hayhoe, and Maudslay (2002), planning for students’ transition from high school to adult life will enhance the quality of life for these youths. Hagner, Cheney and Mallory (1999), also emphasized that if transition from high school to adult life is not well planned and well implemented, many youths and adults with learning disabilities will experience limited or no opportunities for inclusion in the community. This knowledge led to the implementation of the Vocational Education Program by the Long Beach Unified School District.

Vocational Education Program (VEP) DescriptionIn 1985 the Long Beach Unified School District Special Education Department established the VEP in an effort to ensure a smooth transition to a career and productive life after high school graduation. The implementation of VEP is also in response to the Individualized Education Act of 2004 requiring schools to develop and implement a transition plan for students with disabilities starting at age 14. The Special Education Vocational Education Program provides designated instruction and services (DIS) to students with disabilities. These services are provided so that students can make progress in their vocational education program. The Special Day Class (SDC) teacher and or the Resource Specialist Program (RSP) teacher are the case coordinator for students receiving the services.

Vocational education instruction is usually initiated by parents and or the special educator when they suspect or establish that a student is not able to benefit from the general education vocational options even with program modifications and accommodations. The next step to this process is to conduct a vocational assessment. The individual vocational assessment report is discussed at the student’s Individualized Education Plan (IEP). The IEP team makes a decision concerning the provision of the needed services for the student. Currently at the Long Beach Unified School District (LBUSD) there are seven career transition specialists. One is assigned to each high school, and the seventh one is assigned to the Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC).

The Career Transition Specialist’s (CTS) duties include the following: (a) provision of career education curriculum ideas to special education teachers, (b) assisting Special education, Regional Occupation Program (ROP) and Vocational Education (Voc Ed) teachers to modify their lessons, (c) provision of an hour per week of modified related assignments to work experience for SDC students, (d) provision of vocational skills instructions to students on – campus, (e) training and supervising Para-educators and college aides who work with Voc Ed students, (f) conducting assessments and monitoring students who are enrolled in the ROP and Voc Ed classes and writing reports about their progress, (g) connecting students to outside agencies such as the Department of Rehabilitation, Regional Center, Social Security Administration, local colleges, and job corp., and (h) referring students to the LBUSD Adult Community Transition Program Options. This research work concentrated on two options, (1) Project Workability I and (2)Rehabilitation Transition Partnership Program (TPP).

(1) Project Workability I is a federally funded employment preparation program for students with disabilities ages 14-21 who require subsidized and/or unsubsidized on-the-job development. The

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program is a coordinated effort between the student, parent, teacher and employer. Once a student begins working, the coordinating classroom teacher may also enroll the student in the General Work Experience-SDC class. The CTS provides one hour of related assignments weekly, and college student aides serve as job coaches who assist students with job and mobility training.

(2) Department of Rehabilitation Transition Partnership Program (TPP) serves 30 seniors or Adult Community Transition students in their final year who desire to enter the competitive workforce after exiting LBUSD. The focus of this program is to train the student for competitive employment and orchestrate a smooth transition from school to the world of work by the time the student exist high school. The student is mandated to meet specific Department of Rehabilitation criteria to be accepted into this program. The CTS and Job Developer will assist each applicant with the formal intake procedure. Regional Center Clients are not allowed to enroll in the program. The student may participate in on-the-job training at the Veteran’s Affairs Medical Center. The student is assigned to a job developer who helps them find a job matching their skill level and area of interest. The student may access follow-up services for two years. Parental participation is a needed criterion for success.

Previous research such as: (a) status of the trend in academic intervention research for students with emotional disabilities conducted by Paul, Michael and Reid (2003); (b) a mile wide and a mile deep: comprehensive intervention research for students with emotional disturbance by Quinn and McDougal (1998); and (c) school-based prevention and intervention programs for children with emotional disturbances by Reddy and Richardson, (2006), all focused on elementary, middle, and high school curricular interventions, behavior intervention, and effective teaching modalities that will help students to succeed in school, graduate and not drop out from school. While research such as: (a) prediction of dropout rate among students with mild disabilities, conducted by Reschly and Christenson, (2006); (b) predictors of post-high school employment for youths identified as severely emotionally disturbed by Rylance, (1998); (c) the mismatch between the transition goals and school programs of youth with emotional disturbances by Wagner, (2006); and (d) an analysis by gender of long term post school outcomes for youths with disabilities conducted by Levine Edgar (1995), based their studies on collecting data about students’ post high school outcome and the importance of creating a reasonable and useful match between school program and transition goals for students, without specifically connecting students outcome to any intervention program.

The present study was designed to investigate the impact of the transition program on students’ career outcome. This research tried to make a clear connection between the students’ career outcome and participation in the transition program. The study helped determine if students were able to generalize the learned intervention strategies, this was measured by the students’ ability to gain and retain employment two to three years after high school graduation. The data collected in this research will provide meaningful information pertaining to possible relational predictions about student success in post high school career achievement and how that relates to the intervention received by these students from the Vocational Education Program (VEP). The study will also provide pertinent information and knowledge about improving the career outcome of students with disabilities.

Significance of the StudySelingo (2006), states that education provides avenues for personal growth and promotes individual self-worth. There are many benefits of education to society as a whole. This is especially true of higher education. Selingo continues to emphasize how it has become an important prerequisite for most professional and skilled occupations. However, students with special needs have been unable to gain access to higher education or a career without support. Various interventions and transitional processes provide these supports. If this is so, the emphasis must be placed on the effectiveness of these interventions and therefore the best practices need to be determined.

This study is significant because educational institutions, families, and youths with special needs will find the determination of effective transitional and intervention procedures helpful. The results from the research will assist them in making choices of interventions that best suit them or work best for their educational or career goals. The data collected here will be used to design comprehensive educational and vocational services programs for students with disabilities. The data will also be used to establish a predictor and criteria variable between the students and available services. Therefore, more appropriate or better matched services will be provided to the students.

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MethodParticipantsThe target population for the study consisted of students who received special education services under the eligibility categories of Serious Emotional Disability (SED) and Learning Disability (LD). These target population also graduated from the Long Beach Unified School District in Long Beach California within the 2004-2005, 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 school years. The participants had an Individualized Transition Plan (ITP), an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) and received transition

SampleThe sample population included the contact and graduation information of students who participated in the transition intervention program at LBUSD. The sample was limited to students who graduated between the 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 school years.

Data Collection InstrumentData was collected through oral interview, questionnaire and students’ job acquisition records. The researcher made contacts with participants through the Long Beach Unified School district’s Career Transition Specialist (CTS), conducted oral interviews via the telephone and distributed questionnaire through the United Postal services. The questionnaire and interview addressed questions relating to students’ job acquisition, job retention. The names and information of participants were kept confidential.

Manual computation of data was used to determine the job acquisition and job retention rate of participants. A descriptive statistical calculation using SPSS® Version 15.0.1 Software was used to conduct a secondary analysis of both research questions (SPSS Inc., 2006). The data from students’ job acquisition, job retention, job advancement records, and survey instruments were also analyzed to determine the effectiveness of VEP in assisting students with special needs in their transitions into independent working adults.

ProcedureGeneral ProceduresSix procedures were utilized in the evaluation of the effectiveness of VEP and its impact on students’ post high school career success. First, there was a review of relevant and current literatures on programs that included published peer-reviewed journals, ERIC documents, electronic articles, survey instruments, questionnaire instruments, and periodicals. A review of the standard or operating procedures of the transition assistance and intervention procedures was also conducted.

Second, the researcher scheduled a meeting with the Assistant Superintendent of Research, Planning and Evaluation, Assistant Superintendent of School Support Services: office of Special Education, Administrative Coordinator: Vocational Education Program, Career Transition Coordinators (CTS) at the Long Beach Unified School District. At the meeting, the researcher requested for information pertaining to student’s graduation and contact information.

Third, the researcher used the acquired information to develop follow-up plans. The researcher implemented the plans to make contacts with participants, conduct oral interviews via the telephone and distribute the questionnaire. The questionnaire and interview addressed questions relating to students’ job acquisition, and job retention rate. The names and information of participants were kept confidential, locked in the researcher’s personal cabinet and were returned to the district and school personnel six months after the completion of this study.

Fourth, information was gathered using interviews, surveys, and a review of the documents. An analysis of the collected data was used to determine whether students’ participation in the VEP alone had any impact in their graduation, job acquisition and job retention outcome. Response to interviews and the questionnaire was used to determine the rate of employment acquisition and retention that is attributed to the skills acquired through the program.

Fifth, following the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approvals (Long Beach Unified School District and the Argosy University), graduation and participants contact information from 2004/2005, 2005/2006, 2006/2007 school years was used to distribute the survey and conduct phone interviews. All information collected remained confidential and was only reported as group data with no identifying information. The researcher rented a post office private mailbox for a period of one year.

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All correspondences with participants were directed to the private mailbox. All the information gathered from the study was kept in a secure location and only those directly involved with the research had access to them. Lastly, data from the surveys and interviews was accumulated, analyzed and conclusions were made. Results from the study were also used to make recommendations for possible further studies.

ResultsFindings and InterpretationResults from the First Research QuestionThe results from the first research question, What is the job acquisition rate of students who received Vocational Education Program intervention after high school graduation? was manually counted, computed and analyzed. The researcher was able to make contact, conduct interviews and distribute questionnaires to eighty-one of the students who participated in the VEP during the 2004-2005, 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 school years. Nine participants from the 2004/2005 school year were contacted; twenty-one participants from the 2005-2006 school year were contacted; fifty-one participants from the 2006/2007 school years were contacted. Out of the participants from the 2004-2005 school years, six participants (67%) acquired employment after high school graduation, while three participants (33%) did not acquire employment. From the 2005-2006 school years, fourteen participants (67%) were able to get a job after high school graduation; seven participants (33%) did not get a job. Twenty-nine participants (57%) from the 2006/2007 were able to gain employment after high school graduation, while twenty-two (43%) reported not being employed. During the investigation enrollment records revealed that some of the participants that were enrolled in the 2006-2007 school year were still enrolled in school. The current school enrollment status of the students resulted to a low level in the job acquisition rate of that group. Data also showed that some of the participants in the study, who indicated that they are not currently working, were enrolled at Long Beach City College.

The manual computational results are presented in Table B1. The table gives the results from the survey about the number of students that were able to acquire a job after high school graduation. A pie chart representation of the results is presented in Appendix D.

Table B1What is the job acquisition rate of students who received Vocational Education

Program intervention after high school?Year of Participation

Total Number of contacts made

Job acquisition in numbers

Job acquisition in percent (%)

2004/2005 9 6 67 %

2005/2006 21 14 67 %

2006/2007 51 29 57%

Results from the Second Research Question For the second research question, What is the job retention rate of students who received Vocational Education Program intervention after high school graduation? the researcher conducted a manual count of the number of students who were able to retain employment one year after graduation, two years after graduation, and three years after high school graduation.

Eighty-one students who participated in the VEP during the 2004-2005, 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 school year were contacted. The researcher conducted phone interviews with some participants and distributed questionnaires through the CTS to some participants who were still currently enrolled in school. Nine participants from the 2004-2005 school years were contacted, twenty-one participants from the 2005-2006 school year were contacted, and fifty-one participants from the 2006-2007 school year were also contacted. Of participants from the 2004-2005 school year, six participants (67%) retained employment three years after high school graduation, while three participants (33%) were not able to retain employment after high school graduation. The participants from the 2005/2006 school year, which is two years after high school graduation, thirteen participants (67%), were able to retain employment, while eight participants (33%) were not able to retain employment. Twenty-seven participants (53%) from the 2006-2007 school year were able to retain employment one year after high school graduation, while twenty-four participants (47%) were not able to retain employment.

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During the investigation, some of the participants that were enrolled in the 2006-2007 school year were still currently enrolled in school, thereby resulting in a low level in the job retention rate in that group. Some of the participants who indicated that they did not retain their original employment were currently enrolled at Long Beach City College. The manual computation results are presented in Table B2. The table gives the results from the survey about the number of students that were able to retain their job after high school graduation. A pie chart of these results is also presented in Appendix D.

Table B2What is the job retention rate of students who received Vocational Education Program

intervention after high school?Year of Participation.

Total Number of contacts made.

Job retention in numbers.

Job retention in percent (%).

2004/2005 9 6 67 %

2005/2006 21 13 67 %

2006/2007 51 27 53%

Secondary Analysis for Research Questions One and Two.A secondary analysis of individual responses relating to students’ job acquisition, job retention and not applicable was also conducted using the SPSS® Software. This analysis tried to make a clear distinction between the yes, no and not applicable (N/A) responses. The non-applicable candidates are mostly participant who are currently enrolled in school or attends college and therefore either responded as N/A or do not currently have a job.

For survey question: Do you currently have a job, five participants (6%) responded as N/A, 48 participants (60%) responded as a YES, while 27 participants (33%) responded as a NO. For the question: I have kept a job since after high school, 19 participants (24%) responded as N/A, 40 participants (50%) responded as a YES, while 21 participants (26%) responded as a NO. Result data to the question: I lost my first job, and do not currently have a job, showed that 28 participants (35%) responded as N/A, 11 participants (13%) responded as a YES, while 41 participants (51%) responded as a NO. Finally the response for the survey question: Vocational Education Program helped me get a job, indicated that12 participants (15%) responded as N/A, 62 participants (78%) responded as a YES, while 6 participants (8%) responded as a NO.

DiscussionThe purpose of the study was to assess the impact of VEP on students’ career success after high school graduation. The Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act of 2004 requires that schools and public agencies provide an Individualized Transition Plan for every student that has an Individualized Education Plan. The program effectiveness and impact on students’ career success relied on the following two variables (a) rate of job acquisition, and (b) rate of job retention.The results from the first research question What is the job acquisition rate of students who received Vocational Education Program intervention after high school graduation? showed that forty-nine out of the eighty-one participants who were contacted were able to acquire a job after high school graduation. Thirty-two of the participants that were contacted were not able to gain employment after high school graduation.The results from the second research question What is the job retention rate of students who received Vocational Education Program intervention after high school graduation? indicated that forty-six out of the eighty-one participants who were contacted were able to retain employment two to three years after high school graduation. Thirty-five of those participants were not able to retain employment after high school graduation. The research did not address the reasons for these participants responding as not retaining a job or responding with a not-applicable response. However during the course of interview the researcher discovered that some of the participants who responded to question two as not retaining a job or not-applicable were either currently enrolled in LBUSD or were enrolled in the Long Beach City College.

Conclusions

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The results for research question one, showed that 67% of the participants from the 2004-2005 school year acquired employment after high school graduation, while 67% of the participants from the 2005-2006 school year were able to get a job after high school graduation. Research results further indicated that 57% of the participants from the 2006-2007 school year were able to acquire employment after high school graduation. The second research question referring to students who retained employment for a specified period of time after high school graduation indicated that 67% of the participants from the 2004-2005 school year retained employment three years after high school graduation. Response to the same research question also showed that 67% of the participants from the 2005-2006 school year were able to retain employment two years after high school graduation. Results also revealed that 53% of the participants from the 2006-2007 school year retained employment one year after high school graduation.

The Vocational Education Program is a transition intervention program that was offered to students with disabilities who graduated from Long Beach Unified School District. The objective of the program is to ensure that students with disabilities are able compete favorably at the job market with their non-disabled peers.

Recommendations for Further ResearchThe Vocational Education Program is a transition intervention program that was offered to students with disabilities who graduated from Long Beach Unified School District. The objective of the program is to ensure that students with disabilities are able to compete favorably at the job market with their non-disabled peers. Based on the findings from this study, two recommendations are proposed to the school district.

The first recommendation is to provide support for further studies and investigations that relate to improving the Vocational Education Program’s impact on students post high school career, education and independent living outcome. The study should also include the implementation of a 3-5 years longitudinal study related to transition and post high school outcome of students with disabilities who participated in the VEP and other transition programs at the district. Results from the gathered information should be utilized to further address the transition needs of students during IEP and ITP meetings and hopefully increase students’ job acquisition, job retention, college enrollment rates and positive independent living outcomes.

The second is to locate and utilize other supplemental curriculum that focuses more on real life skill acquisition. Students should be able to generalize and apply the acquired skills in the real world, such as in the work place, educational pursuits and independent living endeavors. Similar analyses, with questions that focus on explaining why some participants indicated that the question of acquiring or retaining a job does not apply to them should be conducted. These explanations will help make an accurate distinction between students who are actively engaged in a job or post-secondary education and those that are idle or non-productive.

ReferencesAl-Yagon, M. (2007). Socioemotional and behavioral adjustment among school-age children with learning disabilities: the moderating role of maternal personal resources. Retrieved on February 16, 2008, from http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary. Armstrong, K. H., Dedrick, R. F., & Greenbaum, P. E. (2003). Factors associated with community adjustment of young adults with serious emotional disturbance: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 66-76. Barclay, J., & Cobb, J. (2001). Full life ahead: A workbook and guide to adult life for students and families of students with disabilities (Rev.ed. ed.). Montgomery, AL: Southeast Regional Resource Center.Bender, W. N., & Wall, M. E. (1994). Social-emotional development of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 17,323–341. Boreson, L. (2003). Transition to adulthood: Resources for teachers working with students with emotional behavioral disabilities (EBD), Retrieved on January 23, 2007, from http://dpi.wi.gov/sped/doc/ebdtransit.doc database.Boreson, L. (2006). Effective programs for students with emotional behavioral disabilities (EBD), Retrived on 23, 2007, from http://dpi.wi.us/sped/doc/ebdeffprog.doc database.Bullis, M., & Cheney, D. (1999).Vocational and transition interventions for adolescents and youngadults with emotional or behavioral disorders. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31(7), 108-223.

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Cameto, R., Levine, P., & Wagner, M. (2004). Transition planning for students with disabilities. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Dee, L., Byers, R., Hayhoe, H., & Maudslay, L. (2002). literature review. Enhancing quality of life: Facilitating transition for people with profound and complex learning difficulties. London: University of Cambridge/Skill. Dowdy, C. A., & Evers, R. B. (1996). Preparing students for transition: A teacher primer on vocational education and rehabilitation. Intervention in School and Clinic, 31, 197-208. Grigorenko, E. L. (2008). Educating individuals with disabilities: IDEIA 2004 and beyound.. New York: Springer. Hagner,D., Cheney,D., & Mallory,J.(1999). Career-related outcomes of a model transition demonstration for young adults with emotional disturbance. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 42(3), 149-293. Halpern, A. (1994). The transition of youth with disabilities to adult life: A position statement in the division on career development and transition, the council for exceptional children. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 17, 115-124. Kauffman, J. M. (2005). Characteristics of emotional and behavior disorders of children and youth (8th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.Levine, P. & Edger, E. (1995). An analysis by gender of long-term post school outcomes for youths with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 61, 282-300.McAfee, J., & Mann, L. (Eds.). (1982). The prognosis for mildly handicapped students. in T.L. Miller & E. Davis (Eds), the mildly handicapped students (pp. 461-496). New York: Grune and Stratton. National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (2006). Learning disabilities and young children: Identification and intervention. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 30(1), 63-72. Paul, E, Michael, H., & Reid, L. (2003). Status of and trends in academic intervention research for students with emotional disturbances. Remedial & Special Education, 24(5), 29-129. Polloway, E.A., Smith, J.D., & Patton, J.R. (1984). Learning disabilities: An adult development perspective. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 7, 179-186.Quinn, K. P., & McDougal, J. L. (1998). A mile wide and a mile deep: Comprehensive interventions for children and youth emotional and behavioral disorder and their families. School Psychology, 27(2), 122-223. Reddy, L. A., & Richardson, L. (2006). School-based prevention and intervention programs for children with emotional disturbances. Education and Treatment of Children, 29(2), 379-404. Reschly, A. L., & Christenson, S. L. (2006). Prediction of dropout among students with mild disabilities: A case study for the inclusion of student’s engagement variables. Remedial and Special education, 27, 276-292. Rylance, B. (1998). Predictors of post-high school employment for youth identified as severely emotionally disturbed. Journal of Special Education, 32(3), 117-223.Selingo, J. (2006). John Edwards talks about the need for greater access to college. Chronicle of Higher Education, 52(44), 26-26Sinclair, M. F., Christenson, S. L., & Thurlow, M. L. (2005). Promoting school completion of urban secondary youth with emotional or behavioral disabilities.Council for Exceptional Children, 71(4), 465-482. SPSS Inc. (2006). SPSS base 15.0.1 for window user's guide.. Chicago IL.: SPSS Inc.. US Department Of Education (2002). Twenty-fourth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.US Department of Education (2006). Twenty-sixth annual reports to congress on the implementation of the individuals with disabilities education act. Washington, DC: Author. Wagner, M. (1995). Outcomes for youth with serious emotional disturbance in secondary school and early adulthood. The Future of Children: Critical Issues for Children and Youth, 5(4), 90-112. Wagner, M. (2006). The Mismatch between the transition goals and school programs of youth with emotional disturbances. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 2(14), 70-77. Wagner, M., Blackorby, J., Cameto, R., Hebbeler, K., & Newman, L. (1993). transition experiences of young people with disabilities: A summary of the findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study of special education students. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. White, W. J (1992). The postschool adjustment of persons with learning disabilities: Current status and future projections. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 448-456.Will, M. (1984). OSERS programming for the transition of youth with disabilities: Bridges from school to working life. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services. Zetlin, A., & Turner, J. L. (1985). Transition from adolescence to adulthood. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89(6), 570-579.

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Zigmond, N. (2006). Twenty-four months after high school: Paths taken by youth diagnosed with severe emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavior Disorders, 14, 99-107.

APPENDIXES

APPENDIX ADefinition of Terms

Emotional Disturbance (ED). Emotional disturbances under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is defined as a condition that exhibits one or more of the following characteristics over a period of time, and to a marked degree adversely affecting a child’s educational performance, (a) an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors, (b) an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers, (c) inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances, (d) a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, (e) tendency to develop physical symptoms of fears associated with personal or school problems.Individualized Education Plan (IEP). An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Public schools in the United States are mandated to develop an IEP for all students with disabilities who are eligible for special education. This document must be designed to provide the student with a free and appropriate public education. The IEP covers both the educational program and interventions that will be provided for the disabled student and their family. The IDEA, 2004, requires that an IEP must be individualized and written to meet the unique needs of each student. Individualized Transition Plan. Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) includes a set of coordinated activities assisting students with disabilities in moving from school into self-determined post graduation activities. The IDEA requires that schools provide transition services to students with disabilities beginning at age fourteen. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) is a federal law governing the rights of children or students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment possible. Intervention. Intervention is an orchestrated attempt by one or more people to offer assistance to students with disabilities.Learning Disabilities (LD). Learning disabilities affect the brain’s ability to receive process, analyze, or store information.Participants. Participants are defined as the living individuals about whom an investigator conducting research obtains data through interactions and with identifiable private information.Transition. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA, 2004) defines transition services as: a coordinated set of activities for a student with a disability.

APPENDIX BInterview/Survey Questions

Please mark Yes Or NO to the Following Questions.

1. Do you have a job now …..………………………….YES……NO …….N/A

2. I have kept a job since after high school graduation.…YES……NO….....N/A

3. I lost my first job, and do not have a job now.....…… YES……NO ……N/A

4. Vocational Education Program helped me get a job….YES……NO ....…N/A

5. If you would like to change something in the program, what will that be? ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

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APPENDIX CComputer Printout

Secondary Analysis for Research Questions One and Two.Frequencies Computer Printout for table 2

Frequency tables

APPENDIX C (continued)

45

Statistics

80 80 80 800 0 0 0

ValidMissing

N

Do you havea job now?

I have kept ajob since after

high school

I lost my firstjob, and donot have a

job now

VocationalEducationProgram

helped meget a job

Do you have a job now?

5 6.3 6.3 6.348 60.0 60.0 66.327 33.8 33.8 100.080 100.0 100.0

Not applicableYesNoTotal

ValidFrequency Percent Valid Percent

CumulativePercent

I have kept a job since after high school

19 23.8 23.8 23.840 50.0 50.0 73.821 26.3 26.3 100.080 100.0 100.0



CumulativePercent

Vocational Education Program helped me get a job

12 15.0 15.0 15.062 77.5 77.5 92.56 7.5 7.5 100.0

80 100.0 100.0



CumulativePercent

I lost my first job, and do not have a job now

28 35.0 35.0 35.011 13.8 13.8 48.841 51.3 51.3 100.080 100.0 100.0



CumulativePercent


APPENDIX DPie Chart demonstration for Secondary Analysis for Research Questions One and Two

46

Do you have a job now?

No

Yes

Not applicable

I lost my first job, and do not have a job now

No

Yes

Not applicable

I have kept a job since after high school

No

Yes

Not applicable

Vocational Education Program helped me get a job

No

Yes

Not applicable


REPORT ON AN INTERVENTION INVOLVING MASSAGE AND YOGA FOR MALE ADOLESCENTS ATTENDING A SCHOOL FOR DISADVANTAGED MALE

ADOLESCENTS IN THE UK

LA Powell,L. Potter,

Coventry University

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of providing an intervention involving massage and yoga in a school exclusively for male disadvantaged adolescents who experience emotional and behavioural difficulties. Data was collected using self-administered questionnaires completed by teachers and pupils prior to, and completion of, the SDP, tutor-monitoring forms completed after each SDP session, open questions on the questionnaires and verbal feedback from participating pupils. Measures included the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire used within schools to measure changes in behaviour. Twenty-one pupils and their respective teachers completed the SDP and all questionnaires. Results show improvements in pupil’s levels of hyperactivity, as rated by the teachers only. Interestingly, pupils particularly enjoyed learning massage. However, results of this small study suggest that the SDP may be a positive intervention for disadvantaged male adolescents who experience emotional and behavioural difficulties. Future studies are needed to determine whether the SDP does indeed have a positive effect on pupil’s behaviour, for example, larger and wider randomised controlled trials with more rigorous measures of change in behaviour

In the 2004-5 school calendar year, the rate of permanent expulsion among adolescents in England was 12 in every 10,000 pupils of compulsory school age (Office of National Statistics, 2007 p29). Amongst adolescents that have been excluded from mainstream schools, problems in later life are reported more often than for those individuals who are still in mainstream schools (Pritchard & Cox, 1998). In response to this there has been a growth in the development of therapeutic interventions such as social skills training and relaxation (Lopata, 2003). The association between relaxation and physiological arousal reduction (Wolpe, 1958), underpins the rationale for incorporating relaxation as a component in interventions for young persons with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). Most interventions have primarily targeted pupils in primary school. Although it has been suggested that problem behaviours are addressed most effectively when pupils are young (Fox et al., 2002), this does neglect pupil’s educational journey as they progress to senior school settings.

School-based Interventions Nurture groups have been implemented primarily for children (usually four or five years of age) with emotional and behavioural disorders (EBD) (Cooper & Lovey, 1999; Colwell & O’Connor, 2003). The framework of Nurture groups is based on Bowlby’s (1971) attachment theory, and the central focus is educational, based on the child’s learning age, rather than chronological age. Studies have shown positive results for those children progressing from Nurture groups back into mainstream school in comparison with children who displayed a level of difficulty warranting a placement but who were unable to gain a place. However, studies have been limited by the methodology, sample size and lack of rigor in design and measures. Despite this, Nurture groups are highly valued among teachers in primary, and more recently secondary schools, and provide a more positive ethos towards dealing with children at risk of expulsion.

Interventions (complementary therapy-based)The Quiet Place project (Spalding, 2000; 2001) aims to provide a holistic (including the provision of massage), client-led approach, where children attend weekly sessions in a therapeutic room for an

47


agreed number of sessions per week, usually for around six weeks. Renwick & Spalding (2002) examined the Quiet Place Project delivered to 172 children across seven schools compared to a matched control group (n=54) from three schools. Children were matched (as far as possible) on socio-economic background and similar needs. Compared to the control group, children who took part in the Project were reported to display noticeable decreases in negative behaviours such as bullying, being disruptive, rule breaking, and increases in positive behaviours such as obeying instructions, joining in with a group and asking for help in class.

In Germany, the Training of Relaxation with elements of Yoga for Children programme (Stueck & Gloeckner, 2005) not in your references was delivered to 48 children aged 11-12 years who showed abnormal examination anxiety, measured by the anxiety questionnaire for students (Wieczerkowski, 1974). The study involved the children meeting 15 times over six months, and was divided into three parts; relaxation, yoga, and an interactive type of game. The results from this study show that children were appreciative of the chance to learn the techniques and feelings of helplessness and aggression were reduced. In the UK, Hallam & Price (1998) studied the value of playing calming music to a group of ten girls and boys aged nine to ten years attending an EBD Unit. The results showed improvements in both behaviour and in mathematics performance.

Several studies have also utilised massage therapy for use with children with developmental, emotional and behavioural difficulties. In the USA, Diego et al (2002) looked into helping adolescents with reported aggressive behaviours, through massage therapy using a randomised control trial design. The massage therapy group received ten sessions of massage over a five-week period with a different massage therapist each week. The control group received progressive muscle relaxation for the same period. Results indicate significant improvements in aggression levels for adolescents in the massage condition, but not for those in a relaxation-only condition.

In another randomised controlled trial, Khilnani et al (2003) studied massage versus relaxation among 30 children aged 7-18 years with ADHD in the USA. Children in the massage therapy group received massage therapy for 20 minutes twice a week for one month and the relaxation group were asked to relax for that same time. Results show that the massage-group children rated themselves as happier, and their teachers (who were blind to the group assignment of each child) rated them as less hyperactive, more attentive and their emotional-indulgent scores were improved. The relaxation group had significantly better emotional indulgent scores, but other results remained unchanged.

Meditation has also been used in an educational setting, although not always specifically for EBD issues (e.g. Viarengo, 1998; McLean, 2001). Both studies reported that those children taking part in the meditation showed improved concentration skills as reported by teachers, and children themselves reported that the meditation was relaxing.

The literature has identified a number of school-based interventions available to pupils with EBD. However, the evidence for their efficacy is inconclusive due to varying methodologies, varying age groups, small sample sizes, varying conditions of children taking part, varying Programme content and delivery, and lack of randomisation and control groups. However, the literature does appear to support the use of Complementary Therapy-based interventions for pupils with EBD.

The Self-Discovery ProgrammeThe Self-Discovery Programme (Powell & McCormack 2001; Powell 2005©R) was designed for pupils with extra needs (e.g. learning disability) set within the theoretical framework of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1988). Strategies shown to enhance self-efficacy are mastery experience, role modelling, persuasion and reinterpretation of physiological and affective state (Bandura, 1988). In the context of the SDP pupils are trained in simple yoga postures and relaxation techniques such as simple hand massage and deep breathing. The SDP provides them with a safe environment in which these techniques can be practised (mastery experience), and each pupil can observe their peers also practising the techniques (role modelling). The tutor is instrumental in providing clear instructions and explaining that by using the techniques pupils have a means of relaxing themselves during times of stress and thus they will be able to consider their response from a place of stillness rather than reacting automatically with aggression (persuasion). The relaxation techniques also provide a means of down-regulating physiological arousal and affective states (e.g. anger).

48


Earlier trials of the SDP (Powell, Gilchrist and Stapley, 2008; Powell, Barlow & Bagh, 2005; Cullen-Powell & Barlow, 2005) have shown the programme to be of value in terms of improvements in self-control, being calmer in class, and use of relaxation techniques (e.g. self hand massage) during stressful situations in school or class. However, the SDP has not been trialled in a school exclusively for adolescents who have a statement of special educational needs, are socially disadvantaged and experience EBD.

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility and the value of providing the SDP in community special school exclusively for male disadvantaged boys aged 11 to 16 and who experience emotional and behavioural difficulties. Coventry University’s Ethics Committee granted ethical approval. As this study was a small pilot study to inform a wider, randomised controlled trial, a simple pre-post test evaluation was chosen.

SampleOf the 52 pupils attending the school, 98% were working with the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Team, 68% were working with the Youth Offending Team, 12% were working with the Community and Safety Team for acceptable behaviour, and, 62% received Free School Meals. Of these 52 pupils a purposeful sample of 36 were identified by the Head Teacher to take part in the study. Inclusion criteria used were based on age (i.e. 11 to 15 years), those who were engaged in the school learning programme (i.e. pupils with a minimum of 70% attendance rate). The Research Team provided the School with 36 information sheets about the SDP and the study, parental consent/pupil assent forms to take part in the study. These forms were distributed to parents and pupils. In addition, pre-paid envelopes were provided for completed forms to be returned to the Research Team.

The Self-Discovery Programme adapted for male pupilsThe SDP consists of 12 one hour sessions delivered over two school terms (e.g. spring and summer). The primary activities of the SDP include: self and peer massage (e.g. pupils are shown how to massage their own and their peers hands); simple hatha yoga postures (e.g. triangle, warrior, tree and using the breath, meditation, visualisation and relaxation). Due to the available space provided by the school (i.e. a small room with desks and chairs) the amount of movement was restricted and it was impossible to use yoga mats and lay down on the floor for relaxation. Thus, meditations, visualisations and relaxation were conducted with pupils sitting on chairs. Pupils were shown how to sit comfortably to ensure proper deep, relaxed breathing. This is a more realistic approach as pupils can then transfer these skills to a classroom or other situation.

For the massage sessions, a guest speaker was invited to introduce the topic of massage to pupils. The guest speaker was a male sports massage therapist and has worked with pupils in schools. The purpose of this was: a) to help pupils to overcome any sensitive issues they may have about touch, b) to give pupils some insight of how massage can be used as a career, and c) to provide a male role model as a professional sports massage therapist.

Two tutors, (one qualified in the field of complementary therapy and one an ex-teacher with experience of working with adolescents with EBD) were employed to deliver the SDP throughout the duration of the project to ensure consistency in delivery. The tutors received additional training (half day) by the author in the delivery and format of the SDP and the associated research requirements.

In addition to the tutor, a teaching assistant (TA) from each relevant class group was required to attend each SDP session. The TA’s role was to support the tutor and to ensure the safety of the pupils and the tutor and to maintain the discipline expected within school.

Method On receipt of the completed consent and assent forms by parents and pupils respectively the researcher posted the baseline questionnaires and SAE to the School for completion by teachers and pupils. Once completed baseline questionnaires were returned to the researcher the school was informed and pupils were divided into five groups (four or five pupils in each group). Groups were determined by class, that is, pupils were kept together with their peers.

The study was a simple pre-test, post-test design with data collected through self-administered questionnaires completed by teachers and pupils at two points in time: before commencing the SDP and after completing the SDP. In addition, qualitative data were collected using open questions on the

49


follow-up questionnaires (i.e. immediately on completion of the SDP), tutor -monitoring forms that were completed by the tutors for the duration of the SDP, and meeting with each group of pupils on completion of the SDP to gain feedback regarding their views and experience of taking part in the SDP.

MeasuresInformation regarding pupils class year, age, level of attainment, medical diagnoses (if applicable), ethnic origin, and support received from school and/or outside agencies, was collected at baseline only (i.e. before commencing the SDP). Behavioural profiles included information on pupil’s self and social confidence, communication, self-control within the school/classroom, and attention span. The behavioural profile consists of nine questions each rated one to seven, with low scores indicating no confidence, great difficulty in communication, eye contact and no contribution in class. Scores are reported for each sub-scale and summed to give a total behavioural score (minimum 7, maximum 63). The scale was developed in earlier development phases of the SDP with teachers to reflect some of the behavioural problems often experienced within a classroom. Thus, we would hope to see some change in one or more of these domains on completion of the SDP. The behavioural profile is completed by the teachers before and after the SDP.

A Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ Goodman, 1997; 2001) was completed by both pupils and their respective teachers. The scale consists of 25 items divided into five scales: emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer relationship problems and pro-social behaviour. Some statements are negative and some are positive. Statements are anchored from not true; somewhat true; to certainly true. Each subscale consisted of five questions, and each question scores between one and three points. Scores are banded from normal; through to borderline; and abnormal in order to identify individuals likely to have mental health disorders. Low scores generally indicate normal behaviour, whilst high scores indicate abnormal behaviour.

Qualitative data was collected using open-ended questions immediately after the SDP including:Did you enjoy taking part in the SDP?Name one activity or skill learnt on the SDP that you liked.Name one activity or skill that you learnt on the SDP that you disliked.Have you used any of the techniques learnt on the SDP during the school day?

Due to the majority of pupils with special educational needs, some pupils may experience difficulty in articulating their experiences in written form; thus, the researcher gained informal verbal feedback from the pupils on completion of the SDP. The researcher met with pupils at the school and in their respective SDP groups. In addition, Tutor monitoring forms provided information on the tutors’ experiences of each session and an overall reflection of their experience of the SDP in terms of delivery and content.

AnalysisQuantitative data was analysed using SPSS v14 with a significance level set at five percent. Before and after analyses on study variables used independent and paired t-tests.

ResultsInformation and consent/assent forms were distributed by the school to 36 pupils and their parents. Twenty three parent consent forms and the respective pupil assent form were returned to the researcher giving a response rate of 64%. Thirteen parents failed to return the consent form and therefore 13 pupils were unable to take part in the study.

Pupil characteristics Pupils were aged 11-15 years, 18 white British, two black/Afro-Caribbean and one mixed race. Of the 21 pupils, 6 were diagnosed with an EBD alone, two were diagnosed with EBD and ADHD, one were diagnosed with ADHD alone, one was reported by teachers to have ADHD and epilepsy, and one child had a diagnosis of global delay. The remaining nine pupils had mild to severe learning disability. Six pupils were in receipt of additional help, such as play therapy, during school hours.

Teacher and pupil ratings of the pupils’ behaviours did not differ, either before or after the SDP. Thus, the teachers’ views of the behaviour of the pupils changed in the same direction as the pupils themselves reported.

50


Behaviour Profiles completed by teachersThe total mean behavioural score before commencing the SDP was 36.1, (SD 10.85) and 38.4, (SD 10.20) on completion of the SDP indicating an overall improvement in behaviour. There were improvements in self-confidence, social confidence with peers and with teachers, communication with peers and with teachers, self-control, and attention span and eye contact with teachers. Contribution in class showed no improvement.

Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)Table 1 below shows the mean scores on the SDQ for both teacher-ratings of students and student-ratings both before and after the SDP. The general overall trend is towards improvement, and even where there are no significant responses, the range of responses has narrowed, indicating less extremes of response. The pro-social score, that is, the extent to which pupils were actively kind and helpful towards other pupils also indicates improvement (Table 2). However, none of the changes in scores on the SDQ were of statistical significance with the exception of hyperactivity, as rated by the teachers.

Table 1Showing total mean scores (range) on the SDQ as rated by teachers and students

before and after the SDP.Teacher before SDP

Teacher after SDP P (t) Pupil before SDP

Pupil after SDP P (t)

Emotional symptomsRange 0 – 10, = worse

4.9 (0-9)Normal (towards borderline)

5 (0-10)Normal (towards borderline)

0.41(-.84)

3.5 (0-10)Normal

3.4 (0-9)Normal

0.83(-.19)

Conduct problemsRange 0 – 10, = worse

3.8 (0-8)Borderline (towards abnormal)

4.5 (0-9)Borderline

0.09(.00)

(1-7)Borderline

3.5(2-6)Normal

0.9(-.12)

Hyperactivity scaleRange 0 – 10, = worse

6.3 (0-10)Borderline


0.02(2.48)



0.37(3.30)

Peer problemsRange 0 – 10, = worse

4.7 (2-8)Borderline (towards abnormal)

4.3 (0-8)Borderline (towards normal)

0.45(1.01)


3.1 (1-8)Normal

0.52 (0.64)

Total difficulties scoreRange 0 – 40, = worse

20.1 (11-31)Abnormal


0.33(0.98)



0.83(0.21)

Table 2Showing total mean scores (range) on the SDQ Pro-social behaviour score before and

after the SDP.Teacher before SDP

Teacher after SDP

P (t) Pupil before SDP

Pupil after SDP

P (t)

Pro-social scaleRange 0 – 10, = better

4.5 (0-10)abnormal


0.27(-1/12

5.3 (2-8)borderline

5.2 (3-8)borderline

0.79(0.26)

Pupils (questionnaire responses)Nineteen pupils responded to the open-questions on the questionnaire on completion of the SDP. Of these 19 responses, 16 pupils indicated that they had enjoyed taking part in the SDP. Of the three pupils who stated they had not enjoyed the SDP two gave no further clarification as to why, and one pupil found it a bit boring, which may be a combination of both content, and experience of the tutor. These three pupils also reported that they had enjoyed the massage.

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The most enjoyed features of the SDP were the meditation and the massage, with eight boys commenting that the massage was the most enjoyable part of the Programme. Yoga was the most disliked activity, although in at least one case, the boy who disliked yoga the most, cited Tai Chi as the most enjoyable part. Basic Tai-Chi movements were utilised by one tutor as an alternative to Yoga.

Thirteen pupils reported they had used some of the skills (breathing (3), self hand massage (3), meditation (1) learnt on the SDP, in class. Six pupils referred to these skills just as techniques without clarification as to what these techniques were.

Pupils (verbal feedback)On the whole pupils appeared to have enjoyed taking part in the SDP. They particularly liked some of the activities, especially the topic on unusual and healthy foods (incorporating sensory awareness and colour), massage, breath, and meditation. One pupil didn’t like the oil used for the massage, but alternatives were at this time offered (such as a moisturising cream). Five pupils suggested that they had used some of the techniques, particularly massage, breath techniques, and meditation at home as well as in school. One pupil liked the breathing techniques and suggested that it did help to keep him calm during demanding situations. Two pupils felt that the meditations were repeated too often. It was explained that this was the purpose of meditation to become master of one’s own ability to problem-solve and of quieting the mind.

In terms of the timing and length of the sessions and the SDP overall, this was reported to be okay. In terms of improving the SDP, it was felt that there was not enough time for all the activities to be completed during one session, thus perhaps longer sessions would be better, or, more weeks. The pupils also liked the tutors who were described as always pleasant and calm; they never got angry.

TeachersTeachers reported that they had noticed changes in pupils during the SDP such as increased attention in class. In particular, two pupils who reported to use techniques learnt on the SDP in class were also noted by their respective teacher to have global changes (more self-control and concentration skills, appeared less worried, had better communication skills, higher contribution levels in class) and had observed these same pupils using breathing and hand massage techniques. One teacher reported that a pupil who had took part in the SDP was now calmer and more relaxed in stressful situations despite the pupil himself reporting that he does not employ any of the skills learnt on the SDP.

The teacher of one pupil noted that whilst the SDP had been in progress, the pupil had experienced a very unsettling time in his home, which in turn affected his behaviour in a negative manner. It is possible, that given the chaotic nature of these pupils’ lives, that there was more than one pupil experiencing an unsettling time, but that this information was not recorded.

Tutors’ ExperiencesReflections from the tutors who delivered the SDP show that the experience of delivering the Programme had been very positive and had enhanced their own personal growth and development. However, it was felt by both tutors that it had been very challenging on their own ability to keep pupils motivated and actively engaged in activities. Both tutors felt that they would have liked to have received more intense training in the delivery of the SDP and on some of the mandatory activities required (i.e. massage, yoga, meditations and relaxation techniques).

DiscussionThe purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of providing an intervention involving massage and yoga, namely the Self Discovery Programme (SDP) in school specifically for male disadvantaged adolescents aged 11 to 16 years and who experience emotional and behavioural difficulties. Overall the SDP was well received by pupils. One important outcome was the positive change in pupils’ reduced hyperactivity as reported by their teachers. This change is important in terms of social behaviour, group working, concentration, and integration into school life. Although no other statistically significant changes were noted there were trends (i.e. scores moving in the right direction) toward improvements in pupil’s emotional symptoms and conduct, self and social confidence, communication with peers and teachers, self-control, attention span and eye contact with teachers.

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It is unlikely that statistically significant changes would occur in such a short time among this group of pupils. It is more likely that the small incremental steps demonstrated in our findings are important over longer periods of time. For pupils with extra needs attending a special school these small steps may be far more productive in the longer term than any immediate, sudden change that may be difficult to accommodate and assimilate.

The qualitative data demonstrates that pupils enjoyed attending the SDP with many pupils utilising the techniques learnt on the SDP that they felt comfortable with. They valued having the opportunity to take part in a Programme that was fun and gave them practical, pragmatic skills that are easily implemented into their daily life, as well as being something different for them to do. Of interest was the pupils liking of massage, breath work, and meditation. The introduction of massage via a male Sports Therapist may have contributed to the popularity of the massage.

Challenges and LimitationsThe response rate was 64%. Even though parents initially indicated verbally to the Head Teacher that their son could participate in the SDP, it became apparent that the lives of the children and parents were too chaotic to give time to reading and filling in non-essential forms (i.e. reading information sheets and signing consent forms). Thus, gaining consent and assent from parents and pupils, respectively, was both a challenge and a limitation of the study. This limitation was also clear in that consent and assent forms had been photocopied two or three times before being returned to the researchers, suggesting that the original forms had been lost or mislaid by parents and pupils. Thus, it may be that the use of an opt-out-consent form may have given higher rate of return. Woods & White (2005) studied bullying and aggression levels in adolescents. They made use of an opt-out-consent form, whereby parents and guardians were sent a form, and asked to sign it only if they did not want their child to participate. This clearly would be for consideration in any future studies.

The small number of participants and the lack of a control group, blind scoring (i.e. teachers knew which pupils were taking part and when necessary helped pupils complete their questionnaire) suggest the results of this study should be treated with caution. However, the results demonstrate the value of the SDP as an intervention for this group of pupils. Although our findings do not show large amounts of change, they do show trends towards improvement in the main, both with positive overall changes, and a lessening of ranges (i.e. extreme responses). It is important to sow the seeds for positive change and provide this group of pupils with a range of practical, pragmatic skills that they can implement and utilised easily and comfortably as and when they feel a need. In this way, pupils become self-empowered. In addition, giving pupils such skills may serve to enhance their self-esteem and confidence in finding solutions to their often negative situations and emotions. Extending the length of the Programme may not be feasible, taking into account the demands of an academic year. Providing a rolling Programme and/or refresher or review Programmes may be future options to explore. Further, tutor training needs to be refined and improved with an accreditation to a continued professional development standard with a recognised professional body. These refinements will be explored prior to future delivery.

In conclusion, the SDP appears to be of value and a feasible intervention to this group of adolescents. Validation of the efficacy of the SDP is now required using a larger, wider randomised controlled trial.

References Bandura, A. (1988). Perceived Self: Efficacy: Exercise Of Control Through Self Belief. In J. P. Dauwalder, M. Perrez & V. Hobbi (Eds.), Annual Series of European Research In Behaviour Therapy (Vol. 2, pp. 27-59). Lisse, The Netherlands.Bowlby, J. (1971). Attachment and Loss Volume 1: Attachment, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth.Colwell, J., & O’Connor, T. (2003). Understanding nurture practices – a comparison of the use of strategies likely to enhance self-esteem in nurture groups and normal classrooms. British Journal of Special Education, 30 (3) 119 – 124.Cooper, P., and Lovey, J. (1999). Early intervention in emotional and behavioural difficulties: the role of Nurture Groups. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 14 (2) 122-131.Cullen-Powell, L., & Barlow, J. (2005). Promoting inner stillness; the value of a self discovery programme for children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. British Journal of Special Education, 32 (3) 137-143.Diego, M.A., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M. Shaw, J.A., Rothe, E.M., Castellanos, D., and Mesner, M. (2002). Aggressive adolescents benefit from massage therapy. Adolescence, 37 (147) 597-607.

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Fox, L., Dunlap, G. & Cushing, L. (2002). Early intervention, positive behaviour support, and transition to school, Journal of Emotional & Behavioural Disorders, Fall, 10 (3), 149-157.Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths & difficulties Questionnaire: A Research Note, Journal of Child Psychology, Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 40 (5), 791-799.Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric Properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40 (11), 1337-1345.Hallam and Price (1998). Can the use of background music improve the behaviour and academic performance of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties? British Journal of Special Education, 25 (2), 88-91.Khilnani, S., Field, T., Hernandez-Reif, M., & Schanberg, s. (2003) Massage therapy improves mood and behaviour of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Adolescence, 38 (2003), pp. 623–638.Lopata, C. (2003). Progressive Muscle Relaxation and Aggression Among Elementary Students with Emotional or Behavioural Disorders, Behavioural Disorders, 28 (2), 162-172.McLean, P. (2001). Perceptions of the Impact of Meditation on Learning. Pastoral Care in Education, 19 (1) 31-35Powell, L. A., Barlow, J. H., & Bagh J. (2005). The Self-Discovery Programme for children with special educational needs in mainstream primary and secondary schools: An exploratory study, Emotional and Behaviour Difficulties, 10 (3), 189-201.Powell LA, Gilchrist M & Stapley J. (2008) A Journey of Self-Discovery: An intervention involving massage, yoga and relaxation for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties attending primary schools. Journal Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, I13 (3), 193-199. Pritchard, C., and Cox, M. (1998). The criminality of former "special educational provision" permanently "excluded from school" adolescents as young adults (16-23): costs and practical implications, Journal of Adolescence, 21 (5), 609-20.Renwick, F., & Spalding, B. (2002). 'A Quiet Place' Project: an of Early Therapeutic Intervention within Mainstream Schools, British Journal of Special Education, 29 (3), 144–150.Spalding, B. (2000). The contribution of a ‘Quiet Place’ to early intervention strategies for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties in mainstream schools. British Journal of Special Education, 27 (3) 129-134.Spalding, B. (2001). A Quiet Place: a healing environment, Support for Learning, 16 (2) 69-73.Stueck, M., and Gloeckner, N. (2005). Yoga for children in the mirror of the science: working spectrum and practice fields of the Training of Relaxation with Elements of Yoga for Children, Early Child Development and Care, 175 (4), 371-377.The Office of National Statistics (2007). Retrieved 10th January 2008 from www.statistics.gov.uk Viarengo, T. (1998). Multicultural Education through Meditation, Pastoral Care in Education, 16 (2) 4-9.Wieczerkowski, W. (1974). Handanweisung für die Durchführung, Auswertung und Interpretation des AFS (Braunschweig, Westermann).Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition, Stanford, CA: Standford University Press.Woods, S., & White, E. (2005). The association between bullying behaviour, arousal levels and behaviour problems, Journal of Adolescence, 28 (3), 381-395.

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http://www.statistics.gov.uk/


TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY IN K-12 STUDENTS: WHERE HAVE ALL THE CHILDREN GONE?

Larry E. SchutzKenyatta O. Rivers

andElizabeth McNamara

University of Central Florida

Judith A. SchutzThe School District of Osceola County

Emilio J. LobatoGiveBack, Inc.

When children who are permanently disabled by traumatic brain injury (TBI) return to school, most are placed in mainstream classrooms and incorrectly presumed capable of resuming their education. Only one to two percent are classified as students with TBI, qualifying them for the services they need for their education. The failure to properly classify so many children, attributed to a lack of training and to acceptance of inaccurate popular stereotypes, places 98 to 99 percent at risk of academic failure and personal maladjustment. The failure to identify these children needs to be addressed by TBI education and training for parents and professionals. This paper discusses the scope of the problem of improperly classified students, examines explanations for the pervasive failure to classify them accurately, and discusses potential solutions.

It is imperative to identify students who have sustained severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) (Slomine et al., 2006). The damage to learning, information processing, and self-management systems is permanent (Bigler, 2007; McCullagh & Feinstein, 2005), leaving the students unable to learn, adapt, and develop normally through ordinary education (Chapman, 2007). In recognition of this fact, the 1990 Individuals With Disabilities Education Act or IDEA (PL101-476) required schools to identify them and to provide special education services appropriate for TBI. The Congress assumed that these provisions would be sufficient, but they did not take account of how readily cases of severe injury are overlooked (Halligan & Wade, 2005), most notably by educators who lack special training in TBI (DePompei & Bedell, 2008).

The most extreme head injuries cause massive brain damage and obvious impairments of speech, intelligence, and basic physical abilities. These children are readily identified by school systems and routinely placed in special education programs (Gronwall, Wrightson, & Waddell, 1999). With these cases in mind, educators generally assume that TBI is a low-incidence disability, but this belief is incorrect (Hooper, 2006; Tyler, 2000). Most of the children with severe TBI have less obvious deficits, and their relatively normal appearance gives parents and teachers the false impression that the injury is healed and the child will be able to function normally in mainstream classrooms (Max, 2005). The failure to recognize their hidden disablement creates an enormous gap between the incidence of children with TBI reported by hospitals to the CDC and the numbers of students with TBI identified by schools for special education (Working Group of the Moody Conference on Children and Youth With Brain Injuries, reported in DePompei & Bedell, 2008).

The failure to promptly identify students with TBI has important implications. They can be expected to fall progressively farther behind their peers in learning and academic achievement until they reach the failure level, where they can be expected to stay for the remainder of their educational careers (Taylor et al., 2003). When their academic problems become more obvious at a later point, many are misclassified with a different exceptionality (such as learning disability or emotional disturbance) and

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provided with a curriculum that does not address their educational disabilities (Glang, McLaughlin, & Schroeder, 2007) or their abnormal social skill development (Chapman, 2007; Max, 2005). Unless they are identified and given the appropriate services, their eventual functioning as adults is being jeopardized (Lehr & Savage, 1990, p. 309).

The Prevalence of Disabling TBIThe annual incidence of TBI among school-aged children is estimated at 2.5 million (Dettmer, Daunhauer, & Detmar-Hanna, 2007). Most of these children are mildly injured and do not receive hospital care. The Centers for Disease Control report emergency room visits for TBI for more than 400,000 children below the age of 15, approximately 1.2% of the population (Langlois, Rutland-Brown, & Thomas, 2004, 2005).

Epidemiological studies do not assess the population-wide prevalence of TBI directly, but rather derive the prevalence from the incidence statistics or extrapolate from small-sample studies (Kraus & Chu, 2005). For example, Kingston's (1985) finding that about 10% of hospitalized TBI cases remain disabled was employed to estimate the prevalence of disability in school-aged children at above 3% (Mira, Tucker, & Tyler, 1992). A slightly lower estimate of 2.5% was offered by Savage and Wolcott (1994). Rivara and Muller (1986) estimated prevalence at 3% in the range from kindergarten to age 16 (Deaton, 1990). The last estimate excludes two to three years from the age range of highest frequency (15-24), gauged at 1 in 181 or 0.55% per year (Kraus, Fife, Cox, Ramstein, & Conroy, 1986). Adjusting for the missing years, the K-12 prevalence is estimated by this study to fall in the range from 4.1 to 4.7%. In practical terms, these prevalence estimates mean that as few as one K-12 student in 40 or as many as one in 20 are disabled by TBI.

These prevalence estimates are largely consistent with other epidemiological studies. A comprehensive study of a Swedish village found 5% of the children aged seven through 16 years with a history of TBI with coma and neurobehavioral symptoms of concern to their parents (Levin, Benton, & Grossman, 1982). A study in Finland estimated the prevalence of TBI cases hospitalized for at least 24 hours at 21% (Winqvist, Lehtilahti, Jokelainen, Luukinen, & Hillbom, 2007). In the United States, the K-12 prevalence of TBI cases requiring medical care is reported at 10% (Lehr & Savage, 1990). The prevalence of injury producing coma is reported at 10.5% for girls and 18.1% for boys (Segalowitz & Brown, 1991). The prevalence of coma-producing injury found among post-secondary student samples ranged from 13 to 24% (Crovits, Horn, & Daniel, 1983; McGuire, Burright, Williams, & Donovick, 1998; Rivers, Schutz, & Lobato, 2007; Triplett, Hill, Freeman, Rajan, & Templer, 1996).

The Need for Special Education ServicesTwo alternative approaches have been used to determine educational disablement (Dettmer et al., 2007). The first approach is diagnostic. The long-term cognitive, behavioral, and functional consequences of TBI can be determined by a single variable: There is a direct relationship between injury severity and cognitive deficits (Lehr, 1990, p. 99), and severity is the overriding predictor of…recovery (Ewing-Cobbs & Fletcher, 1990, p. 121). Severity is determined by the amount of force that was applied to the brain, and the resulting number of individual brain cells that were killed (Gronwall et al., 1999). The most widely used severity measure is coma duration, with coma that persists until the admission medical exam classified as severe TBI (Ewing-Cobbs & Fletcher, 1990; Williams, Levin, & Eisenberg, 1990). A large body of research verifies the relationship of coma duration with all aspects of educational disablement (Corbett & Ross-Thomson, 1996; Jaffe, Polissar, Fay, & Liao, 1995; McDonald et al., 1994). Severe injury produces permanent deficits in learning new information and performing the executive skills of problem solving, self-organization, and the integration of new abilities, severely restricting further academic achievement through regular or traditional special education (Ewing-Cobbs et al., 1998a; Savage & Woolcott, 1995; Schutz & Schutz, 2004). Some of these children have stopped learning and developing altogether (Chapman, 2007). Thus, long-term educational disablement can be determined at the time of school re-entry by reference to the coma duration.

If needed, sensitive diagnostic neuropsychological tests can be administered to verify the learning and executive impairments of severe injury (Ewing-Cobbs et al., 1998b). For example, in Minnesota students qualify for special education by documenting any impairment that adversely affects the child's educational performance (Minnesota Department of Education, 2006, p. 2). This diagnostic approach is proactive, allowing schools to provide early intervention (Deidrick & Farmer, 2005). It is important from both clinical and public health perspectives that children and adolescents at risk…be identified

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and treated early following injury (Max et al., 1998, p. 290). The alternative of unclassified or missed TBI often leads to school failure/dropout, conflict between parents and the school and the student becoming demoralized (Hibbard, Gordon, Martin, Raskin, & Brown, 2001, p.4).

The second model is descriptive, recognizing disability only when academic performance has become abnormal. For example, in 2006 only students performing significantly below grade level were classified as in need of special education in Florida, based on a discrepancy of at least one standard deviation for ages seven to 10 and at least one and one-half standard deviations for ages 11 and above (Florida Department of Education, 2006). Whereas physical or sensory disabilities produce descriptive disablement at the same time that they produce diagnostic disablement, the same is not true for the cognitive symptoms of TBI (Sohlberg & Mateer, 2001). At school re-entry, most children with severe TBI can perform at or near their prior academic levels because they retain their pre-injury knowledge and skills (Hibbard et al., 2001; Walker & Wicks, 2005). On this basis, most earn normal scores on achievement tests, at least in their first year back in school (Deidrick & Farmer, 2005; Ylvisaker & Gioia, 1998). Because their physical abilities, conversational speech, and knowledge appear normal, they do not fit the traditional classroom profile of the academically disabled child, so most school systems accept mainstream placement as appropriate (Slomine et al., 2006; Walker, 1997).

Children who functioned above average before injury take even longer to fall significantly below grade level. Moreover, the rate of decline can be slowed by special resources (e.g., good work habits, the support of a cohesive family, accommodations or extra help from teachers) and protection from major burdens (e.g., a stressful environment, child/family psychopathology, financial hardships, excessively demanding curricula) (Bloom et al., 2001; Hux, Bond, Skinner, Belau, & Sanger, 1998; Max et al., 1999; Sesma, Slomine, Ding, & McCarthy, 2008; Taylor et al., 2002). In addition, some courses of study allow students to function in the normal range for up to two years by drawing on pre-injury knowledge (Savage & Wolcott, 1995). For example, students injured in high school may be advised to meet graduation requirements by taking low-demand electives (Blosser & DePompei, 2003). However, those who remain in the educational system long enough eventually face demands they cannot meet even with the best resources and protection, at which time their achievement levels drop into the abnormal range (Ewing-Cobbs et al., 1998a; Savage, DePompei, Tyler & Lash, 2005).

By the second or third year post onset, most students with severe TBI show declining grades, teacher ratings, and national test scores in reading/language arts, spelling, and math, and report more frustration and personal failure (Anderson, 2003; Ewing-Cobbs et al., 2004; Fay et al., 1994; Greenspan & MacKenzie, 1994). By this time, this group also shows elevated rates of behavior problems (Bloom et al., 2001; Max et al., 2000), which increase in later years (Begali, 1992) and remain discouragingly persistent (Schwartz et al., 2003, p. 259).

An Australian study found 70% of students in coma at hospital admission placed in special education programs at two years post onset while 40% of those in a state of confusion at admission received special education (Kinsella et al., 1997). An American study found 79% of children comatose at admission to be disabled at two years post onset (Ewing-Cobbs et al., 1998a), with 69% still demonstrating disablement two years later (Taylor et al., 2003). A British study found 79% of children in coma for six hours or longer and 62% of those in coma between 15 minutes and six hours to be academically disabled (Hawley, 2004). Several American studies found coma duration exceeding 24 hours to be associated with universal, immediate, persistent disablement (Klonoff, Clark, & Klonoff, 1993; Lehr & Savage, 1990; Levin & Eisenberg, 1979).

Once children begin falling behind their peers, the disablement appears to continue indefinitely (Taylor et al., 2003). Jaffe and associates (1995) found no evidence of academic recovery at three years post onset. Taylor and associates verified the absence of recovery at four years and concluded post-injury behavior and scholastic problems fail to resolve over time (Taylor et al., 2002, p. 15). Less than one percent of the students classified as educationally disabled by TBI have returned to full mainstream status (U.S. Department of Education, 2007). One study found 73% of children in coma at admission and 86% in a coma for at least one day to be academically disabled at five to seven years post onset (Massagli, Michaud, & Rivara, 1996).

In adolescence, the progression of disability accelerates. The executive functions of a damaged brain fail to assume cognitive control of behavior in the way they do in the maturing, intact brain (Oddy, 1993; Sohlberg & Mateer, 2001), causing TBI's most prominent impairment (Stuss & Gow, 1992): an

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incapacity to meet the age-appropriate expectations for self-control and self-management (Arroyos-Jurado, Paulsen, Ehly, & Max, 2006; Dawson & Guare, 2004).

The outcome studies reviewed in this section verify special needs for children who sustained severe TBI, and indicate that children who sustained any traumatic coma are at risk for disablement. These two groups, estimated above to represent at least 10% of the K-12 population, should be classified and receive specialized management or close monitoring.

Progress in Identifying Children with TBIThe American educational system has failed to implement the provisions of PL 101-476 (Glang, Tyler, Pearson, Todis, & Morvani, 2004; Tatzmann, Clancy, & Reagan, 2006; Ylvisaker et al., 2001). The U. S. Department of Education identified fewer than 12,000 students (.02% of the students enrolled in kindergarten through grade 12) in the TBI category in 1997-1998 (Ylvisaker et al., 2001). To determine subsequent progress, the present authors reviewed the most recent annual records posted by each state. Thirty-eight states reported statistics for 2004 or later, which are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1Proportion of Students Receiving ESE Services for TBI by State

Percentage of: All ESE All Students StateAlabama .31 .04Alaska .36 .05Arizona .35 .04California .23 .03Colorado .30 .03Connecticut .18 .02Delaware .20 .03Florida .16 .02Idaho .51 .06Illinois .27 .04Indiana .25 .06Kentucky .26 .03Louisiana .31 .04Maine .27 .05Massachusetts 3.18 .59Michigan .26 .04Minnesota .39 .05Mississippi .26 .03Missouri .36 .05Montana .43 .05Nevada .45 .05New Hampshire .15 .02New Jersey .65 .10New Mexico .46 .07New York .29 .04North Carolina .27 .04North Dakota .36 .04Ohio .44 .07Oregon .37 .04Pennsylvania .30 .02South Dakota .39 .06Tennessee .20 .03Texas .30 .04Utah .05Vermont .42 .06Washington .30 .04Wisconsin .32 .04

Wyoming .62 .09

These data are confirmed by national statistics, showing that the total number identified in 2004 was 23,000 (Dettmer et al., 2007). The percentage of students has always been less than .05%, including the

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latest year reported (2005-2006) (U. S. Department of Education, 2007). Interestingly, there is considerable variation across states, with the most successful state, Massachusetts, serving more than twenty-five times the proportion classified in the least successful states, Connecticut, Florida, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania. The classification rate remains at the overall 1997-1998 level of .02% only in these four states. A comparison of these classification rates with the prevalence figures in the previous section discloses that approximately 98 to 99% of the disabled children are not appropriately identified.

Barriers to Identifying Children with TBIThe available evidence indicates that the parents, teachers, and doctors responsible for these unidentified children do not recognize the relationship between their delayed-onset academic problems and their history of brain injury (Sesma et al., 2008; Tatzmann et al., 2006). Because this failure to perceive the logical relationship between brain damage and scholastic difficulty is so nearly universal, it may be best explained as a stereotype error, a consequence of the mismatch between a non-brain-injured person’s mental representation of what brain injury is, and the actual facts (Swift & Wilson, 2001, p. 159).

There are five ways in which the brain-damaged stereotype differs from the actual behavior of children with TBI. The first is the belief that serious brain damage produces disabilities so tangibly manifested in behavior that they should be noticeable, whereas most TBI symptoms are essentially silent (Gordon et al., 1998). One survey of the general public found 36% believing it would be easy to recognize a person with TBI by simple observation (Guilmette & Paglia, 2004). The second is the expectation that brain damage should prevent performing normal tasks, whereas TBI mainly produces more subtle, situational, quantitative flaws (Lash, 1995). The third is the expectation that brain damage causes physical disability, whereas most children look fine physically (Dise-Lewis, Glang, & Tyler, 2006, p. 90). The fourth is the expectation that behavioral symptoms should have a bizarre quality like those in mental illness (Rosen & Gerring, 1986), whereas the actual symptoms are largely indistinguishable from problems of personality (Goldberg, 2001), motivation (Swift & Wilson, 2001), or character (Tatzmann et al., 2006). The fifth is the expectation that significant TBI should make children stupid, whereas their reasonably fluent speech and preserved pre-injury knowledge base maintain an impression of intellectual intactness (Schutz & Schutz, 2004). Some people hold an even stronger version of this stereotype: 31% of a general public sample agreed with the statement that people with head injuries look and act mentally retarded (Gouvier, Prestholdt, & Warner, 1988). The absence of…obvious language deficit gives the impression that the individual is essentially unscathed (Naugle & Chelune, 1990, p. 59). Long-term TBI differs so markedly from the stereotype that in many cases the injury is not even considered as an explanation for the child's post-injury disabilities and behavior problems (Gordon et al., 1998).

When a child first comes out of coma, the dramatic and global cognitive-communicative impairment and total self-care dependence resemble the brain-damage stereotype (Begali, 1992; Lash, 1995). However, most of this early impairment is temporary. The passage of time produces a gradual improvement or recovery slope that restores essentially normal appearance and routine functioning after all but the most extreme injuries (Berrol et al., 1982). Given the prevailing myth that brain injuries can heal completely (Corbett & Ross-Thomson, 1996; Gouvier et al., 1988; Hux, Schram, & Goeken, 2006; Willer, Johnson, Rempel, & Linn, 1993), it should not be surprising that many hospital visitors interpret this evolution of the symptoms as a total healing process (Boll, 1982; Gronwall et al., 1999; Lehr, 1990). This misperception of emerging wellness can also be seen as wishful thinking by family and other supporters (Hagen, 1982; Lehr & Savage, 1990; Russell, 1993). Hospital staff, family, and the survivor often celebrate school re-entry as the primary milestone of this purported return to normality (Cockrell, Chase, & Cobb, 1990; Lash, 1995; Savage & Carter, 1991; Walker & Wicks, 2005).

Parents often continue to perceive their children as functioning normally after discharge. One study reported that among discharged children with 14 or more identifiable behavior problems from TBI, 40% were regarded by the parents as having no treatment needs (Greenspan & MacKenzie, 2000). Another study found 88% of parents satisfied with their child’s cognitive functioning at one year post onset, with 30% reporting that there had been no problems and 46% reporting that the hospital had fixed the problems (Slomine et al., 2006). Ninety-five percent of these parents were satisfied that any psychosocial needs stemming from the injury had been met. This false sense of security prevents most parents from advocating for special education services, and without parental advocacy the services are

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almost never provided (Hux, Marquardt, Skinner, & Bond, 1999). As noted above, when educational deficiencies emerge in later years, the family rarely regards them as consequences of the injury (Singer, 1997).

Medical and rehabilitation professionals are not immune to the same stereotype errors. Swift and Wilson (2001) pointed out that former patients, family members, and program staff all attributed a variety of misconceptions to treating professionals, which:

. . . included inaccurate beliefs about: time span and extent of recovery; ability to return to work; behavioural symptoms being unrelated to the brain injury; theinterpretation of physiogenic symptoms as psychological; the misinterpretation of motivation problems as laziness; and trivializing symptoms and their impact. Misconceptions were mentioned in relation to a number of different health professionals, including hospital doctors, general practitioners, nurses, occupational therapists, and physiotherapists. Inaccurate knowledge among health professionals could have serious consequences in terms of treatment and recovery. (Swift & Wilson, 2001; pp. 160-161)

Present-day hospital-based clinicians adopt a decidedly short-term focus, as the central purpose of acute treatment has become to facilitate an expedient discharge (Anderson & Catroppa, 2006). From this perspective, rapid physical progress beyond any need for nursing care is often misinterpreted as indicating a good prognosis (Jennett, 1997). Long-term considerations such as the residual cognitive and behavioral impairments and academic deficits are rarely addressed during the medical stay (Katz, Ashley, O'Shanick, & Connors, 2006; Ylvisaker et al., 2001). Referral to rehabilitation, either at the inpatient or outpatient level, was ordered for only 2% of children hospitalized for TBI (National Pediatric Trauma Registry data cited in Savage & Wolcott, 1995). Similarly, one study found that the hospital staff referred only 2% of such children for special education services upon their return to school (DiScala, 1993). In fact, most hospitals do not even contact the schools (Blosser & DePompei, 1991; Hibbard et al., 2001; Savage et al., 2005). When an exceptional physician attempts to provide recommendations to a school, the school is often unreceptive (Schutz, Rivers, Schutz, & Proctor, 2008; Slomine et al., 2006; Tucker & Colson, 1992). Thus, there is almost never any communication between the hospital (where the injury is known) and the school (where the injury is often not known), although TBI experts have urged this information sharing for many years (Begali, 1992; Blosser & DePompei, 2003).

The hospital staff could educate the parents to advocate with the school system for special education services (Mira et al., 1992), but most hospitals offer no formal education program and little or no informal guidance (DiScala, Osberg, Gans, Chin, & Grant, 1991; Gronwall et al., 1999; Mira & Tyler, 1991). Even the education programs of specialized TBI centers are criticized by parents as failing to prepare them for the return to school (Hawley, Ward, Magnay, & Long, 2002; Lash, 1995). Routine communications between hospital staff and parents focusing on the child's physical gains and ignoring the academic disabilities reinforces the parents’ misplaced faith in full recovery, and bolsters the inaccurate expectation that the injury will not pose a barrier to education (DePompei & Blosser, 1994).

When students return to school, sometimes following a period of low-demand homebound instruction (Cohen, 1986), many still display some residual acute confusion or passivity (Hagen, 1982). Teachers often grant a grace period of relaxed expectations and lenient grading (Lash, 1995; Tucker & Colson, 1992). When the injury takes place early in the school year and the grace period expires, exposing the student's learning and organization deficits, teachers often misattribute these deficiencies to psychological stresses of re-adjustment rather than to educational disability (Clark, 1996; D’Amato & Rothlisberg, 1996).

When new teachers take over in the second year, they have no basis for recognizing the student's special situation (Lehr & Savage, 1990; Max, 2005). They can compare the emerging disablement to pre-onset skills and behavior only through the child's cumulative record file, which is rarely detailed enough to indicate how much the child has changed. Early symptoms are not distinctive enough to be differentiated from other kinds of defective (Begali, 1992; Blosser & Pearson, 1997; Lazar & Menaldino, 1995) or under-motivated performance (Carney, 1995; Lash, 1995). The most prominent features, inconsistency of performance and impulsivity, are shared with emotionally disturbed and underachieving students (Deaton, 1990). Over the years, as their academic shortcomings become more prominent, they still look more like underachieving normals than the students who are traditionally

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identified with academic disabilities (Glang, Todis, Sohlberg & Reed, 1996; Martin, 2001). Adolescents with TBI are especially difficult to distinguish from immature and emotionally disturbed students (Savage & Woolcott, 1995), and studies have found 15% to 20% of the students identified with Emotional Disturbance to have sustained TBI (Hibbard et al., 2001; Martin, 2001).

Should the parents bring up the past history of head injury, educators tend to be unreceptive: The more remote the TBI, the less likely it is…to be thought of as playing a role in current difficulties… School personnel are sometimes skeptical about the relevance of a remote TBI because usually children with even severe TBI have a relatively normal physical appearance (Max, 2005, p. 479). Some administrators, presuming TBI to be a low-incidence disorder, state with certainty that their school does not have any students with TBI (Tyler, 2000).

Training in TBI is not a part of the traditional courses of study for regular education teachers, school psychologists, therapists (Hooper, 2006; Hux, Walker, & Sanger, 1996), and special-education teachers (Funk, Bryde, Doelling, & Hough, 1996). Surveys in the 1990s found that most teachers had also received no inservice training on TBI (Lehr & Savage, 1990; Tyler, 1997). Many educators also demonstrate inaccurate stereotypes of TBI, presumably based on erroneous generalization of their training in other educational disorders: A large survey found that 49% expected no deficit in learning new information, 54% believed that full recovery from severe injury is possible, and 65% agreed that a student with TBI can be normal except for problems in recognizing familiar people (Farmer & Johnson-Gerard, 1997). In addition, 53% of school psychologists believed in full recovery, while 60% endorsed the notion of normality except for recognizing familiars (Hooper, 2006). Finally, most students with TBI show so little insight into disability that they are unable to self-advocate (Gronwall et al., 1999; Ylvisaker, Urbanczyk, & Savage, 1994). Because they do not recognize the injury, most survivors blame themselves for their academic failings and thus carry this additional psychological burden (Gordon et al., 1998).

Two Case ExamplesIn the late 1990s, Sandy, a high-school junior, sustained a severe TBI with ten days of coma and a left temporal contusion impairing his learning ability. A popular, star athlete and clothing model, he planned to attend college on an athletic scholarship and to pursue a career in major league sports. Although he was provided with advanced cognitive rehabilitation including a pre-academic module training studying and test taking (Schutz & Schutz, 2000), he did not apply himself to therapy and had not mastered the techniques when discharged back to school.

Sandy's parents voiced awareness and acceptance of his prognosis for ongoing academic difficulties. Although they understood his need to improve use of the techniques and devote more effort to studying, they admitted to allowing him to study as he pleased. After he was refused special education services because he did not show the IQ/achievement discrepancy of a learning disabled student, the parents accepted accommodations under Section 504 of the rehabilitation act. He met his core academic requirements through half-days of homebound instruction, while being mainstreamed for elective courses in the second half-day. He passed all of these courses and graduated with his class.

Unable to resume his athletic career due to physical sequelae, Sandy instead enrolled in a community college, where he failed the remedial pre-math and pre-English courses. He explained his failure by observing that his sympathetic homebound instructor taught simplified lessons and gave easy tests with special cuing, making it unnecessary for him to master the use of the new learning strategies to which he had been introduced in rehab. He dropped out of college less than a year later, and has worked as a helper in his father's store for several years.

In this case, a well-meaning school staff refused to provide services to which this young man was entitled, and instead substituted such liberal accommodations that he never completed his academic recovery. His failures to achieve in higher education and mainstream employment can be attributed in part to the school's failure to promptly recognize and meet his special needs.

In the late 1980s, Hester, a bright, charming eight-year-old, sustained a left frontotemporal depressed skull fracture, which damaged the underlying brain. In five months of inpatient rehabilitation (a common length of stay for severe TBI at that time), she was treated for her language and executive deficits and slow processing. Although she made good improvements in cognition and communication, the staff felt she needed special education placement and wrote letters requesting it. However, Hester's

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test scores did not show a large enough discrepancy to qualify her for services under the existing law (PL 94-144). She was promoted at the end of third grade, but with barely passing marks rather than the As and Bs she was accustomed to earning. PL 101-476 was passed in her second year post-onset and the parents continued to apply for special education placement, but she was never granted classification as a TBI student. Her grades gradually declined to consistent failure in high school. Socially, she lost friends and became more isolated each year. In high school she styled herself as a goth and associated with the more deviant, drug-using students, but even in this fringe group she was not well accepted. At last report, she had dropped out of high school and become a drug-addicted prostitute.

Hester's case illustrates the downward trajectory of academic and social adjustment and the devastating long-term effects of TBI. Even at ten years post accident, she continued to suffer from low self-esteem and depression because she could not live up to the standards of her peers and family. Despite making a good start in inpatient rehabilitation, she could not continue to adapt to the progressive demands of the mainstream educational system. Her failure to cope at school led directly to a grossly maladjusted post-academic lifestyle.

What Can Be Done?A stereotype error can be corrected with information. Accurate TBI recognition can be quickly taught to parents (Schutz & Schutz, 2004) and teachers (Max, 2005; Savage & Woolcott, 1995). Teachers and school-based therapists can learn screening for TBI with simple questions about coma duration (Corrigan & Bogner, 2007; Hux et al., 1998) or a more extensive questionnaire (Dettmer et al., 2007). The training can be provided by rehabilitation experts (Blosser & DePompei, 1991; Todis, Glang, & Fabry, 1997; Tyler, 1997) and disseminated by videotape (Forsyth, Kelly, Wicks, & Walker, 2005; Savage et al., 2005), interactive computer program (Glang et al., 2007), or video teleconference (Deidrick & Farmer, 2005).

The state of Massachusetts has made unique and impressive progress in providing this education. According to Debra Kamen, the Director of the Massachusetts Head Injury Program (personal communication, 10/25/07), a staff of clinical neuropsychologists has provided consultations and inservice training to local schools and communities for more than 20 years. Such education appears sufficient to promote advocacy (Cockrell et al., 1990; Waaland, 1990), as demonstrated by Massachusetts' enrollment of 0.6% of their students in TBI programs.

Outreach teams to educate and assist local schools have been developed in Oregon (Glang et al., 2004), Tennessee (Doster, 2001) and Iowa (Department of Education, 2007). New York provides professional consultation on a case-by-case basis (Ylvisaker et al., 2001). Improved identification of TBI cases in these states remains to be demonstrated.

Summary and ConclusionsThe public information and epidemiological studies reviewed in this article find less than .05% of students are classified under TBI, whereas the prevalence rate is estimated at 2.5 to 4.7%. Those figures mean that one to two percent of the academically disabled students have been correctly identified and made eligible for the special services they need. It also means that 98% to 99% of the disabled students are either misclassified into programs that cannot help them or unclassified and left on their own. These data define a massive cohort of students who have dropped off the radar screen while becoming academic and psychosocial casualties. Unassisted transition into the community is difficult enough for fully educated children with TBI (Blosser & Pearson, 1997), but those who must build an adult lifestyle on the foundation of an incomplete education are certainly facing an unfortunate future.

Any teacher can identify most of his or her injured students by inquiring about the history of coma or handing out a TBI screening questionnaire. A single lecture can adequately teach parents and professionals that proactive communication with one another is imperative to protect the child's welfare. It seems plausible that the profound problem of these lost children has an easy solution. Of course, it is not enough to find them; they also need the special programming. The present account is expected to heighten concern about how to manage the special needs of such a large cohort of students. A variety of management models have been advanced (Cohen, 1986; Deaton, 1990; Glang et al., 2004; Schutz & Schutz, 2000; Ylvisaker et al., 1994) and can be synthesized into a practical model for large-scale intervention (e.g., Schutz & Schutz, 2004, 2005; Walker, 1997; Ylvisaker, 2005).

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Levin, H. S., & Eisenberg, H. M. (1979). Neuropsychological impairment after closed head injury in children and adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 4, 389-402Martin, T. (2001). Traumatic brain injury in pediatric neuropsychology. TBI-HELP live chat. Retrieved .http://www.tbihelp.org/chatlog-16-7-2001.htmlMassagli, T. L., Michaud, L. J., & Rivara, F. P. (1996). Association between injury indices and outcome after severe brain injury in children. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 77, 125-132.Max, J. E. (2005). Children and adolescents. In J. M. Silver, T. W. McAllister, & S. C. Yudofsky (Eds.), Textbook of traumatic brain injury (pp. 477-494). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing.Max, J. E., Koele, S. L., Castillo, C. C., Lindgren, S. D., Arndt, S., Bokura, H., et al. (2000). Personality change disorder in children and adolescents following traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 279-289.Max, J. E., Roberts, M. A., Koele, S. L., Lindgren, S. D., Robin, D. A., Arndt, S., et al. (1999). Cognitive outcome in children and adolescents following severe traumatic brain injury: Influence of psychosocial, psychiatric, and injury-related variables. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 58–68.Max, J. E., Robin, D., Lindgren, S., Smith, W., Sato, Y., Mattheis, P., et al. (1998). Traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents: Psychiatric disorders at one year. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 10, 290-297.McCullagh, S., & Feinstein, A. (2005). Cognitive changes. In J. M. Silver, T. W. McAllister, & S. C. Yudofsky (Eds.), Textbook of traumatic brain injury (pp. 321-336). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing.McDonald, C. M., Jaffe, K. M., Fay, G. C., Polissar, N. L., Martin, K. M., Liao, S., & Rivara, J. B. (1994). Comparisons of indices of traumatic brain injury severity as predictors of neurobehavioral outcome in children. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 75, 328–337.McGuire, L., Burright, R. G., Williams, R., & Donovick, P. J. (1998). Prevalence of traumatic brain injury in psychiatric and non-psychiatric subjects. Brain Injury, 12, 207-214.Minnesota Department of Education. (2006). Total special education system manual. http://education.state.mn.us/mde/Accountability_Programs/Compliance_and_Assistance/Total_Special_Education_System_Manual/index.htmlMira, M. P., Tucker, B. F., & Tyler, J. S. (1992). Traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents: A sourcebook for teachers and other school personnel. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Mira, M. P., & Tyler, J. S. (1991). Students with traumatic brain injury: Making the transition from hospital to school. Focus on Exceptional Children, 23, 1-12.Naugle, R. J., & Chelune, G. J. (1990). Integrating neuropsychological and real-life data: A neuropsychological model for assessing everyday functioning. In D. Tupper & K. Cicerone (Eds.), The neuropsychology of everyday life: Assessment and basic competencies (pp. 56-74). Boston: Kluwer.Oddy, M. (1993). Head injury during childhood. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 3, 301-320.Rivara, F. P., & Muller, B.A. (1986). The epidemiology and prevention of pediatric head injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 1, 7-15.Rivers, K. O., Schutz, L., & Lobato, E. (2007, November). Prevalence of traumatic brain injury in post-secondary education. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, Boston, MA.Rosen, C. D., & Gerring, J. P. (1986). Head trauma: Educational reintegration. San Diego, CA: College Hill.Russell, N. (1993). Educational considerations in traumatic brain injury: The role of the speech-language pathologist. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in the Schools, 24, 67-75.Savage, R. C., & Carter, R. R. (1991). Family and return to school. In J. Williams & T. Kay (Eds.), Head injury: A family matter (pp. 203-216). Baltimore: Brookes.Savage, R. C., DePompei, R., Tyler, J., & Lash, M. (2005). Paedeatric traumatic brain injury: a review of the issues. Pediatric Rehabilitation, 8, 92–103.Savage, R. C., & Wolcott, G. (1994). Overview of acquired brain injury. In R. C. Savage & G. Wolcott (Eds.), Educational dimensions of acquired brain injury (pp. 3-12). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Savage, R. C., & Wolcott, G. (1995). Educational issues for students with brain injuries. In R. C. Savage & G. Wolcott (Eds.), An educator’s manual: What educators need to know about students with brain injuries (pp. 1-8). Washington, DC: Brain Injury Association, Inc.Schutz, L., Rivers, K., Schutz, J., & Proctor, A. (2008). Preventing multiple-choice tests from impeding educational advancement after acquired brain injury. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in the Schools, 39, 104-109.

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http://education.state.mn.us/mde/Accountability_Programs/Compliance_and_Assistance/Total_Special_Education_System_Manual/index.html

http://www.tbihelp.org/chatlog-16-7-2001.html


Schutz, L., & Schutz, J. (2000). Successful educational re-entry after severe traumatic brain injury: The contribution of cognitive compensation strategies. Florida Journal of Communication Disorders, 20, 28-36.Schutz, L., & Schutz, J. (2004). Understanding and overcoming students’ traumatic brain injuries: An educator’s manual. Tallahassee, FL: Department of Education.Schutz, L., & Schutz, J. (2005, October). Cognitive remediation in the classroom: Why, how and by whom? Presented at the American Psychological Association Annual Meeting, Washington, DC.Schwartz, L., Taylor, G., Drotar, D., Yeates, K., Wade, S., & Stancin, T. (2003). Long-term behavior problems following pediatric traumatic brain injury. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 28 (4), 251-263.Segalowitz, S. J., & Brown, D. (1991). Mild head injury as a source of developmental disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 551-559.Sesma, H. W., Slomine, B. S., Ding, R., & McCarthy, M. L. (2008). Executive functioning in the first year after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics, 121, e1686-e1695. Singer, J. (1997). One mother's story. In A. Glang, G. H. Singer, & B. Todis (Eds), Students with acquired brain injury: The school's response (pp. 73-105). Baltimore: Brookes.Slomine, B. S., McCarthy, M. L., Ding, R., MacKenzie, E. J., Jaffe, K. M., Aitken, M. E., et al. (2006). Health care utilization and needs after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics, 117, 663-674.Sohlberg, M. M., & Mateer, C. A. (2001). Cognitive rehabilitation: An integrative neuropsychological approach. New York: Guilford Press.Stuss, D. T., & Gow, C. A. (1992). Frontal dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 5, 272-282.Swift, T., & Wilson, S. L. (2001). Misconceptions about brain injury among the general public and non-expert health professionals: An exploratory study. Brain Injury, 15, 149-165.Tatzmann, M., Clancy, K. A., & Reagan, J. E. (2006). Focus on results. Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Early Intervention Services.Taylor, H. G., Yeates, K. O., Wade, S. L., Drotar, D., Stancin, T., & Minich, N. (2002). A prospective study of short- and long-term outcomes after TBI in children: Behavior and achievement. Neuropsychology, 16, 15-29.Taylor, H. G., Yeates, K. O., Wade, S. L., Drotar, D., Stancin, T., & Montpetite, M. (2003). Long-term educational interventions after traumatic brain injury in children. Rehabilitation Psychology, 48, 227-236.Todis, B., Glang, A., & Fabry, M. (1997). Family-school-child: A qualitative study of the school experiences of students with acquired brain injuries. In A. Glang, G. Singer, & B. Todis (Eds.), Students with acquired brain injury: The school's response. (pp. 33-72). Baltimore: Brookes.Triplett, G., Hill, C., Freeman, L., Rajan, U., & Templer, D. I. (1996). Incidence of head injury: Lasting effects among college students and working adults in the general population. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83, 1344-1346.Tucker, B. F., & Colson, S. E. (1992). Traumatic brain injury: An overview of school re-entry. Intervention in School and Clinic, 17, 198-206.Tyler, J. S. (1997). Preparing educators to serve children with acquired brain injuries. In A. Glang, G. H. Singer, & B. Todis (Eds), Students with acquired brain injury: The school's response (pp. 323-341). Baltimore: Brookes.Tyler, S. T. (2000). TBI intensive training module. University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS: Kansas State Department of Education.U. S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs. (2007). Web site: https://www.ideadata.org/tables30th/ar_1-4.xls https://www.ideadata.org/tables30th/ar_1-5xls https://www.ideadata.org/tables30th/ar_1-6xlsWaaland, P. (1990). Family response to childhood traumatic brain injury. In J. S. Kreutzer & P. Wehman (Eds.), Community integration following traumatic brain injury (pp. 225-247). Baltimore: Brookes.Walker, N. W. (1997). Best practices in assessment and programming for students with traumatic brain injuries. Raleigh, NC: Department of Education.Walker, S., & Wicks, P. (2005). Educating children with traumatic brain injury. London: Fulton.Willer, B., Johnson, W., Rempel, R. & Linn, R. (1993). A note concerning misconceptions of the general public about brain injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 8, 461- 465.Williams, D. H., Levin, H. S., & Eisenberg, H. M. (1990). Mild head injury classification. Neurosurgery, 27, 422-428.Winqvist, S., Lehtilahti, M., Jokelainen, J., Luukinen, H., & Hillbom, M. (2007). Traumatic brain injuries in children and young adults: A birth cohort study from northern Finland. Neuroepidemiology, 29, 136-142.

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Ylvisaker, M. (2005). Children with cognitive, communicative, academic and behavioral disabilities. In W. M. High, A. M. Sander, M. A. Struchen & K. A. Hart (Eds.), Rehabilitation for traumatic brain injury (pp. 205-234). New York: Oxford University Press. Ylvisaker, M., & Gioia, G. (1998). Cognitive assessment. In M. Ylvisaker (Ed.), Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: Children and adolescents (2nd ed., pp. 159-179). Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.Ylvisaker, M., Todis, B., Glang, A., Urbanczyk, B., Franklin, C., DePompei, R., et al. (2001). Educating students with TBI: Themes and recommendations. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16, 76-93. Ylvisaker, M., Urbanczyk, B., & Savage, R. C. (1994). Cognitive assessment and intervention. In R. C. Savage & G. F. Wolcott (Eds.), An educator’s manual: What educators need to know about students with brain injury (pp. 41-79). Washington, DC: Brain Injury Association.

Appendix A:Sources for Data in Table 1, by State

Alabama. Child Count for October 1, 2007—State Totals: System (including Special Schools) Count by Exceptionality, Ethnicity and Sex.. Retrieved March 29, 2007 from Alabama Department of Education web site: ftp://ftp.alsde.edu/documents/65/EDSER001_State.pdf See also Alabama Education Quick Facts 2008:http://www.alsde.edu/general/quick_facts.pdfAlaska: Department of Education and Early Development: Child Count by District. Retrieved June 10, 2006 from Alaska Department of Education and Early Development web site:http://www.eed.state.ak.us/stats/ChildCount/051028Childcount.pdfSee also Alaska Department of Education and Early Development Assessment and Accountability: District Enrollment as of October 1, 2005, FY 2006: http://www.eed.state.ak.us/stats/DistrictEnrollment/2006DistrictEnrollment.pdfArizona: Special Education Child Count by Disability. Retrieved October 19, 2007 from Arizona Department of Education web site: http://www.azed.gov/ess/funding/datamanagement/2005-2006/120105CountByDisability.pdf See also 2006 District and Charter Enrollment by County and Grade: http:/www.azed.gov/researchpolicy/AZEnroll/2005-2006/2006countyxgrade_all.pdfCalifornia: Fact Book 2005—Handbook of Education Information. Retrieved June 10, 2006 from Department of Education website: http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/fb/documents/factbook2005.pdfSee also Public School Summary Statistics: http://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/sd/cb/sums03.aspColorado: Special Education Data Report 1997-98, 1998-99, 1999-2000. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from Department of Education website: http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdespedfin/download/pdf/general/Data_Report_FY98_00.pdfSee also State Level Student Membership Trends by Ethnic/Racial and Gender, Fall 1996 through Fall 2000:http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdereval/download/pdf/Fall2000StateMbrEthnicityTrends.PDFConnecticut: Report of Children with Disabilities Receiving Special Education Part, B, Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, As Amended. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from Connecticut State Department of Education website: http://www.csde.state.ct.us/public/cedar/cedar/special_education/osep_tables/table1.pdf See also Enrollment Pre-K to 12 by District: http://www.csde.state.ct.us/public/cedar/edfacts/enrollment/enrollment_public_pk_to_g12_by_district_2005.xls Delaware: Retrieved October 27 , 2007 from Delaware Department of Education website: http://www.doe.state.de.us/info/reports/edstats/files/05/Sept30Enrollment.xls Florida: Table 17: Traumatic Brain Injured, Fall 2005. Retrieved June 8, 2006 from Florida Department of Education, Statistical Briefs website: http://www.firn.edu/doe/eias/eiaspubs/pdf/esembrship.pdf See also http://www.firn.edu/doe/eias/eiaspubs/pdf/pk-12mbrship.pdf Idaho: School District Programs and Services for Students with Disabilities, Table 5. Number of Students with Disabilities Served in Each Disability Category. Retrieved October 19, 2007 from Idaho Department of Education website: http://www.sde.idaho.gov/SpecialEducation/docs/Features/LegislativeReport.pdfSee also Fall Enrollment Summary 2004 -2005: http://www.sde.idaho.gov/Statistics/docs/2005-2005FallEnrollment/Fallenrollmentsummary04-05.pdf

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http://www.sde.idaho.gov/Statistics/docs/2005-2005FallEnrollment/Fallenrollmentsummary04-05.pdf

http://www.sde.idaho.gov/Statistics/docs/2005-2005FallEnrollment/Fallenrollmentsummary04-05.pdf

http://www.sde.idaho.gov/SpecialEducation/docs/Features/LegislativeReport.pdf

http://www.firn.edu/doe/eias/eiaspubs/pdf/pk-12mbrship.pdf

http://www.firn.edu/doe/eias/eiaspubs/pdf/esembrship.pdf

http://www.doe.state.de.us/info/reports/edstats/files/05/Sept30Enrollment.xls

http://www.csde.state.ct.us/public/cedar/edfacts/enrollment/enrollment_public_pk_to_g12_by_district_2005.xls%20

http://www.csde.state.ct.us/public/cedar/edfacts/enrollment/enrollment_public_pk_to_g12_by_district_2005.xls%20

http://www.csde.state.ct.us/public/cedar/cedar/special_education/osep_tables/table1.pdf%20

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdereval/download/pdf/Fall2000StateMbrEthnicityTrends.PDF

http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdespedfin/download/pdf/general/Data_Report_FY98_00.pdf

http://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/sd/cb/sums03.asp

http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/fb/documents/factbook2005.pdf

http://www.azed.gov/researchpolicy/AZEnroll/2005-2006/2006countyxgrade_all.pdf

http://www.azed.gov/ess/funding/datamanagement/2005-2006/120105CountByDisability.pdf

http://www.azed.gov/ess/funding/datamanagement/2005-2006/120105CountByDisability.pdf

http://www.eed.state.ak.us/stats/DistrictEnrollment/2006DistrictEnrollment.pdf

http://www.eed.state.ak.us/stats/ChildCount/051028Childcount.pdf

http://www.alsde.edu/general/quick_facts.pdf

ftp://ftp.alsde.edu/documents/65/EDSER001_State.pdf


Illinois: Illinois State Board of Education Annual Report 2005. Retrieved June 11, 2006 from Illinois Department of Education website: http://www.isbe.state.il.us/board/pdf/AnnReport2005.pdf , pp 30 and 52.Indiana: Division of Exceptional Learners Comparison of State APC Funding Count, Group I. Retrieved October 20, 2007, from Indiana Department of Education website: http://mustang.doe.state.in.us/TRENDS/trends1.cfm?var=enr See also:http://www.doe.state.in.us/exceptional/speced/pdf/06-07-StatReport.pdf Kentucky: Statewide Exceptional Children Data 12/01/2003. Retrieved June 12, 2006 from Kentucky Department of Education website: http://www.education.ky.gov/KDE/Administrative+Resources/Finance+and+Funding/School+Finance/Superintendent%27s+Annual+Attendance+Report+(SAAR)+Enrollment+Report.htm?IMAGE=Search and download 2003-2004 SAAR Enrollment Report. See also http://education.ky.gov/users/spalmer/statewide%20Exceptional%20Children%20Data%2003%20(rev)3.pdf Louisiana: Annual Financial and Statistical Report, 2003-2004. Retrieved June 9, 2006 from Louisiana Department of Education website:http://www.doe.state.la.us/lde/uploads/7558.pdf , ppII-3 and III-4.Maine: EF-S-05 Reports December 1, 2005 Child Count: State Totals Report by Disability and Age. Retrieved October 21, 2007 from Maine Department of Education website: http//portalx.bisoex.state.me/us/pls/doe/eddev.eft05_user_reports.county_report See also http:///www.maine.gov/education/enroll/aproct/2005/octpbg05.htm Michigan: Student Information. Retrieved October 24, 2007 from Michigan Department of Education website: http://www.michigan.gov/documents/cepi/fingertip-b_210257_7.htm. See also Identification by Eligibility:http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mde/MAASE-07-31-07_200613_7.ppt#14 Minnesota: Special Education Unduplicated Child Count, December 1, 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2007 from Minnesota Department of Education website: http://education.state.mn.us/mdeprod/groups/Finance/documents/report/030884.pdfSee also Student Enrollment by District: http://education.state.mn.us/MDE/Data/Data.Downloads/Student/Enrollment/ District/index.htmMississippi: Mississippi Special Education District Data Profile, School Year 2005-2006. Retrieved June 13, 2006 from Mississippi Department of Education website: http://www.mde.k12.ms.us/special_education/data_profiles.htm and download State Profile.Missouri: State Profile XV: Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education: Fall Enrollment, Average Daily Attendance, Eligible Pupils Projection. Retrieved October 21, 2007 from Missouri Department of Education website: http://dese.mo.gov/schooldata/profile/stateprofile.pdf See also Students with Disabilities Child Count as of December 1, 2006:http//dese.mo.gov/divspeced/DataCoord/PDF/CC_State_Numbers_Dec2006.pdf Montana: Montana Fall Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity for Five Years and 2005-2005 Child Count Data. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from Montana Office of Public Instruction website: http://opi.mt.gov/Halo.html and download “Enrollment by REO/ Fall 2004-2005” and “2005-2006 Child Count Data”, pages 3 and 6. Nevada: Report of Children with Disabilities Receiving Special Education, Part B, Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, As Amended, 2006. Retrieved October 18, 2006 from Nevada Department of Education website: http://www.doe.nv.gov/edteam/ndeoffices/sped-diversity-improve/resources.attachment/308638/cc_12-1-2006.xls See also2006-2007 Enrollment by Schools: http://www.doe.nv.gov/resources/enrollment-publicschools/2006-2007enrollmentbyschool/attachment/06_07_EnrlBySchool.xlsNew Hampshire: State Totals by Grade as of October 2, 2006. Retrieved October 27, 2007 from New Hampshire Department of Education website: http://www.ed.state/nh.us/education/data/enrollment.htm See also Report of Children with Disabilities Receiving Special Education, Part B, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, as Amended, 2006: http://www.ed.state.nh.us/education/doe/organization/instruction/documents/NewHampshireIdea.06NH.xls New Jersey: Statewide Number of Classified Students by Age and Eligibility Category, Ages 6-21. Retrieved June 13, 2006 from New Jersey Department of Education website:http://www.nj.gov/njded/specialed/data/2005.htm and download “2005 Placement Data by Eligibility Category, Age 6-21”.

69

http://www.nj.gov/njded/specialed/data/2005.htm

http://www.ed.state.nh.us/education/doe/organization/instruction/documents/New

http://www.ed.state/nh.us/education/data/enrollment.htm

http://www.doe.nv.gov/resources/enrollment-publicschools/2006-2007enrollmentbyschool/attachment/06_07_EnrlBySchool.xls

http://www.doe.nv.gov/resources/enrollment-publicschools/2006-2007enrollmentbyschool/attachment/06_07_EnrlBySchool.xls

http://www.doe.nv.gov/edteam/ndeoffices/sped-diversity-improve/resources.attachment/308638/cc_12-1-2006.xls

http://www.doe.nv.gov/edteam/ndeoffices/sped-diversity-improve/resources.attachment/308638/cc_12-1-2006.xls

http://opi.mt.gov/Halo.html

http://dese.mo.gov/schooldata/profile/stateprofile.pdf

http://www.mde.k12.ms.us/special_education/data_profiles.htm

http://education.state.mn.us/MDE/Data/Data.Downloads/Student/Enrollment/

http://education.state.mn.us/mdeprod/groups/Finance/documents/report/030884.pdf

http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mde/MAASE-07-31-07_200613_7.ppt#14

http://www.michigan.gov/documents/cepi/fingertip-b_210257_7.htm

http://www.doe.state.la.us/lde/uploads/7558.pdf

http://education.ky.gov/users/spalmer/statewide%20Exceptional%20Children%20Data%2003%20(rev)3.pdf

http://education.ky.gov/users/spalmer/statewide%20Exceptional%20Children%20Data%2003%20(rev)3.pdf

http://www.education.ky.gov/KDE/Administrative+Resources/Finance+and+Funding/School+Finance/Superintendent's+Annual+Attendance



http://www.doe.state.in.us/exceptional/speced/pdf/06-07-StatReport.pdf

http://mustang.doe.state.in.us/TRENDS/trends1.cfm?var=enr

http://www.isbe.state.il.us/board/pdf/AnnReport2005.pdf


See also http://www.state.nj.us/njded/data/vitaled/0405 and download “vitaled0405-s2.pdf”.New Mexico: Total School Enrollment by District, School Year 2003-2004. Retrieved October 20, 1007 from New Mexico Public Education Department website: http://www.ped.state.nm.us/seo/data/Idea03NM.xlsSee also Report of Children with Disabilities Receiving Special Education, Part B, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, as Amended, 2003: http://www.ped.state.nm.us/div/is/data/fs/05/03.04.enroll.dist.pdfNew York: Number of New York State Children and Youth with Disabilities Receiving Special Education Programs and Services. Retrieved June 14, 2006 from State Department of Education website: http://www.vesid.nysed.gov/sedcar/goal2data.htm See also: http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/irts/655report/2004/home.html and download “Chapter 655 Report, Vol. 2, Statewide Summary Data Tables.”North Carolina: Tables 1 and 9, North Carolina Public Schools Statistical Profile. Retrieved October 18, 2007 from North Carolina Public Schools website: http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/fbs/resources/data/statisticalprofile/2006profile.pdf North Dakota: Special Education Statistical Report, Summary of all Special Education Units. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from North Dakota Department of Public Instruction website: http://www.dpi.state.nd.us/speced/general/annual.pdf Ohio: Report generated October 20, 2006 from Ohio Department of Education website: http://ilrc.ode.state.oh.us/Power_Users.asp Select “Enrollment”, “Enrollment by Student Demographic/State”, “Disability” and “School Year 2005-2006”.Oregon: Report of Children with Disabilities Receiving Special Education, Part B, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, as Amended, 2006. Retrieved October 24, 2007 from Oregon Department of Education website:http://www.ode.state.or.us/policy/federal/idea/partb/2006_2007/table1.xls See also Oregon Department of Education, Office of Assessment and Information Services, Fall Membership Report 2006-2007:http://www.ode.state.or.us/data/collection/students/rptfallmembership0607.xls Pennsylvania: Special Education Data Report, School Year 23005-2006. Retrieved October 23, 2007 from Pennsylvania Department of Education website: http://penndata.hbg.psu.edu/BSEReports/SD_Reports/2005_2006Documents/SpecEd_Data_Report_State_Final.pdf See also Table 2: Public, Private and Nonpublic Enrollments, 1997-98 through 2006-07: http://www.pde.state.pa.us/k12statistics/lib/k12statistics/0607PPENSEnroT2.pdf South Dakota: South Dakota Department of Education 2005-2006 State Totals. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from South Dakota Department of Education website: http://doe.sd.gov/ofm/statdigest/06digest/Docs/StateProfile06.pdf Tennessee: Table 11: Number of Children Ages 3 Through 21 with Disabilities Receiving Special Education Services. Retrieved October 19, 2007 from Tennessee Department of Education website: http://www.state.tn.us/education/asr/05_06/doc/table11.pdf See also Statistical Summaries, Tennessee Department of Education:http://www.state.tn.us/education/asr/05_06/stat_summs.shtml Texas: Students Receiving Special Education Services by Disability and Age, Fall 2006-2007 PEIMS Data. Retrieved October 19, 2007 from Texas Educational Agency website: http://www.tea.state.tx.us/adhocrpt/Core_Products/IN10704.pdf See also 2006-2007 Student Enrollment, Statewide Totals: http://www.tea.state.tx.us/cgi/sas/broker?_service=marykay&_program=adhoc.addispatch.sas&major=st&minor=e&endyear=07&format=W&linespg=60&charsIn=120&selsumm=ss&key=TYPE+HERE&grouping=g Utah: Public School Enrollment October 2006-2007. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from State of Utah Office of Education website: http://www.schools.utah.gov/default/FngrFacts.pdfSee also Table 1: Report of Children with Disabilities Receiving Special Education: Part B, Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, As Amended: http://www.schools.utah.gov/sars/data/06-07/0607ccount.pdfVermont: Table 6: Vermont Public School. Enrollment, 5 Year Comparison. Retrieved October 27, 2007 from Vermont Department of Education website: http://education.vermont.gov/new/excel/data/enrollment/enrollment_07_table_06.xls See also Special Education Data—Disability Count, 12/1/2005 Child Count: http://education.vermont.gov/new/pdfdoc/pgm_sped/data_reports_pubs/data_child_count/child_count_05/disability_count_05.pdf

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http://education.vermont.gov/new/pdfdoc/pgm_sped/data_reports_pubs/data_child_

http://education.vermont.gov/new/excel/data/enrollment/enrollment_07_table_06.xls

http://www.schools.utah.gov/sars/data/06-07/0607ccount.pdf

http://www.schools.utah.gov/sars/data/06-07/0607ccount.pdf

http://www.schools.utah.gov/default/FngrFacts.pdf

http://www.tea.state.tx.us/cgi/sas/broker?_service=marykay&_program=adhoc.addispatch.sas&major=st&minor=e&endyear=07&format=W&linespg=60&charsIn=120&selsumm=ss&key=TYPE+HERE&grouping=g



http://www.tea.state.tx.us/adhocrpt/Core_Products/IN10704.pdf

http://www.state.tn.us/education/asr/05_06/stat_summs.shtml

http://www.state.tn.us/education/asr/05_06/doc/table11.pdf

http://doe.sd.gov/ofm/statdigest/06digest/Docs/StateProfile06.pdf

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http://penndata.hbg.psu.edu/BSEReports/SD_Reports/2005_2006Documents/SpecEd_Data_Report_State_Final.pdf

http://www.ode.state.or.us/data/collection/students/rptfallmembership0607.xls

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Washington: Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Part B: December 1, 2004 Child Count Report, State Summary. Retrieved October 19, 2007, from Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction: http://www.k12.wa.us/SpecialEd/pubdocs/data/LRE_CC_State_Summ_1204.xlsSee also Special Education Annual Report:http://www.k12.wa.us/SpecialEd/pubdocs.annual_report.pdf Wisconsin: IDEA Child Count 2006-2007. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction website: http://dpi.state.wi.us/sped/cc-09-15-06.html See also Public Enrollment Statewide by Grade: http://dpi.state.wi.us/lbstat/xls/pestgr07.xlsWyoming: 2006 Special Education student Count by District. Retrieved October 20, 2007 from Wyoming Department of Education website: http://www.k12.wy.us/statistics/stat2/2006_special_ed_count.pdf

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DIFFERENCES IN SELF-CONCEPT AMONG STUDENT WITH AND WITHOUT LEARNING DISABILITIES IN AL KARAK DISTRICT IN JORDAN.

Mohammed AL ZyoudiUnited Arab Emirates University

This study examined differences in self-concept among Jordanian students with and without learning disabilities. The sample of this study consisted of (124), (50) students with learning disabilities and (74) of their peers without learning disabilities. To achieve the objective of this study, the Jordanian adaptation of the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (PHCSCS) was used. Differences were found between the groups on the intellectual and school status and behavior subscales, students without learning disability scoring higher on both scales. There was also a significant difference between boys and girls. The directions for future research are provided.

The inclusion of students with learning disabilities into inclusive schools is currently one of the foremost international education policy issues and has generated much debate. However, there has been very little systematic research conducted on the many facts of inclusion. School experiences are acknowledged to play a fundamental role in the development of self-perceptions, which can in turn affect the learner’s self-esteem in the long term (Shaffer, 2006). The experiences of students with learning disabilities in mainstream and remedial schools can be multifaceted and complex and yet, as Prinsloo (2001) notes, the ways in which learners with learning disabilities experience inclusion or exclusion in education, as well as the effects of inclusion, has yet to be determined. It is thus vital for research to move beyond the exploration of the practices and impact of inclusion and study learners’ understanding, experiences and perceptions of inclusion on such personality aspects such as self-worth, confidence and self-respect.

Learning disabilities have been found to affect self-esteem and social activities of children; those children are often described as depressed or withdrawn (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003; Al Far, 2003; Shaffer, 20056). Children, who have experienced rejection and failure as many children with learning disabilities have, generally have feelings of low self-worth and vulnerability (Gresham & MacMillan, 1997).

Many studies have examined differences between students with and without learning disability across multiple domains of functioning and, their academic failure may affect their global self-esteem, and adjustment (Dombrowski, et al., 2004; Elbaum & Vaughn, 2003; Heath & Wiener, 1996; Wiener, 2004; Pires, 2003). Results of these studies have shown that, when compared to peers without learning disabilities, students with learning disabilities have lower levels of academic achievement, as well as social-emotional difficulties. However, the research literature on self-concept in students with learning disabilities shows mixed findings and is often contradictory (Gresham & MacMillan, 1997; Melterz, et al., 1998; Stone & May, 2002; Stone, 2004), perhaps because most comparisons were based on means scores for heterogeneous groups of students with and without learning disabilities with different levels of academic performance.

The self-concept of students with learning disability has been widely documented using global measure (e.g. Piers & Harris, 1969). Multiple studies have shown that children with learning disability often report lower global self-concept and poor specific academic self-concept than their peers without learning disabilities. However, there have also been several studies that did not find significant differences from the comparison groups on measures of global self-concept (Reschly & Christenson, 2006; Chapman, et al., 2004; Frederickson & Jacobs, 2001; Stone, 2004; Gadeyne, et al., 2004)

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A large body of research has described the academic self-perceptions of students with learning disabilities. Many studies have maintained that despite the learning disabilities label, those students have a positive self-concept about their academic skills. Melterz et al., (1998); Al-Far (2003); and Bataineh & Gwanmh (2005) found that students with learning disabilities considered themselves as using appropriate strategies in the areas of reading, writing, spelling and math as being competent in those domains, they also rated their academic performance as average to above average. Bear and Minke (2006); Al Azh (2002) found that children with learning disabilities did not perceive themselves to be less competent than their peers. Cosdon, et al., (2002) found that students with learning disabilities did not perceive themselves to be any less competent in their school work than their peers.

However, other research has found that children with learning disabilities have lower self-concept, particularly in regard to their academic achievement, for example, Harter, et al., (1998) found that 9th through 12th grade students with learning disabilities felt worse about their general intellectual ability and their self-esteem than did students without learning disabilities. In related research, Boetech, et al., (1996) reported that children aged 7 to 18 years with developmental dyslexia had lower self-worth and lower perceived competence in scholastic domains than students without disabilities. Valles (1999) found in comparative study that students with learning disabilities were less accepted by their peers, had lower self-esteem, and felt more lonely than students without learning disabilities.

Many studies have maintained that despite the lower self-concept in students with learning disabilities in the intellectual domain, the students maintain positive feelings of global self-worth, for example, Bear & Minke (2006) found no differences in global self-worth between students with and without learning disabilities. However, global self-worth among students with learning disabilities has not been adequately supported by research. Harter et all’s (1998) study found that typically achieving students reported more positive global self-worth and positive evaluation of their self-worth than did students with learning disabilities.

Research on gender differences and self-concept has also yielded conflicting data. Kling, et al., (1999) conducted a meta-analysis involving thousands of participants and concluded that boys scored higher on standard measures of global self-esteem than girls, but the difference was small. Harter et al., (1998) reported that girls displayed much lower perceptions of their physical appearance than did boys. Contrary to these findings, Tillema, et al., (1998) found no significant difference between male and female high school general education.

Despite these findings, the literature lacks sufficient evidence examining the relationship between gender and self-concept in students with learning disabilities. One reason for the dearth of literature in this area may be the overrepresentation of boys in samples of children with learning disabilities (Meltzer, et al., 1998).

This study compares students with and without learning disabilities on self-concept and contributes to the literature by using a primarily Jordanian sample and by examining gender differences.

Study hypotheses The current study aims at investigating the following hypotheses:

1. Students with learning disabilities would score lower in intellectual and school status scale than their peers without learning disabilities as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (PHCSCS),

2. Students with learning disabilities would not have lower global self-concept than their peers without learning disabilities in general education classes.

3. Girls with learning disabilities would have lower self-concept than boys with learning disabilities,

Method Participants One hundred twenty-four participants were selected randomly from 9 schools in Al Karak District in Jordan. The school was selected based on the large number of students who enrolled as students with learning disabilities. In each school, resource room teachers identified children in grades 5, 6 and 7 who were classified as having a learning disability. All students who were labeled had been evaluated prior to placement. The evaluation process consisted of a referral for assessment including vision, hearing, and achievement data were obtained. A resource room teacher in each school who

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administrated intellectual and achievement tests individually to each student conducted the assessment. For all students with learning disabilities in this study, there was evidence that they exhibited a discrepancy of 1.5 SD between their intellectual standard score and achievement standard score in math, reading, or written expression.

The sample of this study consists of (124); (50) students with learning disabilities (29 boys and 21 girls); and (74) students without learning disabilities (33 boys and 41 girls) table 1 represent the demographic characteristics of the sample.

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the sample

Variable Students Learning disabilities Students without learning disabilities

GenderBoys

Girls

29

21

33

41Grade

5

6

7

27

18

5

24

32

18AgeM

SD

12.5

.91

12.53

.76

Study procedures Children were given verbal instructions on how to complete the Piers-Harries Children's Self-concept Scale (PHCSS). The measure was group-administrated in a classroom by a colleague of the researcher, who read the items aloud and circulated in the classroom observing the children's understanding of the instrument and providing assistance where necessary. Demographic variables such as age, gender, and grade were obtained as well.

Measure The Jordanian version of the Piers-Harries Children's Self-concept Scale (PHCSCS) was used in this study as a measure of student's self-concept. The scale consists of 80 items; each item is measured by responding yes or no to the test statements. The instrument can be individually or group administrated. It has six sub scales: physical appearance and attributes (e.g. I have a pleasant face); intellectual and school status (e.g. I am smart); behavior (e.g. I am obedient at home); anxiety (e.g. I am often afraid); happiness and satisfaction (e.g. I am a good person); popularity (e.g. I have many friends).

Before the administration, the (PHCSCS) was first translated into Arabic language, and then it was given to four specialists into English language to evaluate the validity of translation. Although, AL-Dawood (1982) has indicated that this scale was modified to suit the Jordanian environment, the content validity of the instrument was granted by giving it to six specialists in counseling and special education for review from Mutah University in Jordan. According to their suggestions and recommendations, some of the items were modified to suit the Jordanian environment.

To estimate the reliability of the adopted translation of the instrument, It was administered to a sample of (35) resource room teachers, and a spilt-half method was used to calculate the internal consistency coefficient for the clusters scales ranged from (0.70 to 0.82) and (0.85) for the total score, which exceeded the acceptable standard of reliability.

Results To examine the first hypothesis of this study means and standard errors of (PHCSCS) were obtained, and the results of this analysis were summarized in table (2). The results revealed a significant effect on the intellectual and school status subscales, F (1.16) = 6.13, P= .015, with students with learning disability (M=11.36, SE= .45) scored lower than students without learning disability (M= 12.85, SE= .40). None of the other subscales yielded significant differences between students with learning disability and their peers.

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Table 2

Demonstrates the means and standard errors of PHCSCS*

PHCSS subscales LD** (N=50) M SD

Non-LD(74)*** M SD

Behavior 11.35**** .438 12.90* *** .382Physical appearance 9.65 .384 9.68 .334Anxiety 10.16 .388 10.11 .339Intellectual and school status 11.36**** .452 12.85**** .395Happiness and satisfaction 8.10 .276 8.53 .241Popularity 8.41 .346 8.76 .302Total score 58.66 1.70 62.95 .148

* PHCSCS: the Piers-Harries Children's Self-concept Scale** Students with Learning disabilities

*** Students without learning disabilities**** P<.05

Regarding the second hypothesis, the correlation of happiness with behavior was significantly higher for the students with learning disability than for the students without learning disability in general education classes; no other subscales correlations were significantly different. Table (3) presents differences in correlations of PHSCS subscales between groups.

Table (3) Differences in correlations of PHSCS subscales between groups

Subscale Correlation LD* Non-LD** Z P

Happiness and satisfaction x behavior .72*** .31 3.98 .001Happiness and satisfaction x intellectual and school status

.51 .25 1.68 .09

Happiness and satisfaction x physical appearance .62 .57 .40 .69Happiness and satisfaction x anxiety .41 .66 -1.91 .06Happiness and satisfaction x popularity .36 .47 -.69 .49Popularity x behavior .12 .17 -.26 .79Popularity x intellectual and school status .35 .41 .-36 .72Popularity x physical appearance .58 .67 -.79 .43Popularity x anxiety .49 .61 -.91 .36Anxiety x behavior .02 .28 -1.43 .15Anxiety x intellectual and school status .39 .48 -.54 .59Anxiety x physical appearance .53 .61 -.62 .54physical appearance x behavior .26 .20 .38 .71physical appearance x intellectual and school status

.54 .45 .70 .48

intellectual and school status x behavior .57 .70 -1.09 .27*LD: Students with learning disabilities

** Non-LD: Students without learning disability*** P<.001.

Concerning the third hypothesis, a main effect of gender on behavior, F (1.116) = 6.42, P= .013, with girls (M=12.90, SD=.38) scoring significantly higher than boys (M=11.35, SE=.44).

Discussion The first hypothesis of this study was supported; children with learning disability scored significantly lower on the PHCSCS subscales of intellectual and school status. This finding is consistent with previous research (Dombrowski, et al., 2004; Elbaum & Vaughn, 2003; and Harter et al., 1998). Given that children with learning disability are by definition somewhat cognitively challenged and experience academic difficulties, it is understandable that they would evaluate their own intellectual ability unfavorably. (Chapman, 2004). These findings support the notion that children with learning disabilities have a negative self-concept of their abilities and academic skills and one that is lower than that of their peers.

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Regarding the second hypothesis, the students with learning disability would not have a lower global self-concept than their peers, was also confirmed. Thus, the students in the learning disabled group did not generalize their feelings of academic weakness to more generalized self-concept perceptions. This may be attributed to their perceived self-concept in areas other than academic skills (e.g. physical appearance). A non- predicted finding was that the children with learning disability scored lower than peers without learning disability on self-concept subscales of behavior. Thus children with learning disability either were more willing to acknowledge their behavioral difficulties than the children without learning disability. This confirms the findings of previous research (Valles, 1999; Elbaum & Vaughn, 2003; Wiener, 2004).and might explained why students with learning disabilities may not have ability to do their school work alone and become frustrated and act out as a result,

Contrary to the last hypothesis of this study, there was a significant difference between boys and girls with learning disabilities on self-concept. This finding suggests that gender may play a role in the development of self-concept in children with learning disabilities. This confirms the findings made by previous research (Reschly & Christenson, 2006; Stone, 2004; Nowicki, 2003; Frederickson & Jacobs, 2001).

The finding that students with learning disabilities have a lower self-concept with regard to their intellectual ability than their peers without can provide direction for educators. Some researchers have suggested that educators be aware of the potential stigmatizing effects of the selection process for special education on children with learning disabilities (Stone, 2004). Individuals who work with students with learning disabilities need to know how to prevent low self-concept in children with learning disabilities and be aware of the interventions available to help them. These findings can help educators develop programs and strategies to assist students with learning disabilities to gain a sense of success in their lives. Teachers and parents can have a significant impact on helping students build their self-concept by providing positive feedback

Continued research in this area could include studies illuminating the conflicting data on self-concept and classroom settings. It would be helpful to compare students with learning disabilities in self-contained settings to those who are mainstreamed. Students’ rating of their self-concept may vary depending on whom they use as their reference group. Also, longitudinal research would provide more information on the developmental changes that affect individuals and their self-concept, with special attention to gender issues.

ReferencesAl-Azh, S. (2002). Learning disabilities. Dar Al Thafa, Amman, Jordan.AL-Dawood, F. (1982). Developing Jordanian norms of Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. Unpublished M.A. Dissertation. University of Jordan. Amman. JordanAl-Far, M. (2003). Learning disabilities. Dar Yafa, Amman. Jordan. Bataineh, O.; & Gwanmh, M. (2005). A comparative study of self-concept among normal students and learning disability students in Irbed Governorate. Jordan. Jordan Journal of Educational Sciences. 4, (2), 105-114. Bear, G.; & Minke, k. (2006). Self-perceptions of non handicapped children and children with learning disability in integrated classes. The Journal of Special Edcuation, 24, 409-426.Bear, G.; Minke, K.; Griffin, S.; & Deemer, S. (1998). Achievement related perceptions of children with learning disabilities and normal achievement: Group and developmental differences. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 91-104. Boetsch, E.; Green, P.; & Pennington, B. (1996). Psychological correlates of dyslexia across the life span. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 536-539.Bong, M.; & Skaalvik, E. (2003). Academic self-concept and self-efficacy: How different are they really. Educational Psychology Review, 15, 1-40.Chapman, J.; Tunmer, W.; & Prochnow, J. (2004). Repressed resilience? A longitudinal study lf reading, self-perceptions, and teachers behavior ratings of poor and average readers in New Zealand. Thalamus, 22, 9-15. Cosden, M.; Brown, C.; & Elliott , K. (2002). Development of self-understanding and self-esteem in children and adults with learning disabilities. In B. Wong & M. Donahue (Eds). The social dimensions of learning disabilities (pp, 33-51). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Dombrowiski, S., Kamphaus, R., & Reynolds, C. (2004). After the demise of the discrepancy: Proposed learning disabilities diagnosis criteria. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 364-372.

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Elbaum, B.; & Vaughn, S. (2003). For which students with learning disabilities are self-concept interventions effective? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, 101-108. Frederickson, N.; & Jacobs, S. (2001). Controllability attribution for academic performance and the perceived scholastic competence, global self-worth and achievement of children with dyslexia. School psychology International, 22, 401-416.Gadeyne, E.; Ghesquiere, P.; & Onghena, P. (2004). Psychological functioning of young children with learning problems. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry. 25, 510-521.Gresham, F.; & MacMillan, D. (1997). Social competence and affective characteristics of students with mild disabilities. Review of Educational Research, 67, 377-415.Gurney, P. (1998). Self-esteem in children with special educational needs. New York: Routledge, Chapman & Hall. Harter, S.; Whitesell, N.; & Junkin, L. (1998). Similarities and differences in domain-specific and global self-evaluations of learning disabled, behaviorally disordered, and normally achieving adolescents. American Education Research Journal, 35, 653-680. Heath, N.; & Wiener, J. (1996). Depression and nonacademic self-perceptions in children with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 9, 34-44. Kling, K.; Hyde, J.; Showers, C.; & Buswell, B. (1999). Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 470-500. Melterz, L.; Roditi, B.; Houser, R.; & Perlman, S. (1998). Perceptions of academic strategies and competence in students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 437-451.Piers, E.; & Harris, D. (1969). The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. Nashville, TN: Counselor Recordings and Tests.Pires, P. (2003). The friendship quality of children with learning disabilities: association with loneliness and self-perceptions. Doctoral Dissertation, Mount Saint Vicente University.Prinsloo, E. (2001). Working towards inclusive education in South African classrooms. South African Journal of Education, 21, (4), 344-348. Reschly, A.; & Christenson, S. (2006). School completion. In G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds), Children's Needs: Development, prevention, and intervention III. Bethesda. MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Shaffer, D. (2006). Social and Personality development. (5th ed). California: Wadsworth. Stone, C.; & May, S. (2002). The accuracy of academics self-evaluations in adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 370-384.Stone, C. (2004). The role of social support and congruency of perceptive in moderating threats to self-concept in high-functioning adolescents with learning disabilities. Thalamus, 22, 40-49.Tillema, J.; Cervone, D.; & Scott, W. (2001). Negative mood, perceived self-efficacy, and personal standards in dysphoria. The Effects of contextual cues on self-defeating patterns of cognition. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 535-549.Valles, E. (1998). The disproportionate representation of minority in special education. The Journal of Special Education, 32, 52-54.Wiener, J. (2004). Do peer relationships foster behavioral adjustment in children with learning disabilities? Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 27, 21-30.

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ENHANCING ORTHOGRAPHIC COMPETENCIES AND REDUCING DOMAIN-SPECIFIC TEST ANXIETY: THE SYSTEMATIC USE OF ALGORITHMIC AND SELF-

INSTRUCTIONAL TASK FORMATS IN REMEDIAL SPELLING TRAINING

Günter FaberLeibniz University Hannover

In this study the effects of a remedial spelling training approach were evaluated, which systematically combines certain visualization and verbalization methods to fo-ster students' spelling knowledge and strategy use. Several achievement and test anxiety data from three measurement times were analyzed. All students displayed severe spelling disorders at the beginning of the treatment. It was administered in single-case sessions and took about 80 hours. Empirical results could demonstrate statistically significant increases in students' general and error-specific spelling test performance, also reaching a considerable overall effect size. Furthermore, a statis-tically significant decrease in their spelling-specific test anxiety scores appeared at the end of the treatment. Finally, these findings were discussed in terms of concep-tual and methodological issues concerning both the evaluation of remedial treat-ments in natural training settings and the need for evidence-based treatment prac-tice.

Since many dyslexic students display poor knowledge of the important orthographic rules and remain unfamiliar with its implications, they often resort to existing phonological spelling skills and try in vain to master the critical word items in terms of phonological correctness (Bailet, 1990; Carlisle, 1987; Darch, Kim, Johnson & James, 2000; Klicpera & Schabmann, 1993; Steffler, 2004). Because of repea-ted errors, these students may become irritated and disappointed over their unsuccessful spelling ef-forts, as they have, from their viewpoint, genuinely pondered over the words and could even come up with an explanation for deciding on the spelling that they used. Therefore, remedial spelling interventi-ons should enhance, round off, or catch up on their orthographic skills, the acquisition of which had been unsuccessful for them thus far, so as to avoid, last but not the least, the motivational and socio-emotional long-term effects of cumulative failure experiences (Carroll, Maughan, Goodman & Meltzer, 2005; Faber, 2007; Ridsdale, 2004). The development and persistence of these learning difficulties can essentially be traced back to fundamental knowledge and strategy deficiencies: the students concerned lack relevant knowledge with regard to critical demands; in addition, they do not possess suitable meta-cognitive skills for the acquisition of appropriate learning strategies, or they are unable to adequately apply solution approaches (Borkowski, Johnston & Reid, 1987). So remedial spelling instruction has to teach students the knowledge of relevant rules in a much more comprehensible way, and useful behavioral patterns with regard to the instruction strategy have to be worked out to bring this knowled-ge to effective application (Larkin & Ellis, 2004; Swanson & Deshler, 2003).

In particular, sociocultural theories concerning the nature and the development of academic learning activities point to the necessity of an instructional approach which enables the students to understand the underlying logic of a certain spelling rule and to form a cognitive concept or tool for further pro-blem-solving in that given spelling domain (Arievitch & Haenen, 2005; Gal’perin, 1989a,b). In this sense, the training must include systematic orientation clues for the presentation of the object of lear-ning, as well as effective structuring remedies for a proper skills acquisition. Accordingly, the task of gradually developing relevant skills requires, first of all, finding effective ways of conveying orthogra-phic rules which guarantee that the issues at hand can be followed and understood. Most of all, this re-quires some consideration in resolving the verbal, abstract complexity of orthographic rules by subdivi-ding them into concrete, problem-solving steps which, when taken from the students’ view, seem logi-cally consistent, reliable, and mentally controllable. To that degree, an orientation basis that significant-

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ly enhances the learning process can be achieved by implementing visualization and verbalization me-thods that present orthographic rules in a methodical sequence of relevant decision criteria – in symbo-lic-graphic form and as descriptive as possible (Clarke, 1991; Englert, Raphael, Anderson, Anthony & Stevens, 1991). In this way, the students receive materialized, quasi-prototypic patterns of orthographic problem solving which are supposed to help them attain knowledge and certainty of the relevant rules in clearly structured steps. Adequate strategies can then be implemented, making it possible for the stu-dents to carry out their acquired knowledge of the orthographic rules to the corresponding spelling rou-tines, and apply it autonomously to meet orthographic demands. Thus, the acquisition of skills and stra-tegies is supposed to take place by educationally initiated and monitored internalization processes. To achieve this, it seems to be absolutely essential, from the sociocultural view of learning activity, to car-ry over the action from the exterior to the interior speech by putting the orthographic rule processing completely into language (Bodrova & Leong, 1998; Galperin, 1989b). This involves having the stu-dents comment on their rule application aloud until they master it so well that they gradually need less and less time for the operation and are finally able to do it without teacher assistance. In this way, they can approach the orthographic solution without materialized structuring or overt self-instructions, and successfully automatize it as a continuous spelling strategy.

The successful acquisition and application of orthographic rules may be facilitated significantly if one can manage subdividing the complex meaning of the rules into clearly structured intermediate algorith-mic steps that can easily be visualized, and if one can also successfully support the acquisition of these intermediate algorithmic steps with consistent verbalizing methods. The acquisition of orthographic spelling skills may predominantly depend upon the implementation of suitable visualizing methods, the development of relevant solution strategies, and most of all, the use of effective verbalizing, especially self-instructional, methods (Harris, 1990; Miller & Brewster, 1992; Schunk, 1986). To ensure the suc-cess of the remedial process it may be crucial to combine both instruction approaches (and thus the im-plementation of visualizing and verbalizing methods) as closely as possible (Ellis, Deshler, Lens, Schu-maker & Clark, 1991; Scott, 1999; Zimmerman, 2000).

Algorithmic and self-instructional task spelling trainingThe systematic use of visualizing and verbalizing methods has to be demonstrated by the teacher by thinking aloud. In the course of this, the teacher also informs the students in detail about the meaning of a problem-solving algorithm and the benefits of the thinking aloud technique for enhancing one’s own orthographic skills (Pressley, 1986; Schunk & Rice, 1987; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007). The students can test and practice the problem-solving plan with the teacher’s guidance. At first, they apply the plan by thinking aloud, without exception. In doing so, they follow the algorithmic plan determined by them on a respective work sheet step by step with a colored pencil (Figure 1). In the case of errors or uncer-tainties, the teacher discontinues the ongoing activity and determines the correct solution approach to-gether with the students, repetitively modeling the correct step if needed. In this way, each target word is analyzed by itself before a decision is made. Both the self-instructions and the colored marking of the solution approach should contribute to enabling students toward becoming more thoughtful in their solution behavior, thus replacing impulsive guessing with reflexive decision patterns. At the same time, they should be able to perceive their progress more consciously and control it more precisely, as the combination of visualized algorithms and verbal self-instruction renders their own success/failure expe-rience more comprehensible. The flow chart shall help to precisely locate and promptly eliminate any difficulties in executing a certain problem-solving step. In a remedial spelling training with algorithmic flow charts of this nature, methodically adequate task formats and training materials must play a central role (Faber, 2006a). They have to depict the orthographic demands using algorithmically formatted exercise types consistently enabling the students to convert the orthographic skills that they have acqui-red into a strategically adequate behavior. They should always optionally combine the handling of the critical word material with the verbalization of self-instructive comments, and provide suitable assistance along with it, so that the mental representation of spelling rule application is supported in a targeted manner through the task structure according to the students’ skill level, and thus facilitating the habit of pertinent thinking routines. Based on the students’ skill level, respective memory aids can be abridged and finally faded out altogether, but they may still be reused when difficulties arise (Figure 2).

Overall, the use of visualized algorithms and verbalized self-instructions can open up many possibilities for scaffolding the development of dyslexic students’ orthographic knowledge and strategy use (Englert & Mariage, 2003; Hogan & Pressley, 1997; Palincsar & Brown, 1984). With respect to its concrete layout and presentation, this approach offers enough scope to develop a mode of adoption gea-red to the students’ level of skill, and guarantee the highest degree of structured, transparent and indivi-

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dualized learning, e.g., by the targeted variation of the number and complexity of individual solution steps and by introduction of alternative concepts and self-instructions.

Figure 1. Visualizing the application of spelling rules: An algorithmic flow chart

Figure 2. Algorithmic and self-instructional task format: An example.

The results of evaluation studies in the field of systematic remedial training using visualizing and ver-balizing methods could establish and prove significant performance gains on the part of four training cohorts whose intervention was completed after nearly two years in each case. In the meantime, the re-levant analyses encompass an evaluation period of about eight years, and they are based on data compi-led from an N = 109 dyslexic children and adolescents. Overall, it was possible to replicate and to gra-dually specify the results (Faber, 2006a). On the basis of relevant norm test scores, students trained over a longer period of time were able inter-individually and intra-individually to achieve highly signi-ficant gains in spelling performance. This result is maintained even when empirically taking into consi-deration regression-dependent performance increases prior to the treatment. At the same time, the stud-ents trained over a longer period of time were able to achieve, particularly in statistical and practical

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terms, significant improvements in the systematically trained spelling skill areas. To a slightly lesser but still significant extent, this also holds good for the spelling skill areas only incidentally considered. In this respect, strategic transfer effects must have taken place in the course of the training. The analyses could also establish significant improvements in the untrained spelling skill areas, which indicate the possibility of strategic transfer effects. The performance gains achieved in each case and cohort were not significantly correlated to gender, age, or regular school training conditions. Some first empirical evidence suggest that advances in the students’ performance, with the proviso of conceptu-ally adequate approaches, procedures, and training conditions, can be achieved largely independent of any teacher effects. Furthermore, another study could prove significant gains in spelling performance for an experimental group of conceptually trained students after 40 hours. In comparison, a control group of dyslexic students without any spelling treatment could reach only marginal and statistically insignificant performance gains. These preliminary findings, however, have to be replicated again, by all means, with additional evaluation studies, and they have to be specified further with regard to a comprehensive series of conceptual and/or methodical questions of detail.

The analysis presented here is therefore supposed to once again control corresponding effects on the students’ spelling performances. In the case of the trained students, significant increases in performan-ce in the spelling domains explicitly dealt with, and to a lesser degree, in the spelling domains implicit-ly considered, are expected. However, as such possible transfer effects are conceivable not only direct-ly at the performance level but indirectly at the level of the students’ cognitive-motivational orientati-ons, the analysis at hand is also supposed to clarify whether the systematic use of visualizing and ver-balizing methods in remedial spelling training can bring about unspecific, yet relevant changes in cer-tain cognitive-motivational variables, which, in turn, should favorably influence the course of the trai-ning in its entirety.

Therefore, as a relevant key criterion, the students’ spelling-specific test anxiety is supposed to be ana-lyzed. Over time, students with severe spelling difficulties in particular form may develop negative competence and control cognitions. For this reason, they may perceive critical academic tasks as hardly manageable anymore, and thus as a threat (to their self-esteem). Consequently, they increasingly react with worry and emotionality cognitions in the spelling domain (Deffenbacher, 1980; Tobias, 1992), which can contribute to far-reaching impairments in their learning behavior and even to a stabilization of existing difficulties (Martin, 2002). In the light of all this, the subjectively predominant experience of lowered competence and control beliefs turns out to play a crucial role in the formation and habitua-lization of students’ test-anxious behavior patterns (Faber, 2007; Skaalvik, 1997). It could be expected from a systematic training of spelling skills that, owing to its structured and descriptive approach, it would ensure manageable learning settings and allow the targeted training of strategic spelling compe-tencies with this prerequisite. This in turn, should result in more positive competence and control expe-riences, and eventually, a reduction of test anxiety reactions. In this regard, it should be particularly fa-vorable if the training would present the critical learning object in a way that allows the students from the very start to approach the task with a high level of self-efficacy as possible. This may be achieved by individually tailored and understandable requirements as well as algorithmic and self-instructional task formats, stepwise split up decision routines, strategy-related outcome attributions, error-specific feedback techniques, as well as cooperative controlling and planning phases (Faber, 1989; Matthes, 1994; Naveh-Benjamin, 1991; Suppon, 2004; Van Oudenhoven, Siero, Veen & Siero, 1982; Zimmer-man, 2000). The central assumption of such a skill development approach, which aims to achieve favo-rable changes in the students’ academic self-beliefs primarily via the development of their relevant competencies, appears to be sufficiently supported by empirical findings (O’Mara, Marsh, Craven & Debus, 2006). With regard to the reduction of spelling-specific test anxiety, the study by Berger (2001) also could deliver more precise insights and findings: After a 40-hour extracurricular training period with different cohorts, a significant reduction of spelling-specific test anxiety could be demonstrated. Owing to some methodological limitations, a careful interpretation of these findings is certainly recom-mended. In particular, the conceptual and instructional features of the various spelling treatment condi-tions have not been controlled. The results at least tend to confirm the possibility of reducing, over the long-term, the degree of test anxiety by continually advancing the students’ spelling competencies.

Therefore, the objective of the present analysis also was to examine this result in the context of uniform and consistent treatment conditions. With this as background, the following hypotheses seek to be clarified with the present evaluation study: After a training period of 80 hours the students’ orthographic performance appears to be significant-

ly and substantially improved.

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In the process, the students’ mean error rates in four spelling skill areas explicitly worked on can be significantly and substantially reduced.

In addition, significant and substantial error reductions in two spelling skill areas only implicitly worked on can be proven as well.

And finally, the degree of students’ spelling-specific test anxiety can be significantly reduced.

MethodSubjects. The training cohort comprised of 21 (twelve female and nine male) students from different grade levels (Table 1) who displayed normal cognitive abilities but had extensive orthographic difficulties, which, in most cases, had already been accumulated over a longer period of time. Descriptive spelling error analyses revealed clear evidence that the students’ orthographic difficulties could be traced back to a lack of rule-dependent competencies and strategies in most cases. Phonologically based misspellings were relatively rare overall (Figure 5).

Basic Training Conditions. In all cases studied, the spelling training consisted of an individually compiled training sequence addressing different orthographic problems employing extensive visualized problem-solving algorithms and verbal self-instructions. This concerned spelling skill areas on explosive consonant graphemes (gk+), i-graphemes (ieih), as well as doubling of consonants (II+) and s-graphemes (ssß). In contrast, the incidentally considered spelling skill area capitalization (grokl) was only picked out as a central theme in cases of individual uncertainties or errors; the students were then supposed to show the critical front part of the word with the aid of a corresponding signal card and by thinking aloud (Faber, 2006a). Similarly, the incidentally considered skill area of phonologically based spelling (lautg) was picked out as a central theme as required, by also focusing the students’ attention on the critical work part with signal cards, getting them to think aloud about their spelling activities and then to write, control and correct the word (Nies & Belfiore, 2006). Often this concerned problems around the subjects of diffe-rentiating phoneme sounds and, in particular, structuring or segmenting words, the mastery of which, along with elaborate syllabification exercises – is already a central component part of the spelling stra-tegies imparted in the training units dealing with explosive sounds and doubling of consonants. The in-tervention took place once a week for 60 minutes.

Measurements. The students’ spelling achievement were first assessed in pre-test one six months prior, on an average, towards the start of the training, again in pre-test two directly at the beginning of the training, in subse-quent follow-up tests after 40 hours into the training and in post-tests after 80 hours at the end of the training. According to grade level, this applied to all students with the WRT 3+ (Birkel, 1994), the DRT 4, and the DRT 5 (Grund, Haug & Naumann, 1994, 2003), the RST 4-7 (Grund, 2003), or with the HSP 5-9 (May, 1998). In pre-test two, it was possible to administer parallel forms of the instru-ments used in pre-test one. As follow-up and post-test measures, instruments with norms for the next higher grade level were administered in each case. Evaluation of test results was carried out quantitati-vely on the basis of grade-related T-score norms, as well as qualitatively using descriptive error catego-ries. For this purpose, individual error rates were generated from an especially developed spelling word list (Faber, 2004). It promises, as to content and psychometry, more adequate results with regard to the students’ individual error ratio, as these are no longer directly dependent on the item pool of a certain spelling test. The internal consistency of the word list was α = .93 (Cronbach’s alpha). The sum total of list words correctly written correlated with the T-score norms of the spelling test procedures by r = .55 (p < .001) and turned out to be significantly influenced by the grade level (r = .66, p < .001) but not by gender (r = .02, p > .05). Owing to the previous course of the training, the corresponding error rates in the learning skill areas (explosive consonant graphemes, i-graphemes, doubling of consonants, s-graphemes, capitalization, and phonologically-based spelling) were used for the study at hand. As chil-dren and adolescents with severe spelling difficulties tend to commit several misspellings in one single word, the ordinary test sum scores cannot be expected to fully reflect the extent of their individual problems. Therefore, their individual error frequency in each word was used as an additional per-formance measure. With the test norm scores, the error frequency of all students at measurement time two correlated to r = -.72 (p < .001). Students’ spelling-specific worry and emotionality cognitions were measured by an especially developed scale at measurement time two (pre-test two) and measurement time four (post-test). It consisted of 13 four-point self-ratings. Sample item: Prior to class dictations, I am often worried to forget everything I have been practicing. As earlier studies have re-peatedly shown that spelling-specific worry and emotionality cognitions could not be separated by fac-

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tor analyses, an overall scale format has been devised (Faber, 2007). Students with high sum scores re-port a strong degree of spelling-specific test anxiety. In a longitudinal analysis of a sample of elemen-tary fourth graders, the psychometric properties of this scale turned out well (Cronbach’s alpha α = .87 and .90, retest reliability over a period of 12 months r tt = .74). At measurement time two (pre-test two) its sum scores appear not to be significantly correlated with students’ gender (r = .11, p > .05) and gra-de level (r = .25, p > .05).

Statistical analyses. Since the error rates in some spelling skill areas at measurement time three seemed not to be normally distributed, all statistical analyses of differences between pre- and post-test measures were therefore driven by nonparametric methods (Siegel & Castellan, 1988). All evaluation hypotheses were tested one-tailored with an error ratio of p ≤ .05. For spelling-specific test norms and test anxiety scores which appeared to be normally distributed at each measurement time, standardized effect sizes could be calculated (Cohen, 1988).

ResultsFor the spelling test performances in this training cohort, no significant changes could be established between the two measurement times before the start of the spelling training (pre-test one through pre-test two). But from the beginning of the training (pre-test two) to its completion after 80 hours (post-test), the level of the students’ performance obviously increased on the basis of corresponding test norms (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Students’ spelling test performance before, during, and at the end of the training.

The results of a Friedman two-way analysis of variance (by ranks) show that the degree of changes in spelling test performance appears also to be statistically significant. With an effect size of d = 3.56, it turns out to be very strong. According to inter-individually referenced test norms, the increments in the T-scores amount, on an average, to 1.5 standard deviations – i.e., a significant approximation to the mean spelling test outcomes at the individually relevant grade-level has been achieved (Table 1).

Table 1Spelling test norms (T), total error rates, and specific error rates (SPER) in pre-test two measures before the training, follow-up measures after 40 training hours and post-test measures after 80 training hours (ST = systematically trained, IC = inci-dentally trained spelling skill areas, SPWLIST = sum of correct items in spelling word list).

Pre-Test 2 Follow-Up Post-Test Chi2 p

Spelling Test T 35 46 50 36.22 < .001Total Error Rate 95 43 23 36.86 < .001

SPER gk+ ST 28 5 5 30.87 < .001 SPER ieih ST 22 4 2 23.41 < .001 SPER II+ ST 28 16 6 36.60 < .001 SPER ssß ST 50 33 7 22.22 < .001 SPER grokl IC 12 4 3 22.21 < .001 SPER lautg IC 10 3 0 23.46 < .001

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SPWLIST Sum 28 43 56 22.00 < .001

In the course of this, the degree of students’ spelling improvement seems not to be dependent on their grade level (rs = -.28, p > .05). Thus, their individual duration of school learning should not have played a critical role for the training effects. But their biological age, however, turns out to be significantly ne-gatively correlated with the pre-post-test differences in the T-scores (rs = -.38, p < .05). According to this, the older students in their particular grade level, as well as overage children and adolescents, tend to achieve only slight improvements. The pre- and post-test differences in students’ total error rates al-so present themselves analogous to the changes in the test norms: The students of the training cohort were able to reduce their relative error rate in a considerable manner. These changes achieved are high-ly significant in terms of the Friedman two-way variance analysis (Table 1).

Figure 4. Students’ total error rates in spelling tests before, during, and at the end of the training.

The results of the error-specific improvements draw a very similar picture (Figure 5). The students of the training cohort show substantial, statistically very significant and consistent error reductions in all the four spelling skill areas that they had systematically worked on over a period of 80 hours. Cor res-ponding performance improvements can also be found in the spelling skill areas only incidentally the-matized. Partially very high error rates at the outset decreased considerably after 40 hours, particularly in the systematically trained skill areas (Table 1).

Figure 5. Students’ error rates in various spelling skill areas before, during, and at the end of the training.

A notable reduction of worry and emotionality cognitions in the spelling domain can also be establi-shed (Figure 6). The average cumulative scores of the spelling-specific test anxiety scale have decrea-sed, on an average, by 11 raw score points from measuring time two (prior to the beginning of the trai-

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ning) to measuring time four (after completion of the training). This difference turns out to be highly si-gnificant (Wilcoxon test: Z = -3.87, p < .001), and with a relative effect size of d = 1.93 it can be consi-dered very momentous.

Figure 6. Students’ sum scores on the spelling-specific test anxiety scale (spANX) before and at the end of

the training.DiscussionAfter a training time spanning of nearly two years (80 hours) the systematic use of algorithmic and self-instructional methods lead to consistent substantial performance gains in a cohort of 21 dyslexic children and adolescents, and thus once more confirms existing findings (Faber, 2006a,b). Overall, the level of the students’ orthographic competencies significantly increased, both in the systematically trained and the incidentally considered spelling skill areas. Again, this result points out the possibility of corresponding transfer effects. So a certain orthographic skill initially acquired in one error-specific training sequence can affect the learning in other error-specific training sequences. For example, the well-directed development of syllable segmentation in the skill area final sounds has a favorable effect on phonologically correct spelling altogether. However, more general strategic transfer effects are also conceivable. In this way, the solution behavior gradually acquired and sustained on a self-instructive basis in a specific spelling skill area might have stabilized with each additional skill area (quasi cumulative) and contributed, on a long-term basis, to significantly improved and controlled writing activities (Klauer, 2000).

Additional unspecific transfer effects may also have occurred on the level of the students’ academic self-beliefs. In agreement with the findings of Berger (2001), the students in this training cohort report an overall lower level of spelling-specific test anxiety at the end of the training. This decrease in test-anxious worry and emotionality cognitions might have crucially come about through the systematic scaffolding of competence development which has contributed to reinforced individual experiences of self-efficacy and thus ultimately to increased competence and control experiences over the long-term. Further orthographic and strategic learning processes might have benefited from that.

Under the aspect of the best entry into training (in the sense of a suitable initial concept), the possibility of such reciprocal effects supports the implementation of the skills development approach. In principle, this did not necessarily exclude possible treatment orientations from a self-enhancement perspective in an individual case. Thus, these results can support and complement the findings of rule- and/or strategy-oriented intervention approaches in the spelling domain (Graham, Harris & Chorzempa, 2002; Mäki, Vauras & Vainio, 2002; Nunes, Bryant & Olsson, 2003; Scheerer-Neumann, 1993; Tijms & Hoeks, 2005).

While the students’ performance increased overall up to the first measuring time, this trend was not continue on to the third measuring time and flattened observably. At first glance, an impression might therefore arise that the corresponding performance effects can be achieved, for the most part, in the first 40 hours of the treatment, and that insofar perhaps a shorter period of training should be sufficiently purposeful and rewarding. However, if one considers that the relevant test norms at the individual measuring times reflect the increased classroom demands in each case, then the students’ performance in the second half of the training did not stagnate at all (eg a test norm score of T = 50 at sixth grade

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should indicate an individually higher achievement level than at fifth grade).

In the face of this, the results have to be viewed in the context of the empirical approach selected. Eva-luation studies in the natural training setting consider the given stipulations of the existing educational context and thus allow statements with respect to the everyday practical proof of an intervention. How-ever, they were at the same time subject to the basic dilemma of being unable to completely and suffi-ciently control certain confounding variables in the sense of the experimental paradigm. Therefore, their results commonly claim a high degree of external validity, yet only limited internal validity. This restriction must, in any case, be applied to short-term interventions. For training effects examined on a long-term basis however, as they have been reported here, the question about relevant confounding va-riables gradually poses itself differently: the significance of possible treatment-independent variables that might have per se affected the registered improvements in the students’ orthographic performance seems to be relativized over the two-year evaluation period. As such, socioemotional nature of student-teacher-relations nor a mere learning time factor might have independently contributed to the substantial differences between pre- and post-test results. And the observed degree of gains in spelling performance could hardly be traced back to possible spontaneous regressions or unspecific development and/or maturation effects, either. Thus it should be possible to attribute the reported findings to the treatment conducted at least in the sense of a global and local (and thus, always pre-liminary) evaluation. The validity of their results extends, for a start, to comparable extracurricular learning settings with dyslexic children and adolescents.

A replication of these results in other educational settings and with other student samples would be a desirable next step in the evaluation process. In this sense, evaluation studies conducted in the natural setting can yield important clues for an evidence-based evaluation of spelling-related interventions. They should not be contrastively related to other methodical approaches but rather understood as a sensible and indispensable part of an optionally more embracive evaluation concept. Viewed from that perspective, the findings of the evaluation studies accompanying the remedial practice might constitute a useful contribution toward more evidence-based treatment decisions in relevant training settings.

The findings of these studies, however, have to be specified further with regard to additional conceptual and practical issues. So it still seems to be worth analyzing, whether the systematic use of algorithmic and self-instructional tasks would generate differential effects for students with behavioral and/or attention deficit problems. Such studies should also plumb the possible limitations of algorithmic graphs and verbal self-instructions for certain sub samples of students (eg whether students with severe speech problems could be enabled to use verbal self-instructions, and to which extent they would need additional assistance or modified training conditions).

Furthermore, it might be interesting to explore whether the visualizing and verbalizing methods can be successfully transferred to rule-specific spelling trainings in other regular orthographies (Lyytinen, Aro & Holopainen, 2004; Mäki, Vauras & Vainio, 2002; Tijms & Hoeks, 2005), and whether they can be also integrated into other training approaches more phonologically oriented (Faber, 2006a; Lovett, Lacerenza, Borden, Frijters, Steinbach & De Palma, 2000; Mannhaupt, 1997).

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INCLUSION OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES: TEACHERS' ATTITUDES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOMMODATIONS

Eynat Gal, Naomi Schreur

and Batya Engel-YegerUniversity of Haifa

Teachers in general education are expected to cope with students with diverse needs. They might not always be ready or sufficiently supported to meet these challenges. The current study aims at identifying child, teacher and environmental barriers to inclusion. Specifically it addresses the importance of preschool teachers' attitudes as the human environment factor that may facilitate inclusion of children with disability, and teachers' major concerns about environmental accommodations that inclusion implies.The study assessed how teachers' attitudes towards inclusion of children with disability are affected by the teachers' personal characteristics and are related to the accommodations they deem necessary for admission of such children to their kindergartens. It also examined whether the teachers’ attitudes and requirements for accommodations differ in respect of four groups of children's disabilities: learning disabilities, sensory/motor disabilities, ADHD, and emotional disabilities. Fifty-three preschool teachers completed the Attitudes toward Disabled Persons Scale (ATDP-A) and the Environmental Accommodations of School (EAS), which was designed especially for this study (Appendix 1). The teachers’ requirements proved to correlate with various teachers’ characteristics such as age, experience, education and personal contact with disability. Teacher’s requirements for accommodations also highly correlated with environmental working conditions (e.g., working hours, number of children). Teachers were most concerned about accommodations for children with potential behavior problems. Implications for practice and education are discussed.

BackgroundInclusion in general education is a philosophy of acceptance and belonging to the community so that a class is structured to meet the needs of all its students. Educational strategies and collaboration among educators yield specially designed instruction and supplementary aids and services for all diverse students as needed for effective learning (Moore, Gilbreath, & Mairuri, 1998). Inclusion was made compulsory by legislation toward equal rights. One such law is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997). The law states that a continuum of placement options be made available to meet the special needs of students, indicating the major importance of choice of an adapted environment for groups of individuals with certain characteristics. To emphasize the active and extensive involvement of the child in life situations,

The International Classification of Function (ICF) of the Word Health Organization (ICF, 2001) uses the term participation rather than inclusion (ICF, 2001; Simeonsson, Leonard, Dollar, Bjorck-Akessoon, Hollenweger, & Martinuzzi, 2003). The ICF acknowledges the many barriers children with

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disabilities typically face in their educational experience. It shifts the debate, which traditionally was much child-oriented, to become more focused on environmental factors that both affect and potentially facilitate children's participation in their everyday lives (ICF, 2001; Simeonsson et al., 2003). Both IDEA and ICF use the term least restrictive environment (LRE), which is broadly defined as the greatest degree that will satisfactorily afford children with disabilities a meaningful educational benefit, together with children who do not have disability, suggesting that society is responsible for providing an accessible physical and human environment (IDEA, 1997; ICF, 2001).

Factors that effect inclusionTo create a LRE, potential barriers to inclusion must be identified. The literature identifies child factors and environmental factors that may present challenges to the success of inclusion.

Child factorsChildren with disabilities face constraints resulting from their own physical, emotional and cognitive limitations. These limitations or barriers reside within the individual and can be transient or permanent (Smith, Austin, Kennedy, Lee, & Hutchison, 2005). The child variable explored in existing research relates to the child’s special needs, which may be physical, cognitive, emotional, and more. While LRE aims at addressing the specific needs of each individual, the most appropriate placements of children with varied disabilities are perceived largely to depend on the disability category (Praisner, 2003). In different countries systems are designed to address the individual's special needs, but services and programs are provided according to those general categories of disabilities.

Various categories of children are placed in typical education settings, and additionally to the special accommodations each individual requires, each population presents specific general requirements for accommodations. For example, children with sensory and motor disabilities are often classified on the basis of severity: those with mild to moderate sensory/motor disabilities may not require extensive special education and related services. As such, they are deemed to manage easily in regular education environments. However the mobility barrier, such as the need for transfers of children who suffer from more severe motor disabilities, or the need for learning different languages, such as sign language or Braille in the case of sensory loss, may result in the placement of these students in atypical educational settings. An additional frequent concern is the ability of the regular education environment to meet their needs for special health and personal care (Campbell, 1989).

Children with emotional disabilities may pose problems of their own for the educator in a typical learning environment. Such a child may demonstrate extremely challenging behaviors that distance him or her from others, inhibits communication, interfere with activity performance, and contribute to a negative self-image (Casey-Black & Knoblock, 1989). The teacher must meet those child's needs, in addition to those of the others in the class, who are directly affected by the special education child’s behaviors. Sometimes, behaviors of children with Attention Deficit Hyper Activity Disorder (ADHD) pose a similar problem for their teachers. They display chronic behavioral symptoms of inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity, may often have difficulty fulfilling an assigned task or following directions, and may lack the social skills required to get along with others; this significantly interferes with their own family and peer relationships, as well as their educational and social functioning (APA, 1994).

The biggest group included in general education settings in the past two decades is students with learning disabilities (LD). While most students with LD require direct and intensive instruction in reading, writing or math, the literature suggests that often their specific need for intensive direct teaching is not met in either special education or general education classes (Lyon et al., 2001).

The philosophy of inclusion is tightly connected to concepts of human rights and equal opportunities for individuals to participate. It calls for listening to an individual's goals and needs that are impeded by a disability to engage in activities, regardless the disability type (Wolery, 2000). The question then is whether the various needs of students should be addressed on an individual or on group basis, according to populations with a shared functional disability.

The latter approach, differentiating children also according to their disabilities, may ease the evaluation of needs of groups of children to provide support services. We therefore investigated whether the teachers' requirements for accommodations distinguished four children's populations with different disabilities: attention, learning, emotional regulation, and sensory/motor.

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Environmental factorsThe body of knowledge on human occupation and performance implies close relationships and interactions between person, occupation and environment (Christiansen, 2005). One's joining in everyday life accordingly depends on one's engaging in activities in diverse environments with a variety of characteristics, and meeting the challenges they may present. To study the environmental characteristics that may facilitate or hinder children's participation in the classroom, we identified four categories of environmental barriers to inclusion from the literature: attitudinal, architectural, administrative, and programmatic (Cross, Traub, Hutter-Pishgahi & Shelton, 2004; Heyne, 2003).

Teachers’ attitudes to disabilities and to inclusion have proved a crucial variable in the success of inclusion schemes (Chow & Winzer, 1992; Hastings & Oakford, 2003; Hayes & Gunn, 1988; Pivik, McComas, & LaFlanne, 2002; Williams & Algozine, 1977). Many of the teachers’ characteristics are variables that could affect their attitude to disabilities, hence to the inclusion of children with disabilities in their classes: age, gender, education level, and years of teaching experience, acquaintance with a person with a disability, having a family member with a disability, or having other contact with a person with disability. Among these, those that correlate most strikingly significantly with teachers' attitudes to inclusion are contact or experience with people with special needs, and amount of teaching experience (Beh-Pajooh, 1991; Hastings & Graham, 1995; Parasuram, 2006). Attitudinal barriers are perceived to be the basis of all other environmental barriers, and are the most difficult to change. They are reflected in misconceptions, stereotypes, labeling, fear from the unknown, resistance, misunderstanding people’s rights and opportunities, and further isolation of children with disabilities (Heyne, 2003; Odom, 2000; Parsarum, 2006).

Architectural or physical environmental barriers (e.g., lack of elevators, ramps, automatic doors, Braille signage, and telecommunication devices) are more obvious as deterring and restricting the participation of people with disabilities. Administrative barriers may be identified as lack of funding, workload norms, lack of training staff in inclusive practices, lack of adequate transportation, and insufficient funding for coordinated services and individual supports. The programmatic barrier may include lack of knowledge and ability to assess and provide appropriate support for every individual's needs. Lacks of behavioral teaching techniques, and accommodations of equipment and activities properly suited to children with some types of disabilities, are also frequently observed (File & Kontos, 1992; Heyne, 2003; Jennings, 2007; Voorman et al, 2006). The educational system displays a discrepancy between the administrators' role, which directly affects the architectural, and programmatic factors as well, and the teachers' role. The former is required to address the various needs of diverse populations, while the latter often has to handle the needs of an individual child. This role discrepancy may affect teachers' versus administrators' viewpoints and attitudes, and those of the teachers' may well serve as distinctive factors beyond environmental ones.

The current study therefore separates the various barriers into three categories: the child category, covering the various disabilities; the teacher category, covering teachers’ attitudes; and the environment category, covering architectural, administrative, and programmatic factors. The relations among these three categories are investigated here.

Specifically we examined: (1) whether teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of children with disability in their classes are affected by various teachers' personal characteristics; (2) how teachers’ attitudes relate to their requirements of various environmental accommodations; (3) how their requirements for accommodations differ in respect of four groups of children with different disabilities: learning, sensory/motor, ADHD, and emotional.

MethodPopulation: Sixty-two preschool teachers attended a workshop at the clinical laboratory at the University of Haifa in northern Israel. The workshop was the initiative of the municipal department of education, and participation was obligatory. The workshop's aim was to raise teachers’ awareness of children with special needs and of the services available to them and their families. From the 62 attendees a convenience sample of 53 teachers who signed consent forms to participate in the study was recruited. All 53 preschool teachers were Jewish females; most were Israeli-born (81%), and worked in the Israeli state education system. The group was heterogeneous in age, years of work experience, and work characteristics (Table 1).

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Most of the preschool teachers who completed the questionnaires had graduated higher education programs (94.3%); three had a Master's degree (5.7%). Most were married (79.2%) and had children (67.9%). Most lived in Haifa (94.3), and reported mainly a good (37.7%) or an excellent (56.6%) state of health.

Table 1:Parametric Demographic data

N Mean SD Range

Age 49 38.9 10.18 23-57Years of experience 50 12.4 9.49 1-35

Working hours per week 42 28.1 8.22 5-42Number of children in

kindergarten51 26.8 8.63 7-37

Forty-one percent of the preschool teachers had taught children with disabilities in their kindergarten. Only few of them had experience with any other people with disabilities.

Research instrumentationThe teachers were asked to complete questionnaires on demographic characteristics, attitudes to children with disabilities, and accommodations they required for their integration into the kindergarten. Three questionnaires served to investigate the teachers' attitudes and requirements for environmental accommodations. These questionnaires consisted of a demographic questionnaire, The Attitudes toward Disabled Persons Scale, and The Environmental Accommodations of School.

The demographic questionnaire consisted of personal background and work conditions. Nine items of personal background relate to age, gender, education and health. Three items within this questionnaire focus on work conditions such as years, hours and number of children in their kindergarten.

The Attitudes toward Disabled Persons Scale (ATDP-A) was developed in 1962 by Yuker, Block, and Campbell (in Antonak & Livneh, 1988), and is widely used in the literature. A Hebrew translation of the ATDP-A was used in this study. The questionnaire consists of 30 items, which depict two types of statements: characteristics of individuals with disabilities (personal, intellectual, emotional, social) and treatment modalities they need (educational, vocational, social). Respondents express their agreement or disagreement with each item on a six-point scale: –3 (I disagree very much), –2 (I disagree pretty much), –1 (I disagree a little), +1 (I agree a little), +2 (I agree pretty much), +3 (I agree very much). No neutral response can be given. A sample item is Most children with disabilities do not give up easily. About half of the items are worded negatively and therefore require sign alteration, for example, Children with disabilities look for affection and praise more than typical children do. A high total score indicates a positive attitude.

The Human Resources Center provides extensive psychometric data on the three forms of the ATDP. Reliability of form A was examined by stability estimate through test-retest (+. 79), by alternative forms (+. 83), and by split-half (from +. 73 to +. 89) (Antonak, & Livneh, 1988; Yuker, Block, & Young, 1970). The validity of form A has been checked in extensive studies. No relationship was found between age, intelligence and vocation and acceptance or rejection of people with disabilities. Several variables were found to correlate with greater acceptance: gender (in favor of females), greater contact with people with disabilities, low aggressiveness, positive self-concept, and low anxiety. ATDP scores also correlated with scores on attitudes to other groups (Antonak & Livneh, 1988). The literature presents diverse opinions on the vulnerability of the ATDP to social desirability, and on whether it is one-dimensional or multi-factorial.

The Environmental Accommodations of School (EAS) research tool (Appendix I) was developed for the purposes of this study. This questionnaire assesses the accommodations deemed necessary to enhance participation of children with various disabilities in the kindergarten environment. Conceptually the EAS relates to two dimensions. The first contains factors of special needs of groups of children who have some common characteristics as a result of their disability (sensory/motor, attention, learning, and emotional regulation). The second contains factors of environmental adaptations required to address the children's needs, according to the teacher's perceptions regarding each group of children.

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The EAS questionnaire requires that respondents evaluate the need for each of the nine accommodations on a four-point scale: 3 (very much), 2 (pretty much), 1 (a little), 0 (not needed). A high total score indicates more intense perceived need for accommodations so that children with disabilities can be included and can participate in a typical class. To assess internal consistency of the EAS dimensions we calculated Cronbach's alpha coefficient, and found medium-high internal consistency (see Table 2). We tested teachers' perceptions of accommodation requirements by means of the new Environmental Adaptations of School (EAS) measure.

The second dimension contains nine questions that represent the three environmental factors, namely architectural, administrative, and programmatic, covering various areas for potential accommodations that the teachers perceive as necessary for inclusion of children with disabilities in their pre-school environment: connection with parents; budget; number of children in the class; skilled assistants; unskilled assistants, adaptation of activities; accessibility of the physical environment; consultation and support from experts; intensive connection with external medical and educational sources of knowledge.

Table 2:Cronbach's alpha coefficient for EAS scores

EAS scores Cronbach's alphaSensory/motor disabilities .66Attention disabilities .81Learning disabilities .69Emotional regulation disabilities .70

Qualitative evaluation of the EAS revealed face validity; also, the questionnaire tapped into each category of environmental barriers by asking about various types of required accommodations. Furthermore, the EAS was found valid by its distinguishing needs of groups of children (i.e., by disability) from requirements of groups of teachers (i.e., by age and experience). It contributes an evaluation that can identify and prioritize support and accommodations, in a given educational system.

ProceduresSixty-two kindergarten teachers from Haifa were invited to a workshop at the multi-disciplinary clinic of the Faculty of Social and Welfare Studies of the University of Haifa. Fifty-three of them (85.5%) signed a consent form and participated in the study. They were asked to answer three questionnaires described above. Most questionnaires were handed in at the end of the workshop a few were mailed later.

Data analysisAnalyses were performed with SPSS 14. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to examine the internal consistency of EAS. Following descriptive statistics, independent t-tests were performed to examine the significance of differences in teachers’ attitudes and perceptions of requirements for accommodations according to their personal characteristics and work conditions. Pearson test served to analyze correlations between independent variables such as teacher's characteristics and attitudes towards people with disabilities; and between these independent variables and teachers' perception of requirements for accommodations. MANOVA was used to distinguish teachers according to three different kinds of past experience with people with disabilities, and their various attitudes towards inclusion of children with disabilities.

ResultsThe study's results relate to teachers' attitudes to inclusion of children with disabilities in their classes, and their requirements for accommodations in general and according to children's characteristics. To assess the participant teachers’ general attitudes to inclusion of children with disabilities in their classes, we calculated the total mean scores of the ATDP-A. The results indicated overall positive attitudes to inclusion (Mean 3.12; SD= 0.45) for the attitude questionnaire (score range 1-4, 4 indicating very positive attitude). On further analysis, various teachers' characteristics proved significantly correlated with their attitudes to inclusion; these characteristics included teacher's age and years of experience, and work conditions such as number of children in the class and number of working hours.

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Teachers' age was correlated with the total score of the Attitudes to Disabled Persons scale (ATDP-A) (r= -.316; p<. 05), suggesting a less positive attitude to children with disabilities among older teachers. Number of years of teaching confirmed the above trend, being positively and significantly correlated with a few items indicating a negative attitude to children with disability; specifically, more experienced teachers believed that children with disabilities were usually not friendly (r=. 37; p=. 008), did not succeed as well as typical children (r=.35; p=.012), and gave up easily (r=.43; p=.046).

Work conditions such as number of teaching hours correlated with negative teachers' attitudes. For example, this positively correlated with the statement Children with disabilities do not succeed as well as typical children (r=. 313; p=. 041) and Children with disabilities are often less intelligent than typical children (r=-.411; p=. 007).

There was no significant correlation between total score of ATDP and past experience with people with disabilities. However, three different kinds of past proximity to people with disabilities proved to relate diversely to teachers' attitudes. The three kinds of past experience were with (a) children with disabilities in the close environment, (b) friends with disabilities, and (c) family members with disabilities.

Teachers who had known children with disabilities in their close environment showed mixed attitudes: they indicated a less worried approach to their health (F (1,18)=12.7; p=. 002) and their give up behavior (F (1,18)=5.83; p=. 027) than teachers who had had no contact with such children in their close environment. However, they stated that children with disabilities were less successful than typical children (F (1,18)=8.22; p=. 01).

Teachers who had friends with disabilities in their close environment showed a significantly more positive attitude than those without disabled friends (F (2,17) =167.22; p= .006). Teachers with family members with disability in their close environment did not differ significantly in their attitudes from those who did not have disabled family members. However, the former group expressed more awareness of the needs for accommodations of children with disabilities.

Teachers’ characteristics and their requirements for accommodations We applied the Environmental Adaptations of School (EAS) tool to assess the accommodations deemed necessary to enhance participation of children with various disabilities in the kindergarten environment, according to the teachers' concerns. Results revealed that teachers' personal characteristics (e.g., years of experience, family members who were disabled) and teachers' work conditions (e.g., number of working hours, number of children in the class) were associated with their various requirements for accommodations.

Number of years of teaching correlated with a requirement to reduce the number of children in the kindergarten (r=. 30; p=. 036) in case of inclusion children with disabilities. This means that the more experienced teachers believed that they could address the needs of children with disabilities only in much smaller classes.

Teachers with family members with disabilities were more aware of the need for various special accommodations for children with disabilities than teachers without such family members. The former group indicated that when children with motor disabilities were included in the class they required more intensive communication with external facilities (medical; educational) (t=-1.31; p=. 001), a larger budget for the kindergarten (t=-3.28; p=. 002), and more assistants (t=-3.08; p=.0001). These teachers indicated the last-named requirement also in respect of children with learning disabilities (t=-2.15; p=. 036) and children with emotional disabilities (t=-2.23; p=.03).

The interaction between the teachers and the children takes place in the single physical human and administrative environment of the kindergarten. Teachers' occupational performance in general, and their handling the demanding task of including children with disabilities in their kindergarten in particular, may be also affected by physical and administrative environmental factors. The factors examined in this study were the job conditions of weekly working hours and number of children in the kindergarten, together defined as the workload.

Results revealed that teachers who worked more weekly hours called for more communication with parents of all populations: children with motor disabilities (r=.465; p=.002), with ADHD (r=.35;

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p=.023), with learning disabilities (r=.44; p=.004) and with emotional disabilities (r=.471; p=.002). Regarding number of children in the kindergarten, this figure correlated positively with the mean score of the accommodations needed for children with motor disabilities (r=.289; p=.004).

Accommodations required for different groups of disabilitiesTable three summarizes the accommodations that teachers found necessary for inclusion of four groups of children with disabilities. Various requirements proved significantly essential for children with three of the four disabilities, namely ADHD, learning disabilities, and emotional regulation disability. These requirements distinguished them from children with sensory/motor disabilities, for whom they were not expressed.

The accommodations deemed essential were administrative (e.g., bigger budget, more unskilled assistants) and programmatic (e.g., adaptations of activities and consultation and support from experts). The only accommodation highly expressed for children with sensory and/or motor deficits was accessible physical environment (r=. 69; p<.01). Furthermore, no significant correlations were found between need for accessibility of physical environment for children with ADHD and for children with emotional regulation disability. For those two groups and for children with learning disabilities higher correlations represented a high need for most administrative and programmatic accommodations.

Table 3:Correlations between specific disability of children and type of accommodations

Environmental accommodations

Disability characteristics

Sensory/ motorDisability

Attention deficitDisorder (ADHD)

LearningDisability

EmotionalRegulation disability

1. Increasing the budget

NS .70** .66** .66**2. Decreasing number of children

.39** .72** .60** .70**3. Need for skilled assistants

.32* .49** .47** .53**4. Need for unskilled assistants

NS .58** .49** .65**5. Adaptation of activities

.29* .61** .52** .69**6. Intensive contact with external medical and educational professionals

.38** .43** .45** .28*

7. Consultation and support from experts

NS .56** .47** .38**8. Intensive contact with parents

.43** .35* .36** .40**9. Accessibility of physical environment

.69** NS .45* NS

*p<.05 **p<.01

DiscussionIn this study, attitudes of teachers of typical kindergartens to including children with disabilities proved generally positive. This result is in line with previous literature (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996; Stoiber, Gettinger, & Goetz, 1998), and may be explained by both social expectations and characteristics of the teachers, who had chosen a helping profession and were educated in a philosophy of inclusion. However, further in-depth investigation of teachers' personal and work characteristics, as well as their concerns for accommodations to provide better inclusion settings, led to a better understanding of the complexity of teacher-child-environment interactions in those settings. Specifically, the study identified a discrepancy between the teachers' generally positive attitudes and some specifically negative attitudes they expressed, in keeping with findings of previous studies (Hastings & Oakford, 2003; Center & Ward, 1987; Soodak, Podell, & Lehman, 1998). The negative attitudes were related to some characteristics of the pre-school teachers such as age, experience, and previous experience with people with disabilities.

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The current study further revealed that concerns and needs were more expressed among more experienced pre-school teachers. Such needs included, for example, the need to reduce the number of children in the classroom, a bigger budget, more assistants, and a lighter workload. The different needs expressed by more experienced teachers may represent a difference in awareness and ability to identify accommodations required for children with disabilities, as well as more self-confidence and readiness to express their concerns.

The study not only identified teachers' required accommodations, but also further consolidated the relationship of the need for environmental accommodations to the child factor, as expressed in the kind of disability of the child. The teachers' required accommodations distinguish three different populations of children with disabilities: attention, learning, and emotional regulation, from a fourth population, namely children with sensory/motor disabilities.

Teachers' stated requirements of various accommodations (e.g., bigger budget, fewer children in the kindergarten, assistants and adaptation of activities) were found significantly essential for the first three groups, but not for the fourth. The only strong concern that teachers expressed for children with sensory/ motor disabilities was accessibility of the physical environment. Surprisingly, no concern was expressed regarding essential accommodations such as increasing the budget and consulting with experts.

These results suggest that children with learning disabilities, ADHD or emotional regulation disabilities present bigger challenges for the teachers than children with sensory/ motor disabilities. One possible explanation for this distinction rests on the high co-morbidity between these populations, for example, many children with learning disabilities also have ADHD (Semrud-Clikeman, et al, 1992; Smith et al, 2005) so they may be viewed similarly by teachers. These populations may also be united by a shared functional basis underlying their common needs. For example, students with learning/cognitive and especially emotional disabilities are perceived as more of a behavioral challenge than students with sensory/motor disabilities. The literature indeed suggests that children with learning disabilities were found three times more likely to have emotional disorders and behavior problems than typical children, and also to have various difficulties with daily activities and fewer social contacts. These difficulties often present a bigger challenge to inclusion than the obvious learning challenge (Law, Haight, Milory, Willms, Stewart, & Rosenbaum, 1999; Voorman et al., 2006).

The lack of requirements expressed in relation to children with sensory/motor disabilities may be explained by the sufficient funding and personal support provided for these children, which is not the case with children with emotional, attentional or learning disabilities. Alternatively, children with sensory/motor disabilities more rarely present inappropriate behavioral patterns, or when they do vary from the norm, it is more in the direction of the passive pattern, which may require less individual attention from the teacher. Some previous studies indicated that children who are perceived less demanding in terms of teachers’ input are generally viewed more positively as candidates for inclusion (Avramidis, Bayliss, & Burden, 2000; Praisner, 2003; Soodak et al., 1998; Stoiber et al., 1998).

Our findings are reinforced by earlier documentation suggesting that the perceived most appropriate placements of children with varied disabilities largely depend on the disability category; the least restrictive placements in regular education have more often been chosen for children with motor or sensory disabilities, and less often for children with serious emotional disturbance and autism (Praisner, 2003). Populations that require more environmental accommodations seem more prone to be placed in a restrictive educational environment.

The role of the environmental factors in facilitating the person's functioning is emphasized by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2001). The WHO claims that an accessible human and physical environment is necessary for furnishing equal opportunities for the participation of people with disabilities. According to this approach, in order to facilitate students’ participation, rather than just having them in their classes, teachers are obliged to create a suitable physical environment (e.g., less, more, or different stimuli), suitable didactic strategies (e.g., consistency, routines, repetitions), and accommodations of assessments and tasks (combinations of visual and auditory information, breaking-down tasks) (Dumas, Bedell, & Hamill, 2003). Young teachers in typical education report that they are not trained for these challenges (Jennings, 2007). To rectify this, they need to have training and basic support, such as reasonable workload and working hours, a proper budget, and assistance, as reflected in their concerns expressed in the current study. It is therefore recommended that various

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environmental accommodations be used to create a least restrictive environment (LRE), which facilitates the interactions between the child and his/her environment.

Conclusion, limitations and recommendationsThe study addressed: (1) the importance of preschool teachers' attitudes as the human environment factor that may facilitate inclusion of children with disability; and (2) teachers' major concerns about environmental accommodations that inclusion implies.Our results showed a correlation between teachers’ requirements and various teachers’ characteristics such as age, experience, education and personal contact with disability. Teachers’ requirements for accommodations also highly correlated with environmental work conditions. They were most concerned about accommodations for children with potential behavior problems.

The results may suggest that while inaccessible environments might limit children's participation, potential solutions are not always implemented due to negative attitudes and environmental factors. These, which may erect specific barriers to inclusion, include lack of direct support for the student and lack of indirect support for the teacher by the school and the general education system. The required supports include professional training, reduction of workload, assistance, and ratio of adults per children in the classroom.

Creative solutions require not only believing in and educating towards inclusion, but also identifying the environmental barriers to successful inclusion. The current study aimed at raising awareness, and identifying some barriers to inclusion as well as optional and available solutions. It is recommended that further studies address a wider range of disabilities such as intellectual handicaps and pervasive developmental disorders (PDD). We also recommend differentiating sensory from motor disabilities; this dual category differed from others in terms of barriers and accommodations, but different barriers may apply to each population within it. Likewise, it would be well to expand the EAS to include three additional categories of accommodations: assistive technology distinct from physical environment; staff education and training; and other options (Appendix 1, in grey).

The discrepancy between the results of the attitudes questionnaire and of the accommodations questionnaire may suggest that teachers do have positive attitudes, although they have diverse requirements. It may alternatively suggest that the current attitudes questionnaire is not sensitive or reliable enough to identify negative attitudes due to the way some questions are stated, cueing toward the right response.

It is recommended that environmental factors, which affect teachers’ attitudes as well as the child’s right to LSE, enjoy the benefit of much greater attention in the literature, and in educational settings. Further research may enhance awareness, as well as evidence-based knowledge about accommodations that can facilitate inclusion of children with disabilities in the regular educational system.

ReferencesAPA (American Psychiatric Association) (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.Antonak, R.F., & Livneh, H. (1988). The measurement of attitudes toward people with disabilities: Methods, psychometrics, and scales. Springfield, Ill: C.C. Thomas.Avramidis, E., Bayliss, P., & Burden, R. (2000). Student teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special educational needs in the ordinary school. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 277–293.Beh-Pajooh, A. (1991). The effect of social contact on college students’ attitudes toward severely handicapped students and their educational integration. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 35, 339–352.Campbell, P.H. (1989). Students with physical disabilities. In R. Gaylord-Ross (Ed.), Integration strategies for students with handicaps (pp. 53-76). Baltimore, MD: Brooks. Casey-Black, J., & Knoblock, P. (1989). Integrating students with challenging behaviors. In R. Gaylord-Ross (Ed.), Integration strategies for students with handicaps (pp. 129-148). Baltimore, MD: Brooks. Center, Y., & Ward, J. (1987). Teachers’ attitudes towards the integration of disabled children into regular schools. The Exceptional Child, 34, 41–52.Chow, P., & Winzer, M.M. (1992). Reliability and validity of a scale measuring attitudes towards mainstreaming. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52, 223–227.Christiansen, C. (2005). Time use patterns of occupations. In CH Christiansen, CM Baum, J Bass-Haugen (Eds.) Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-being (3rd edn., pp. 71–91). Thorofare, NJ: Slack.Cross, A.F., Traub, E.K., Hutter-Pishgahi, L., & Shelton, G. (2004). Elements of successful inclusion for children with significant disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education (TECSE), 24(3), 169–183

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Dumas, H.M., Bedell, G.M., & Hamill, M.S. (2003). Strategies to promote activity and participation in children and youths with acquired brain injuries. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 26(4), 303-308.File, N., & Kontos, S. (1992). Indirect service delivery through consultation: Review and implications for early intervention. Journal of Early Intervention, 16(3), 221-233.Hastings, R.P., & Graham, S. (1995). Adolescents’ perceptions of young people with severe learning difficulties: The effects of integration schemes and frequency of contact. Educational Psychology, 15, 149–159.Hastings, R.P., & Oakford, S. (2003). Student teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of children with special needs. Educational Psychology, 23(1), 87-94.Hayes, K., & Gunn, P. (1988). Attitudes of parents and teachers toward mainstreaming. The Exceptional Child, 35, 31–39.Heyne, L.A., (2003). Solving organizational barriers to inclusion using education, creativity, and teamwork. Impact: Feature Issue on Social Inclusion through Recreation for Persons with Disabilities , 16(2) Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration. Retrieved February, 2009 from http://ici.umn.edu/products/impact/162.IDEA (1997). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, Section 612 (5) (b). Retrieved August, 2009 from: http://www.ed.gov/policy/speced/leg/idea/idea.pdf. ICF (2001). International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. World Health Organization, ISBN-13: 9789241545440, 228 pp. Jennings, T., (2007). Addressing diversity in US teacher preparation programs: a survey of elementary and secondary programs’ priorities and challenges from across the United States of America. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 1258–1271.Law, M., Haight, M., Milory, B., Willms, D., Stewart, D., & Rosenbaum, P. (1999). Environmental factors affecting the occupations of children with physical disabilities. Journal of Occupational Science, 6, 102-110.Lyon, G.R., Fletcher, J.M., Shaywitz, S.E., Shaywitz, B.A., Torgesen, J.K., Wood, F. B., Schulte, A., & Olson, R. (2001). Rethinking learning disabilities. In C.E. Finn, Jr., A.J. Rotherham, & C.R. Hokanson, Jr. (Eds.), Rethinking special education for a new century (pp. 259-287). Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation.Moore, C., Gilbreath, D., & Mairuri, F. (1998). Educating students with disabilities in general education classrooms: A summary of the research. Washington, DC:Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 419 329). Retrieved November, 2008 from http://interact.aoregon.edu/wrrc.AkInclusion.html.Odom, S.L. (2000). Preschool inclusion: What we know and where we go from here. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(20), 20-27.Parasuram, K. (2006). Variables that affect teachers' attitudes towards disability and inclusive education in Mumbai, India. Disability & Society, 21(3), 231-242.Pivik, J., McComas, J., & LaFlanne, M. (2002). Barriers and facilitators to inclusive education. Exceptional Children, 61(1), 97-107.Praisner, C.L. (2003). Attitudes of elementary school principals toward the inclusion of students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69(2), 135-146.Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1996). Teacher perceptions of instreaming/inclusion, 1958–1995: A research synthesis. Exceptional Children, 63, 59–74.Semrud-Clikeman, M., Biederman, J., Sprich-Buckminster, S., Lehman, B.K., Faraone, S.V., & Norman, D. (1992). Comorbidity between ADHD and learning disability: A review and report in a clinically referred sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(3), 439-448. Simeonsson, R.J., Leonard, M., Dollar, D., Bjorck-Akessoon, E., Hollenweger, J., & Martinuzzi, A. (2003). Applying the international classification of functioning, disability and health (ICF) to measure childhood disability. Disability and Rehabilitation, 25(11-12), 11-17.Smith, R.W., Austin, D.R., Kennedy, D.W., Lee, Y., & Hutchinson, P. (2005) Inclusive and special recreation: Opportunities for persons with disabilities (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.Soodak, L.C., Podell, D.M., & Lehman, L.R. (1998). Teacher, student, and school attributes as predictors of teachers’ responses to inclusion. Journal of Special Education, 31, 480–497.Stoiber, K.C., Gettinger, M., & Goetz, D. (1998). Exploring factors influencing parents’ and early childhood practitioners’ beliefs about inclusion. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 107–124.Voorman, J.M., Dallmeijer, A.J., Schuengel, C., Knol, D.L., Lankhorst, G.J., & Becher, J.G. (2006). Activities and participation of 9- to 13-year-old children with cerebral palsy. Clinical Rehabilitation, 20(11), 937-948.Williams, R.J., & Algozine, B.C. (1977). Differential attitudes toward mainstreaming: An investigation. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 23, 207–212.Wolery, M. (2000). Recommended practices in child-focused interventions. In S. Sandall, M. E. McLean, & B. J. Smith (Eds.), DEC recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education (pp. 29–33). Longmont: Sopris West.Yuker, H.E., Block, J.R., & Young, J.H. (1970). The measurement of attitudes toward disabled persons. New York: INA Mend Institute at Human Resources Center.

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APPENDIX IThe Environmental Accommodations of School (EAS)

Below are nine identified statements regarding optional accommodations for facilitating the participation of children with diverse disabilities in your kindergarten. Please mark your personal opinion about the necessity of each one of them, scoring:

0 = not needed; 1 = a little; 2 = pretty much; 3= very much Environmental accommodations

Disability characteristics

Sensory/motordisability

Attention DeficitDisorder (ADHD)

Learningdisability

Emotionalregulation disability

1 Increasing the budget

2 Decreasing number of children

3 Need for skilled assistants

4 Need for unskilled assistants

5 Adaptation of activities

6 Intensive contact with external medical and educational professionals

7 Consultation and support from experts

8 Intensive contact with parents

9 Accessibilityof physical environment

10 Assistivetechnology

11 Staff education and training

12 Other

* Items in gray were added following the pilot study's conclusions

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THE COMPARATIVE EFFECT OF FLUENCY INSTRUCTION WITH AND WITHOUT A COMPREHENSION STRATEGY FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

Beverly PattonShane Crosby

David HouchinsKristine Jolivette

Georgia State University

The purpose of this study was to extend the Great Leaps Reading Program (GLR) knowledge base by combining the fluency intervention of the GLR Program with a comprehension strategy. The participants were 59 first, second, and third grade students who were randomly assigned to one of two treatments. The Treatment group one received the GLR Program as it was designed. The Treatment group two received the GLR Program and a strategy for answering three comprehension questions. Over 15 weeks, students were provided with approximately 10 minutes of instruction twice a week. Pre- and post-test measures included the Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement III and the Test of Word Reading Efficiency. Analyses of variance indicated that Treatment one performed statistically better in the area of Broad Reading as compared to Treatment two. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of reading fluency and reading comprehension and whether the addition of a comprehension strategy is an efficient way of increasing student’s reading fluency while also increasing reading comprehension skills.

Although decades of educational research document the importance of reading to the individual and society as a whole (Prior, Sanson, & Smart, 1995), reading proficiency continues to elude a significant number of elementary children. According to a national report on reading (NAEP; National Assessment of Educational Progress, 2005), approximately 37% of fourth grade students failed to achieve at the most basic reading level. While reading scores for the highest performing students have improved over time, the scores of the lowest performing students have been relatively constant with minimal gains (NAEP). These findings are consistent with previous findings that poor readers continue to experience reading difficulties (Juel, 1988; Speece & Ritchey, 2005) and that there is a clear and critical need for effective early reading interventions (Good, Simmons, & Smith, 1998).

In light of this critical need, the purpose of this study was to investigate the comparative impact of a fluency-based supplemental reading program, the Great Leaps Reading Program (GLR; Campbell, 1995) with and without a comprehension strategy, on the oral reading fluency and comprehension skills of elementary school-aged children. The study replicates and extends prior research on the GLR Program with the inclusion of a comprehension strategy instructional component. This article begins with a discussion of the literature on reading fluency, reading comprehension, and fluency and comprehension combined studies focusing on elementary school-aged students. In addition, research on the three components of the GLR Program (phonics, high frequency words, and repeated reading of text/stories) is provided.

FluencySince the late 19th century (Cattell, 1886), researchers have investigated the difficulties associated with reading from an oral reading fluency perspective. Though a consensus on a definition of fluency is lacking (Schwanenflugel, Meisinger, Wisenbaker, Kuhn, Strauss, & Morris, 2006; Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001) researchers seemingly agree that oral reading fluency is the quick and accurate reading of text with expression (Kuhn, Schwanenflugel, Morris, Morrow, Woo, Meisinger et al., 2006). Students who lack proficiency in reading fluency display deficiencies in automatically decoding text (LaBerge & Samuels, 1974). Therrien (2004) describes the process of inadequate reading fluency as a bottleneck which impedes the flow of cognitive resources because the readers’ primary focus is on decoding text.

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Oral reading fluency is considered an important element of the reading process (NRP; National Reading Panel, 2000) because it enables readers to see words and phrases as chunks of text and serves as a bridge to effective literacy development (Donahue, Voelkl, Campbell, & Mazzeo, 1999). The importance of oral reading fluency has been documented (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001). Fuchs et al. describe a trajectory of oral reading fluency, which suggests that fluency involves the greatest amount of growth in the early elementary years, with a negatively accelerating curve through the middle and high school years. Consequently, as children move through school, the nature of reading development may change to reflect analysis of expository text.

For example, Kourea, Cartledge, and Musti-Rao (2007) conducted a twenty week study on six students to determine if a total class peer tutoring intervention increased students’ reading fluency as a generalization measure of sight-word recognition in untaught passages. Students in an inclusive second/third grade classroom participated in peer tutoring for thirty-minute sessions, three times per week. A multiple-baseline across-subjects design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Although data were only taken on six students, the entire class participated in the peer tutoring. Results indicate that all six students increased their reading fluency over classroom instruction levels on the reading passages. Fluency increases showed a group mean difference of 13.7 words per minute over baseline. However, because reading fluency and comprehension measures were not taken on reading passages during baseline, no functional relationship could be determined between peer tutoring and students' fluency on the oral reading passages.

In another study, Martens, Eckert, Begeny, Lewandowski, DiGennaro, Montarello, et al. (2007) used a matched-pairs group-comparison design to examine the effects of an after-school fluency-based reading program with 30 second and third grade students. The independent variable was inclusive of a listening passage preview, a repeated reading, or a phrase drill error correction. The fifteen students in the treatment group were exposed to the fluency-based intervention three times per week for five weeks. The15 students in the comparison group received the naturally occurring after school program curriculum. During each intervention session, students were asked to read a pre-determined grade-level passage. If the student did not meet the criteria of 100 WPM, one of the three fluency-based intervention methods was implemented. Results indicated that both second and third grade students in the intervention group made significant correct word per minute gains (WPM) on the timed reading passages. Second grade participants showed mean fluency gains of 22.76 correct WPM after training. Third grade participants in the intervention group displayed mean fluency gains of 24.52 correct WPM after training. Although fluency gains were found, it is unclear which of the three interventions produced their results.

Taken together, current literature continues to support the efficacy of fluency-based interventions to improve the overall reading ability of students exhibiting reading deficits. Less is known, however, about the association between increased reading fluency and reading comprehension for first grade students at-risk for reading disabilities (Chard, Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Speece & Ritchey, 2005).

ComprehensionGiven the widely accepted notion that the ultimate goal of reading is the construction of meaning (Fuchs et al., 2001), any examination of oral reading fluency is invariably associated with reading comprehension. This is due in part to the widely cited theory of automaticity (LaBerge & Samuels, 1974). The theory of automaticity suggests that with increased speed and accuracy of reading subskills (e.g., letter identification, decoding) cognitive resources become available for reading comprehension of connected text. Conversely, attention focused on reading subskills results in less cognitive resources for comprehension.

Reading comprehension is a process consisting of the simultaneous extraction and construction of meaning through interaction and involvement with written language and consists of three essential elements: a) the text; b) the function of the text, and c) the reader’s capacities, abilities, knowledge, and experience with the act of reading (Snow, 2002). Unfortunately, many students require instruction on additional reading skills necessary to enhance their ability to comprehend text (Vaughn, Chard, Bryant, Coleman, Tyler, Linan-Thompson et al., 2000). Researchers suggest that systematic instruction on the use of comprehension strategies may address the reading difficulties experienced by these students (National Reading Panel, 2000).

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Comprehension strategy instruction provides a framework by which students become aware of how effective they comprehend text and over time, enable the student experiencing reading difficulties to be an independent reader (National Reading Panel, 2000). Studies indicate that the use of comprehension strategies by elementary school-aged children improves their ability to comprehend text (Eilers & Pinkley, 2006; Garner & Buchna, 2004). Eilers and Pinkley employed metacognitive strategies to improve the reading comprehension of twenty-four first grade students without disabilities. Instruction was provided in small and large group settings and consisted of: a) using prior knowledge to make text connections, b) using of context clues to make predictions, and c) sequencing of story events. Based on Reading Awareness results (Jacobs & Paris, 1987) the researches found a significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores following intervention. Results suggested that explicit instruction of metacognitive comprehension strategies significantly improved the comprehension skills of first grade students and that metacognitive instruction should begin early in students reading development.

In another study, Garner and Buchna (2004) focused on comprehension strategy instruction with 37 first grade students who were taught how to recognize specific story structure concepts while reading a narrative story. A two (intervention/comparison) x two (silent versus oral reading) x two (pre-reading questions versus no questions) design was used over a 16 week period. Recognition of story structure was hypothesized to transfer to the recognition of story structure within written text and subsequently, comprehension of text read. Students were asked to read a 410-word story and to remember as much as they could about what they read. Half of the students read stories orally while half read them silently. Half of the students were provided prompts at the beginning of the reading to remind them what to look for as they read while the others were required to give a free retell of the main character, setting elements, story problem, and story solution. Results indicated significant differences in the richness of description of story problem measures in favor of students who were exposed to the comprehension strategy instruction. The intervention group outperformed the comparison group in answering comprehension questions relating to character, setting, story problem, and solution. In addition, students in the intervention group exposed to the comprehension strategies were able to generalize the strategy to novel and more difficult reading passages.

Williams, Nubla-Kung, Pollini, Stafford, Garcia, and Snyder (2007) conducted research using a pre-, post-test design with 179 at-risk second graders, 15 of whom had identified disabilities, to evaluate the effectiveness of a reading comprehension program. Half of the participants participated in the intervention, while the other half was involved in a no-instruction control. The program included instruction in identifying the cause and effect in text, emphasizing key words, and using graphic organizers. During each of the 22 lessons, students created graphic organizers, discussed the concept of cause and effect, were introduced to four cause-effect clue words (i.e., since, therefore, thus, and because), used KWL (what I Know, what I Want to know, what I Learned) charts, were introduced to key vocabulary words used in the text, read the paragraph, and analyzed the cause-effect structure by circling the clue words within the text. Results from passage comprehension subtest of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test indicate that no significant differences were found between the treatment and control groups. These studies highlight the mixed results of comprehension interventions to improve the reading comprehension of students in the primary grades. Furthermore, they demonstrate the efficacy of interventions that teach a comprehension strategy which can be generalized to novel texts.

Fluency and ComprehensionThe association between fluency and comprehension has largely been examined theoretically and correlationally (Chard, et al., 2002; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003). Two reviews of the literature on oral reading fluency reveal that the majority of the research has focused on fluency intervention and assessed intervention effects on comprehension rather than providing fluency instruction in conjunction with explicit comprehension instruction. For example, in a synthesis of fluency intervention studies spanning 25 years, Chard, et al. (2002) evaluated the effects of fluency interventions on the reading achievement of students with learning disabilities. Their evaluation of 24 studies found that oral reading fluency growth was correlated with growth in reading comprehension. Seven of the studies reviewed included reading comprehension as a dependent variable. None of the studies included comprehension instruction as an independent variable. Five studies, however, did include comprehension activities (e.g., answering questions) as an element within the intervention procedures. Only one study was found that focused on a combination of fluency and comprehension instruction (Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, & Simmons, 1997). Within this study, Fuchs et al. examined the effects of a class wide peer tutoring program and repeated reading procedures on the reading achievement of 120 second through sixth grade students (low achievers with and without disabilities and average readers)

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from 40 classrooms in 12 school districts. Comprehension instruction included paragraph summarization activities embedded within peer assisted learning activities to enhance comprehension of text. Paragraph summarization activities included responding to questions and directives such as Who or what was the paragraph mainly about? and Tell the most important thing learned from this paragraph. Results indicated that effect sizes for growth in comprehension were moderate (ES =.63) and exceeded the effect sizes for fluency (ES =.20).

In another review, Kuhn and Stahl (2003) examined 71 fluency intervention studies published between 1969 and 1996. The studies primarily focused on assisted-reading and unassisted repeated reading strategies to improve the oral reading fluency of students ranging from first through tenth grade. Of the 71 studies, 26 measured intervention effects on comprehension with positive results suggesting that fluency gains were associated with gains in comprehension. Only one study from the pool of studies included first grade students as participants (Turpie & Pastore, 1995).

While there is evidence to support an association between oral reading fluency and comprehension (Fuchs et al., 2001; Kuhn, 2005, Schwanenflugel et al., 2006), the majority of fluency research has been conducted with older elementary school aged students with only a few studies focusing on first graders (Chard et al., 2002; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003). Furthermore, only one study has used fluency instruction in conjunction with comprehension instruction to improve the overall comprehension ability of first grade students (Fuchs et al., 1997).

Great Leaps Reading ProgramThe Great Leaps Reading Program (GLR) is a supplemental reading program designed to improve reading fluency that incorporates repeated exposure to oral reading activities. Students are required to complete one-minute timed reading activities in the areas of phonics, high frequency words, and stories. It is inclusive of empirically supported instructional practices suggested to be essential to fluency and reading comprehension development such as providing corrective feedback from an adult, reading until a criterion is reached (Therrien, 2004), and modeling of appropriate reading behavior (Kuhn et al., 2006). Several studies have found the GLR Program to be effective in increasing the oral reading fluency of both elementary and middle school students with and at risk for reading disabilities. For example, Crosby, Jolivette, Fredrick, Alberto, and Cihak (in review) and Walker, Jolivette, and Lingo (2005) used single subject designs to investigate the efficacy of the GLR Program to increase the oral reading fluency of elementary school students exhibiting behavioral reading deficits while Mercer, Campbell, Miller, Mercer, and Lane (2000) used an experimental pre- and post-test three-group design to investigate the efficacy of the GLR Program to improve the fluency rates of 49 middle school students with learning disabilities whose average grade level reading equivalent was between first and second grade. The GLR Program also has demonstrated effectiveness with students with reading deficits in alternative settings. For example, Houchins, Gammel, and Shippen (2004) evaluated the effects of the GLR Program on the reading achievement of an incarcerated sixteen-year-old student with mild mental retardation who was reading on a first grade level. The results indicated that their teacher within an alternative setting could implement the GLR Program and that academic gains could be made in a short period of time.

Collectively, this brief body of research suggests that exposure to the GLR Program leads to positive fluency gains for students exhibiting reading deficits, yet the question of whether or not these fluency gains result in comprehension of text read fluently remains to be answered. To date, no research has examined the impact of the GLR Program to improve both oral reading fluency and reading comprehension.

Empirical Support for Great Leaps Reading ComponentsPhonics Students experiencing reading difficulties typically have problems decoding words. Phonics instruction may remediate such deficits (Rack, Snowling, & Olson, 1992). The NRP (2000) found that systematic phonics instruction resulted in significant improvement in reading growth of kindergarteners when implemented early (i=.55) and that systematic phonics instruction had a positive influence on decoding, word reading, and reading comprehension skills (Ehri, Nunes, Stahl, & Willows, 2001; NRP).

Speece, Mills, Ritchey, and Hillman (2003) used correlation and regression models to evaluate letter-sound fluency as a valid indicator of future reading competence. Thirty-nine academically diverse

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kindergarteners were individually administered a battery of language and reading measures during the spring of their kindergarten year and in the spring of their first grade year. Examples of these measures included receptive vocabulary, phonological awareness, letter-names and sounds, letter word identification, word attack, and oral reading fluency. Data were analyzed using a blockwise forward entry procedure of regression. The following predictors were entered simultaneously in a single block: age, primary language, receptive vocabulary, phonological awareness, and letter-names and sounds. The results of this longitudinal study suggest that phonological awareness was a moderate predictor of letter word identification (R2 = .529), a high predictor of word attack (R2 = .751), and a moderate predictor of oral reading fluency (R2 = .442).

Stage, Sheppard, Davidson, and Browning (2001) used a hierarchical multiple regression model to investigate the utility of letter-naming and letter-sound fluency measures to predict first grade reading fluency growth of 59 kindergarteners. Three individually administered 1-minute timed letter naming and three letter-sound fluency probes were conducted at the end of the students’ kindergarten year. Letter-sound and letter-name probe materials consisted of 100 randomly distributed lowercase and uppercase letters. Growth curve analyses of student fluency growth over an academic school year suggested that letter-sound and letter-name fluency: a) separately contribute to the prediction of oral reading fluency growth, and b) simultaneously contribute to the prediction of fluency growth at the end of first grade.

Muter, Hulme, Snowling, and Stevenson (2004) used descriptive and path analysis statistical procedures to determine the predictive validity of letter knowledge and phoneme sensitivity. Ninety students without disabilities ages four to five years were administered a battery of assessments three times over a span of two years from the Phonological Abilities Test (Muter, Hulme, & Snowling, 1997). Subtests included: rhyme detection, rhyme production, phoneme completion, phoneme deletion, rhyme oddity, and letter knowledge. The results indicated that letter knowledge and phoneme sensitivity are predictors of word recognition skills, although rhyme skills, vocabulary knowledge, and grammatical skills appear relatively unimportant. On other hand, regarding reading comprehension, higher-level language skills as opposed to phonological skills appeared to be of relative importance. This study confirms conclusions of previous studies demonstrating the importance early phonemic awareness as a predictor of word recognition skills (Castles & Coltheart, 2004; Hulme, Hatcher, Nation, Brown, Adams, & Stuart, 2002).

High Frequency Words Ehri (2005) described sight word learning as a phonemic awareness and letter knowledge influenced process that requires the simultaneous mapping of graphemes to morphemes and spelling patterns of words to the appropriate pronunciation and meaning of the word. Speece and Ritchey (2005) suggest that sight word fluency may be a valid predictor of connected text reading fluency. They used growth curve analysis procedures to examine the oral reading fluency development of 276 first grade students identified as at-risk and not at-risk for reading difficulties. Students were assessed with a battery of reading fluency tests, one of which was the Word Reading Efficiency subtest of the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1999). Fluency measure probes were administered weekly for five months of the students’ first grade year and in the seven month of their second grade year. Growth curve analyses suggested that when children begin reading words with some competency, word-level skills becomes the best predictors of fluency.

In addition, Eldredge (2005) used cross-lagged panel analyses to determine correlational and causal relationships between phonics knowledge, word-recognition, and fluent oral reading growth of 111 first, 117 second, and 76 third-grade students. Students were assessed on these variables with four word-recognition tests. Results of the analyses suggested that there a large correlation exists between word recognition and fluency.

Repeated Reading of TextOne often used method of increasing student fluency skills has been through repeated readings. Repeated reading emphasizes practice and repetition of reading (Samuels, 1979) and is noted to improve the reading achievement of students with reading disabilities (Mercer et al., 2000; Meyer & Felton 1999; National Reading Panel, 2000; Therrien, 2004). Repeated reading has been linked to positive outcomes for young readers as well as for college students (Chard et al., 2002). A meta-analysis of 12 repeated reading studies with students with learning disabilities ages 5-18 suggests that

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repeated reading improves the reading fluency of students with and without learning disabilities and may improve the oral reading fluency of novel text (Therrien). Chafouleas, Martens, Dobson, Weinstein, and Gardner (2004) conducted an alternating treatment single subject design with three elementary students identified as having difficulties in reading. Repeated reading was combined with contingent reinforcement and performance feedback to determine which combination (repeated reading, repeated reading with performance feedback, or repeated reading with performance feedback and contingent reward) provided the greatest increase in oral reading fluency. Results indicated that all students increased their oral reading fluency over baseline in all three intervention conditions. The highest performing students at baseline benefitted most from the repeated reading intervention, while the student who demonstrated the lowest reading ability at baseline benefitted the most from repeated reading paired with performance feedback or performance feedback and contingent reinforcement. Results of this study indicate that repeated reading with performance feedback may be the most beneficial for students with low initial rates of reading fluency (Chafouleas et al., 2004). The purpose of this study was to extend the GLR Program knowledge base by combining the fluency intervention of the GLR Program with a comprehension strategy. The research questions were:1. What are the comparative effects of fluency based intervention with and without comprehension strategy instruction?2. What are the social validity outcomes among students and teachers regarding the GLR Program plus comprehension strategy instruction?

MethodParticipantsParaprofessionals. Four paraprofessionals from the elementary school participated in the study. They worked the majority of their day assisting four kindergarten classrooms. They participated in the implementation of the intervention for an hour and a half per day during the intervention period. While participating in the study, they were required by the school administrator to leave their kindergarten classrooms for this period of time daily to work with the first, second, and third graders who participated in the study. Three paraprofessionals were female and one was a male. All four were African American. The average age at the time of the study was 43.75 years, with a range of 28 years to 55 years of age.

Students. (see Table 1 for participant information)All students in the four first grade classes, three second grade classes, and four third grade classes at the elementary school were given consent forms by their teachers explaining the intervention to be signed by their parent or guardian. Eighty-six of 167 students returned the consent forms and were pre-tested. Pre-test scores of these 86 students were analyzed and a selection criterion for this study was determined. If students scored below kindergarten grade level or above third grade level on the Passage Comprehension subtest of the Woodcock Johnson-Revised III (WJ-R III; Schrank,

Table 1Participant Demographics by Group

Treatment 1 Treatment 2Characteristic n=33 n=26________________________________________________________________________Gender Male 14 14 1st grade 9 8 2nd grade 3 4 3rd grade 2 2

Female 19 12 1st grade 12 8 2nd grade 5 2 3rd grade 2 2

Exceptionality Speech/Language 1 0 Other Health Impairments 0 1 Specific Learning Disabilities 1 0

________________________________________________________________________McGrew, & Woodcock, 2001), they were not included in this study but were provided with instruction

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more appropriate to their reading needs. A total of six students scored below the kindergarten level and 12 scored above the third grade level. The 68 remaining participant of the study included 40 first graders, 17 second graders, and 11 third graders (n = 68). At the end of the intervention period, 59 students were still enrolled at the elementary school and were included in the data analysis. Participant gender was 47% male and 53% female. Three students received services from the special education department in the categories of speech/language impairment, specific learning disability, and other health impairments. The mean age at the beginning of the intervention for the Treatment group one was 7.1 years and 7.3 for the Treatment group two. SettingThis study was conducted in an elementary school located in a large southeastern inner-city school district. During the study, the school had an enrollment of 532, which consisted of 99% African American and less than one percent of any other racial group. The gender of the population consisted of 49% male and 51% female. Six percent of the student population had identified disabilities, 77% of the school population received free or reduced lunch. According to the results of a 2007 statewide criterion referenced assessment of first, second, and third grade students at the elementary school were performing commensurate with or above the state average for first and second graders. State averages were 90%, 91%, and 85% for first, second, and third grade respectively, as compared to school averages of 92%, 94%, and 67% for first, second, and third graders.

MeasuresReading Fluency To obtain an estimate of the students’ word reading speed, the Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) Sight Word Efficiency and Phonemic Decoding Efficiency subtests (Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1999) were administered. The Sight Word Efficiency subtest asks students to name all of the words that they can from a list of words in 45 seconds. The Phonemic Decoding Efficiency subtest requires students to pronounce all of the phonetically regular nonwords in a list in 45 seconds. Concurrent validity estimates are reported as having a median of .91 in grades first through third. Alternate form reliabilities have a median coefficient score of .97 in grades first through third. The number of words and non-words read correctly were summed, and this figure was used to compute standard scores.

Reading AchievementThe WJ-R III (Schrank et al., 2001), a widely used, individually administered achievement test with good evidence for internal consistency (r exceeds .80 for all subtests) was used to assess reading achievement. A pre- and post-test, consisting of four reading subtests in the WJ-R III was administered two weeks before and the week following the implementation of the intervention. The subtests administered were: (a) letter-word identification, (b) word attack, (c) reading fluency, and (d) passage comprehension. Assessments were counterbalanced across students and administered in a randomized order for both the pre- and post-tests.

ProcedureTraining Paraprofessionals were trained during two four-hour training sessions in the elementary school media center by the first and second authors Training included the GLR Program procedures in phonics, sight word/sight phrase, reading stories, and comprehension question procedures. Sessions were conducted in both lecture and role-play format. Training included an overview of the GLR Program procedures and a hands-on tutorial of how to provide the GLR Program instruction with and without comprehension questions. Role-play scenarios included how to correct errors, positively provide feedback, provide praise, record data, and graph data. Paraprofessionals were observed administering sections of the GLR Program to each other and practiced all aspects of administration.

InterventionStudents were randomly assigned to either Treatment one or Treatment two. The four paraprofessionals were randomly assigned to one of the two treatments, thus two paraprofessionals were assigned to each treatment. Once the students were assigned to a treatment, they were then randomly assigned to one of the two paraprofessionals assigned to that treatment. Students in both the Treatment group one and the Treatment group two received intervention twice a week for 10-15 minutes for 15 weeks.

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Treatment one. The GLR Program is a repeated reading method used to increase reading fluency. The GLR Program consists of brief instructional activities in phonics, high frequency words, and stories. The phonics section is composed of 16 activities, the high frequency words section is composed of 31 activities, and the stories section is composed of 47 stories. Instruction involved one-on-one instruction between a paraprofessional and each student. Each instructional session lasted approximately ten minutes in length. During the first phase of the intervention, the student completed one phonics activity and one high frequency words activity during each instructional session. During the second phase of the intervention, the student completed one high frequency words activity and one story activity from the stories section. When the student reached phonics activity 16, the phonics sections was phased out and the stories section was introduced as per the program.

Phonics. For the phonics section, each student was given one minute to complete the activity with two or fewer errors. Phonics activities included verbally identifying the sound that the grapheme makes. Students were presented with short and long vowels, both upper- and lower-case, as well as consonant sounds to identify. Short words such as hot, van, cut, yes, fox, and jet also were presented to the student. Each of the 16 phonics activities consisted of between 44 and 48 letters or short words. If the student completed the activity within one minute and made two or fewer errors, a great leap was made. A great leap signified that the student had mastered the activity and was ready to move on to a progressively more difficult activity. Once a great leap was made, the student and paraprofessional graphed the progress, and proceeded to the next activity during the next intervention session. If the student did not complete the activity within 1 minute, or made more than two errors, errors were reviewed, corrective feedback was given, and the activity was repeated during the next intervention session.

High Frequency Words. High frequency word activities included pages of decodable words such as in, is, and, and it; decodable combinations such as and, for, at, and had; sight words such as the, of, was, and you; and high frequency phrases such as in his way, but they said, if we work, and she has been. Each of the 31 high frequency word activities consisted of between 48 and 60 words. To make a great leap on a high frequency word activity, each student had to complete the activity within one minute with two or fewer errors. If the student did not complete the activity within the desired criteria, errors were reviewed, corrective feedback was provided, and the same activity was repeated during the next instructional session.

Stories. The stories began with 35 words to be read in one minute and progressed to 169 words to be read in one minute. To make a great leap on a story, each student was required to read the story in one minute or less and make two or fewer errors. If the student did not meet the criteria, a great leap was not made, errors were reviewed, corrective feedback was given, and the same story was repeated during the next instructional session.

Treatment Two. Treatment two was identical to Treatment one with the exception of brief comprehension instruction. Comprehension instruction occurred after a student made a great leap on a story. Each student was provided with three oral questions based on the story just read with three possible multiple-choice answers. A graduate research assistant (GRA), who was an elementary teacher with a master’s degree in special education, developed the questions. Questions were analyzed by the first three authors for validity. If there was disagreement in the appropriateness of the question or the answer choices, the question was re-worded or the answer choices edited. Each story included two questions related to literal comprehension and one question related to the main idea of the passage.

The comprehension strategy used was a modified version of the Reread-Adapt, and Answer Comprehend strategy (RAAC) by Therrien, Gormley, and Kubina (2006) involving the following steps: 1. The paraprofessional orally read the question and the answer choices2. The student was allowed 30 seconds to orally select the correct answer 3. If the student did not answer, or did not answer correctly, the paraprofessional would then say, try again, and look in this line for the answer, while pointing to where the answer could be found4. The paraprofessional then orally re-read the question and answer choices5. If the student still did not answer correctly, or failed to answer, the student was told the correct answer and was asked the next question The above five steps were written on a prompt sheet for the paraprofessionals. After the student made a great leap on a story, the student was asked the first comprehension question. If the student answered

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the question correctly, the correct answer was recorded and the student was then asked the next question. However, if the student incorrectly answered the first question, the student was given the prompt to look in a particular line of the story for the answer (see number three above). If the student answered the question correctly, the data were recorded, and the student was asked the next question. If the student missed the question with teacher assistance, those data were recorded, and the student was then given the correct answer and shown exactly where the answer was in the story. Once all the questions were asked, a new story was introduced during the next instructional session.

Social ValidityParaprofessionals were asked three questions at the completion of the study: 1) Are the goals of the GLR Program important for beginning readers? 2) Can first, second, and third graders benefit from one-on-one reading fluency and comprehension instruction? 3) Should the GLR Program be implemented on a daily basis?

The first and second author asked students three questions at the completion of the study and recorded their responses: 1) Did the reading program help you read better? 2) Were the reading activities easy or hard? 3) Would you like to keep reading with this program?

Interobserver Reliability and Procedural FidelityProcedural fidelity was conducted on each paraprofessional for 20% of the intervention sessions (Kennedy, 2004). The first author observed the paraprofessional using a fidelity instrument comprised of eight yes/no questions related to each step of the GLR Program. Procedural fidelity for the two paraprofessionals in the Treatment group one was 86.9% (range, 83% - 100%). Procedural fidelity for the two paraprofessionals in the Treatment group two was 96.7% (range, 91% - 100%). Overall procedural fidelity was 93.18% (range, 83% - 100%).

Interobserver reliability used the same data collection sheet as the procedural fidelity. The first and second authors each observed the GLR Program sessions and recorded their findings. Interobserver reliability of procedural fidelity was conducted on 20% of the above observations. Percentage of agreement ranged from 92.25% to 100% for each session observed. Pre- and post-test data were entered into SPSS by the first author. The second author randomly checked 20% of the data entry for accuracy. Accuracy was found to be at 100%.

ResultsStatistical AnalysisThe Treatment group two received an average of 28.7 instructional sessions, while the Treatment group two received an average of 29.1 instructional sessions. The average number of lessons for the phonics section for the Treatment group one was 12.2 (range, 4- 16) and 13.5 (range, 9-16) for the Treatment group two. These numbers do not necessarily reflect an inequality of instructional sessions, but the highest lesson to which the student progressed. For example, if a student did not make a great leap several days in a row, the student would stay on that lesson until a great leap was made. The student may have taken five instructional sessions to make one great leaps. The average number of lessons for the high frequency words section for the Treatment group one was 13.4 (range 0-23) and 15.4 (range 0-25) for the Treatment group two. The average number of lessons for the stories section for the Treatment group one was 7.1 (range 0-12) and 6.4 (range 0-12) for the Treatment group two.

A split-plot ANOVA was conducted to compare pre- to post-test data in the areas of passage comprehension, reading fluency, and broad reading as reported by the Woodcock Johnson-R III. In the area of broad reading, the main effect of treatment was statistically significant, F(1, 57) = 4.237, p < .05. A low effect size (ES) for the treatment main effect of .04 was found. The Treatment group one scored higher on post-test measures than did the group that received Treatment two.

For reading fluency, the main effect of treatment was not statistically significant, F(1, 57) = .566, p > .05. Effect size for the treatment main effect was low at .12. For passage comprehension, the main effect of treatment was not statistically significant, F(1, 57) = 1.141, p > .05. Effect size for the treatment main effect was low at .07.

A split-plot ANOVA also was conducted to compare pre- to post-test data in the areas of site word recognition and phonemic decoding. For site word recognition, the main effect of treatment was not statistically significant, F(1, 57) = .273, p > .05. Effect size for the treatment main effect was low

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at .01. Similarly, for phonemic decoding the main effect of treatment was not statistically significant, F (1, 57) = .298, p > .05. Effect size for the treatment main effect was low at .01 (sees Table 2 for means, standard deviations, and overall subtest gains).

Table 2Means and Standard Deviations on Pre- and Post-test Measures by Group

Pretest PosttestMeasure M (SD) M (SD) Pre- and post-test differenceWJ-R III Reading Fluency Treatment 1 113.03 (9.63) 110.73 (13.01) -2.30 Treatment 2 111.12 (11.72) 111.52 (7.73) 0.40WJ-R III Passage Comprehension Treatment 1 103.42 (15.41) 104.52 (10.00) 1.10 Treatment 2 104.88 (13.35) 102.16 (11.50) -2.75WJ-R III Broad Reading Treatment 1 111.00 (11.63) 111.39 (9.75) 0.39 Treatment 2 113.32 (11.20) 111.48 (11.72) -1.84TOWRE Site words Treatment 1 101.45 (10.85) 107.42 (10.86) 5.97 Treatment 2 101.04 (11.89) 105.46 (14.45) 4.42TOWRE Phonemic Decoding Treatment 1 103.76 (10.29) 104.88 (12.41) 1.12 Treatment 2 103.58 (13.16) 2.00

Note: WJ-R III = Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement, TOWRE = Test of Word Reading Efficiency. Standard Scores. Treatment 1 = Great Leaps Reading; Treatment 2 = Great Leaps Reading plus Comprehension questions

Social ValidityThe results of the three-question social validity survey indicated that all paraprofessionals responded that the goals of the GLR Program were very important for beginning readers. They all indicated that they thought first, second, and third grade students could benefit from one-on-one reading fluency and comprehension instruction. When asked if they thought the GLR Program should be implemented on a daily basis on a school-wide scale, all paraprofessionals expressed it would be difficult for them to continue to implement the program given their other responsibilities in the school.

During the post-testing, 100% of the students completed the three-question student survey. Ninety-one percent indicated that the program helped them read better. When asked if the reading activities were easy or hard, 76% of the students indicated that the activities were easy. Seventy nine percent of the students indicated that they would like to continue practice reading with the GLR Program.

DiscussionIt has been suggested that repeated readings of the same passages can facilitate increased fluency and comprehension. This suggestion is based on the theory of automaticity in reading (LaBerge & Samuels, 1974) that suggests that greater fluency, and therefore automaticity, in reading allows more cognitive resources to be made available to process the meaning of text. It also has been suggested that repeated readings promote the use of various syntactical and morphological cues, and consequently, reading fluency (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997). Prior research has suggested that repeated reading increases reading fluency (Therrien 2004), and an increase in reading fluency leads to an increase in reading comprehension (LaBerge & Samuels). It was to our surprise that the implementation of a comprehension strategy appears to have hindered the reading comprehension of the students in our study. One potential shortcoming of the method of repeated readings is that, although it may provide greater fluency in reading, it does not provide information to students regarding how their cognitive resources should be allocated in comprehending text (Mastropieri & Scruggs). These cognitive resources include the use of various syntactical and morphological cues.

We hypothesize that there may be several reasons for the findings of our study. First, at the earliest stages of reading, almost all words are unknown, and therefore, beginning readers concentrate on decoding words. At this point, the content of the text should be familiar so that once a word is decoded; students know the meaning of the word. Some students reach automaticity with a core group of words by the middle of first grade (Hierbert & Fisher, 2005); however many do not. For students who do not develop this automaticity, their lack of speed and accuracy may have been directly related to their decreased ability to comprehend text. The added comprehension instruction may have interrupted

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101.58 (12.64)


students’ word- and text-reading skills, which may be more critical to these students development than comprehension strategies. Contradictory to the findings in the literature surrounding comprehension instruction for young children, our results support the findings of Fuchs and Fuchs (2005). These authors found that the teaching of higher order reading skills such as comprehension may be counterproductive for this population. It is possible that the activities designed to strengthen reading comprehension actually interrupted reading practice. Young readers may not execute a variety of cognitive processes relevant to the comprehension of text even if they have the cognitive resources available to generate them, such as inferencing, predicting, visualizing, and processing sentence grammar. As suggested by Fuchs and Fuchs, the teaching of higher order reading skills, including those that may appear developmentally appropriate, may be unproductive. Since there were such a high percentage of first grade students in the current study, it is possible that the scores may have been skewed because these young students were not competent in word reading, thus, the addition of the comprehension element inadvertently interrupted reading practice. This suggests that the participants in the current study may not have had the appropriate level of cognitive development needed to successfully comprehend the reading stories (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005).

Limitations and Future DirectionsAlthough one group outperformed the other, data should be interpreted with caution. One limitation of the current study is that we the researchers had three questions for each story and each question only had three answer choices. This may have led to students guessing the right answer without fully understanding the passage. Additionally, the length of the stories may have restricted the amount of text needed to answer comprehension questions. Very short stories may lead to insufficient message processing. Many of the stories were short and attempted to use similar consonant or vowel sounds that lead to limited content. Short passages written on a first grade level focus primarily on sounds, and rarely use descriptives, conjunctions, or clauses (Singer & O’Connell, 2003). Descriptives, conjunctions, and clauses are needed for readers to make sense of the text and for text to be read more fluently. Take into consideration the following sentences: The cat ran after the mouse because the mouse had the cheese in comparison to the two sentences: The cat ran after the mouse. The mouse had the cheese. In the first sentence, the reader is given the literal meaning of the sentence whereas the second example leads the reader to infer why the cat was chasing the mouse. In addition, according to Singer and O’Connell (2003), reading speed and accuracy (and thus fluency) is greatest in the middle of the passage and slowest at the beginning and end of the passage. Because the passages used were of such short length, the students in this study may not have been able to achieve a proper reading speed to glean appropriate information from the text.

Future research should scrutinize the GLR Program passages the students were asked to read as well as the questions and answer choices provided to the students. As stated in the discussion section, the reading passages may have been too short, or not have contained appropriate vocabulary from which to glean meaning. Other reading passages should be created that provide appropriate context for elementary readers.A second limitation was the difference in procedural fidelity between the Treatment one (89.6%) and Treatment two (96.7%) groups. Even though both percentages were both high, it could be hypothesized that the differences could have had an impact on the mean differences in the Treatment one and Treatment group two. Future research should include intermittent procedural review sessions for paraprofessionals.

Last, because of a time limitation, the intervention was only provided over a 15-week period. A longer intervention may have made a significant difference in the outcome of this study (Speece et al., 2003). Future directions should include a longer intervention period to determine if the GLR Program plus comprehension is a viable approach to teaching students strategies to comprehend text. Students may have been more successful if they could have received the supplemental reading instruction more than twice a week. This would have provided more time for students to better develop metacognitive strategies needed for effective reading comprehension (Eilers & Pinkly, 2006). We may have seen better results had the intervention been implemented three, even four, times a week for up to a year. Although the overall results of this study were mixed, it does not negate the notion that there is a need for fluency and comprehension instruction for early elementary age students. These skills are critical in the reading growth of children. Given the importance of students to do well in school, reading fluency and comprehension are skills that are imperative to have as a foundation. Students must be proficient in text and word reading fluency before they can be called upon to use the higher order skills necessary for the complex process of reading comprehension. Future research should continue to investigate the

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link between reading fluency and reading comprehension to ensure that students are gleaning the full meaning of information that is presented to them in written form.

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RAISING CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES IN CHINA: THE NEED FOR EARLY INTERVENTIONS

Linda H. Chiang,Azusa Pacific University

Azar Hadadian,Ball State University

In China, the national strategy for Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) is coherent with the national policy and the needs of children’s families. This policy has raised the public awareness of the value of early childhood education (ECE). However, there is a gap in services for children with disabilities. Based on the available sources, children with disabilities are viewed mostly as a social issue rather than as a medical/ rehabilitative issue. As a result, children with disabilities may have not received the attention or resources, as have children in regular education programs. This paper addresses different issues related to children with disabilities in China. In particular the authors have made the attempt to highlight the importance and fluidity of brain development in early childhood years in the context of identification and intervention. Recommendations are made for national policies related to early identification and intervention for all young children. Such policies are of the utmost importance for China as a country with rapid economical growth as well as having a large number of newborn babies who may be at risk for developmental delays.

IntroductionBased on a report from Stratford and Ng (2000) in China, one child is born with a serious disability every 40 seconds. These researchers further reported that China could face with a monumental task in education and rehabilitation of more than 60 million persons with disabilities. Many of them are either completely illiterate or semi-illiterate.

According to the statistics of special education in China in 2007, 12,569 students with hearing impairment, visual impairment, and mental retardation were served in 13,594 classes in 1,605 schools for special education in 2007 (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2007). At the primary school level, 190,324 students were reported to be included in general education classrooms (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2003, in Ellsworth & Zhang, 2007). According to an UNESCO report, there are approximately 2.46 million children under the age of six who are considered to exhibit some type of disabilities in China (Corter, Janmohammed, Zhang & Bertrand, 2006) However, service for young children with special needs is a relatively recent phenomenon in the People’s Republic of China (PRC). China, like many other countries, is confronted with the task of providing early intervention to this population. Available literatures indicate a number of issues, including: the shortage of appropriately trained professional, lack of sufficient numbers of early childhood special education programs, lack of sufficient funding for early childhood education, and inadequate support services for the parents and policies designating sufficient funds for early childhood services.

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Giving birth to a child with disabilities in China can be overwhelming; raising a child with disabilities would be devastating. The traditional view of giving birth to children with disabilities is perceived as sins against their ancestors or curses from some gods. Many families are too ashamed to expose their child with special needs in public. It is almost like a don’t ask, don’t answer issue which has been in place for centuries. Parents with typically developing children may not realize how difficult it is to cope with the day-to-day challenges of raising children with disabilities. These parents with disabled children constantly are fighting for the rights of their children. At the mean time, they experienced stress and exhaustion due to the lack of social, political, and economical support from the public. Herring (1996) has listed potential emotions that these parents may experience such as grief, guilt, fear, anxiety, resentment, denial and anger. Given the importance of the well being of the family unit, it is critical for the society to provide interventions to support these families during crucial years of child development. In China as well as many other countries disabilities are viewed as a social vs. medical issue (Jenks, 2005). Jenks (2005) further explained the difference between these two, is that the medical model of disability emphasizes changing the person to fit the environment; whereas the social model emphasizes changing the environment to fit the person (Quinn, 1998, in Jenks, 2005). Given this dichotomy, it seems the main difficulty for individuals with disabilities to fully participate in the society is due to the society itself, which has created such barriers.

Parents of children with disabilities in China normally are the only teachers of their children. These families face difficulties mainly due to social and cultural beliefs about disabilities. Researchers (Sloper &Turner, 1992) identified the service needs of parents of children with disabilities as discussing the child’s progress regularly, having information regarding the child’s condition, information on emergency service and classes to learn how to help their children. Hadadian and Merbler’s study (1995) reported similar findings within a sample of American families. They reported families most needed resources such as reference library, parent training, consultation services and information regarding their child’s disabilities.

Historical and Cultural PerspectivesThe origin of special education in China can be traced back for more than two thousand years, while the Chinese noticed the existence of certain abnormalities and obvious disabilities in some individuals. Available ancient texts indicate advocating for treatment of people, including: disabilities with tolerance and provide care for those in need of support. Confucius’ The Book of Rites indicated that people should respect others’ parents, and treat others’ children like their own; all those who are bachelors, widows, orphans, single, handicapped and sick should be tended. (Original sentence translated from the Book of Rites, Li, 2007). Influenced by Confucius’ ideology of treating people with disabilities with love and respect, ancient Chinese were kind to people with disabilities compared to most part of the Western societies. However, people with disabilities occupied the lowest social status. Superstition and fatalism were common among Chinese. Some people believed that people with disabilities had magic powers that could predict the future or drive away evil spirits.

In the absence of systematic social and education programs, people with disabilities remained as a disadvantaged group for more than 2000 years in China until the late 19th century. Initial achievement of special education in China were introduced and funded by the U. S. and European missionaries in the late 19th century (Pang & Richey, 2005). Those missionaries introduced Western concepts of Braille and sign language to China and attracted social attention to the educational needs and humanitarian rights of children with disabilities (Piao, 1996). In early 20 th century, the Chinese people also began to establish special schools for people with disabilities. In 1927, the Chinese government established Nanjiang Municipal School for the Blind and Deaf. By the end of 1948, only 42 special schools served more than 2,000 students who were visually and hearing impaired in China, and most of these schools were run by religious and charitable organizations. Education for individuals with mental retardation or other developmental disabilities were not existed. The development of special education in China can be divided into the following sequence:

Table 1The Development of Special Education in China

Time Period Focus

1874-1948 Influence from the West initiated special education

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1949-1978 Private schools were transformed into state-run schools. Special education development was limited due to the political and economical difficulties.

1979 –the turn of 20 century Special education remains a part of public education and is supported by government.

2001 - Present Higher education institutions began to enroll students with disabilities. All 31 provinces in China had adopted local laws toimplement the 1990, the Protection of Handicapped Person Law.

Disability, Child Development and Parent InvolvementIn China, infancy is regarded as a unique period in development especially the first sixty days. In the infant’s first year the emergence of smiling and walking are milestones in human growth (Trawick-Smith, 2010). Child development research has well documented that the rate of human learning and development is most rapid in the early childhood years, For example in the first year of life children gain control of their body and begin to walk (Berger, 2004). Socially, through interaction with their environment typical children are able to develop a secure bonding during the first year. The quality of this attachment relationship would ultimately provide the children with a social emotional foundation on how to relate to the world (Klaus & Kennel, 1982). The developmental growth happens mostly as a result of brain development. Based on the current research literature in the area of child development, we do know that human development interplay between nature and nurture. At birth, a baby’s brain contains 100 billion neurons. The question that has been asked for decades is which one (gene vs. environment), plays a more critical role and does experience change the actual structure of the brain. Zero to Three a national organization in the USA has attempted to answer many of the questions related to these issues. According to Zero to Three (www.zerotothree.org), genes are responsible for the basic wiring of the brain, while experience is responsible for connecting and fine-tuning all the connection. So the answer to the question, is experience the architecture of the brain, is yes. Brain development is activity dependent. Every experience, whether seeing a rainbow for the first time, excites certain neural circuits. As neuroscientists say, Cells that fire together, wire together, those neurons that would get used will be eliminated through a process referred to as pruning. However in the absence of specific programs for (e.g. parent training for babies brain stimulation) early identification and intervention, brain development either be delayed or would never be reached its full potential.

The lengthy discussion of brain development and its impact on children’s growth is beyond the focus of this paper, however through this brief discussion the authors wish to highlight the importance of the early intervention through brain stimulation for young children with special needs. This message needs to come to the forefront of public policy in China. Public awareness about the role of the parents in brain development in early infancy needs to be viewed as an urgent matter. Early interventions for children with disabilities are considered as an effective tool to support parents to teach and help their children. Stratford and Ng (2000) concluded that parents could be a powerful force for the development of services for their children with disabilities. Parents can actively provide children with the support that will foster children’s ultimate development (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004). Centuries ago John Locke (1964) emphasized the long-term impact of early experiences and the responsibilities parents bear for their children’s character formation. Families are essentially the center for children to get support that they need to tackle life’s many tasks and challenges (Gartbarino & Abramowitz, 1992). These available research findings suggest the family as the stable key factor in a child’s life. Similarly, an organized and supportive family environment will facilitate and nurture children’s growth. Helping parents to create environments that are developmentally appropriate for children, so each child’s abilities and interests will be supported is critical (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997).

Intervention programs that involve parents have been found to increase parents’ sense of competence and confidence about their child’s learning and development (Dunst, Hamby, Trivette, Raab, & Bruder, 2000) as well as providing support for reducing some of the stressors associated with having a child with disabilities. Parental involvement helps parents to transfer skills from school, home and community settings. All of this has been achieved due to parents’ and advocacy groups’ hard work. Lessons learned from different countries, including the United States, show that parental involvement through advocacy groups is the key to later child development and achievement. However without the

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government intervention very little can or will be done. Early identification and intervention through clear public policies may be the key to better services for children with disabilities and their families.

Early Childhood Special Education in China China’s early childhood education has been influenced by the educational philosophy imported from other countries including the early influences of the reform movement of 1898 and the missionary activities of foreign nations. Between 1874 and 1948, Christian missionaries funded schools in China, some of which taught religion and basic survival skills to students with hearing and visual impairments. Other charitable organizations also established schools for children with disabilities (Yang & Wang, 1994). Western early intervention research, experience, and successful programs such as Head Start in the U. S. have impacted the development of early intervention programs in China.The Cultural Revolution in the 1960s caused schools to close their doors for nine years and early childhood education was also under serious attack. Until 1989, the Regulations for Kindergartens laid down that focused on child development, active learning and attention to individual differences. In addition, western missionaries created more opportunities for teacher training in the area of early childhood education.

The first regulations regarding preschool education were introduced in 1903 based on Japanese training institutions (Zhenghao, 1993). Following the 1911 revolution and after World War I the Chinese resisted Japanese influences in educational and cultural affairs and moved more toward American and European models of preschool education until the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 (Zhenghao, 1993). However, from 1949 to 1978, due to the political and economic difficulties, Special Education in China did not receive much attention from the public nor the government (Ellsworth & Zhang, 2007).

The national strategy for Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) has brought many changes to services for young children including increased public awareness of the value of ECCE. Unfortunately the increase in public awareness did not extend to children with special needs. These Children did not receive the attention nor, resources to the same extend as children in regular education programs as reported in Corter, Janmohammed, Zhang, & Bertrand’s report prepared for UNESCO (2006)). A survey conducted by China Youth Daily was published in 2007 (Li, 2007) which indicated that 86.3% of the total respondents (N=2,685) believed A complete life must include children while 78.5% (N=2,317) reported that they saw raising children as a burden. For the majority of Chinese, having children is perceived as the fulfillment of responsibility to their ancestors even though children also were perceived as burdens. Therefore, it is devastating to have a child with disabilities especially after the implementation of the one child policy.

According to Stratford and Ng’s (2000) study in Guangzhou City in Guangdong, one of the richest and most industrialized provinces, the facilities for children with severe learning disabilities are extremely inadequate. They further explained in Guangzhou City around 4 % of the 212,000 people including the city’s children, 80 percent were in need of rehabilitation; requiring special facilities, special equipment, or some other form of support. They perceived it as a growing problem for China.

The first author’s recent personal conversation with eleven college graduates from Hebei, Sunsi, Sichuan, Gansu and Dalian in China (September 7-11, 2008) found that many children with disabilities did not receive attention or assistance from the government. According to their reports, parents of children with disabilities in China in those provinces or locations either abandoned their disabled children in the hope of having another normal baby; or kept their children at home and felt helpless and hopeless. This might explain why so many children with disabilities were adopted in orphanages in China. This issue is especially evident in the rural areas.

In regard to early intervention, China did not really implement any specific programs until the 1980s, when the Gesell Development Schedule and the Denver Development Screening test were translated and revised to identify at-risk infants and children. Since then, a great number of childcare centers and kindergartens across the country have begun offering intervention programs for children with disabilities. By 1991, more than 700 language-training centers had been established and about 10,000 children with hearing impairment have been trained (Mu, Yang, & Armfield, 1993). China has made great effort to build the public and political profile of ECCE and boost general levels of participation over the last two decades. Yingqi (2008) studied the funding of early childhood education and urged the government to allocate additional attention and financial support for children with special needs.

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Early childhood special education has been making progress in Beijing, as reported in Ellsworth and Zhang’s paper (2007). According to their report, one particular school in Beijing was established in 1987, which has 60 staff members who teach more than 200 children in 17 classrooms. The school provides professional development and resource centers and an intensive diagnostic and training center for three- and four-year-olds with autism, and special education classes for school-age students. At this center, parents are encouraged to accompany their children, and help with their children’s evaluation and activities. This evaluation and training center appears to provide a prototype in early intervention model in China. In addition a child with disability could impact the entire nature of the family (Barr, 1996) and the family functions (Turnball &Turnball, 1997). Early identification and intervention for young children at risk for developmental disability and their families is a proactive approach to early childhood education. Such programs have the potential to support many children with, or at risk, for developing disabilities to learn and grow (VanDerHeyden & Snyder, 2006).

Conclusions and RecommendationsChina’s rapid growth with economy has increases its competition to the developed countries. However, attention and policies to tend to early identification of children with special needs have not been a common practice in China. It is suggested by these researchers that policies be mandated to fund programs for screening of all the newborn in order to identify children who may be at risk for developmental delay. State sponsored programs, as such can assist and train parents and teachers in order to reduce the stress and create support for parents with children of disabilities. A government mandate for child find would be instrumental to locate children who are delayed or at risk for becoming delayed. For example in the United States, there is a federal mandate which requires all states to find and screen all children who may have special needs and provide early intervention from birth. Further parents of children with disabilities are full members of their child’s educational team as mandated by the Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDIEA 2004). Therefore understanding the concerns of parents can facilitate the provision of family focused intervention (Galascoe, 1999). Hayes (1997) claimed need-based investigations are of utmost importance in framing intervention and formulating policies. Accumulated (Bailey, 2001; Bailey, Hebbeler, Scarborough, Spiker & Mallik, 2004; Bailey & McWilliams, 1990; Blackman, 2002; Brazelton, & Greenspan, 2000; Bronson, 2000; Chen & McNamee, 2007) research has documented the impact of early intervention services for children with disabilities and their families. Consequently, China is at the new era in which a greater investment has been in special education (McLoughlin, Zhou & Clark, 2005). More sources were dedicated for education for people with disabilities especially in the western part of China (Ellsworth & Zhang, 2007).

In conclusion, it is important to acknowledge that over the last two decades, China has made great strides in establishing the public and political profile of ECCE. As a result, China has developed a countrywide ECCE policy that lays out progressive principles and complex management structures. The current ECCE policy reflects progressive, child-centered curriculum that recognizes the importance of evaluation (Corter, et. al, 2006).

However, concerns remains that many existing ECCE programs are not providing the supports necessary to ensure that all children with disabilities would benefit from ECCE programs. Given the population growth and the number of children born with disabilities in China and the impact of early intervention (brain development), it seems that there is an urgency to expand ECCE policies to include screening of all 20 million children who are between the ages of 0-3. Furthermore public awareness about the cost effective funding allocated for parent- infants stimulating programs needs to be echoed in every child related national policies.

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Brazelton, T. B., & Greenspan, S. I. (2000). The irreducible needs of children: What every child must have to grow, learn, and flourish. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice for early childhood programs. Washington, D. C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.Bronson, M. P. (2000). Self-regulation in early childhood: nature and nurture. New York: Guilford Press.Chen, J., & McNamee, D. (2007). Assessing for teaching and learning in early childhood classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.Corter, C., Janmohammed, Z., Zhang, J. & Bertrand, J. (2006). Selected issues concerning early childhood care and education in China. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2007, Strong foundations: early childhood cares and education.development. Remedial and Special Education, 28 (1), 58-64.Dunst, C., Hamby, D., Trivette, C., Raab, M., & Bruder, M. (2000). Everyday family and community life and children’s naturally occurring learning opportunities. Journal of Early Intervention, 23, 3, 151-164.Ellsworth, N. J. & Zhang, C. (Jan/Feb, 2007). Progress and challenges in China’s special education development. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 1, 58-64.Galascoe, F. P. (1999). Using parents’ concerns to detect and address developmental and behavioral problems. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 4 (1), 24-35.Garbarino, J., & Abramowitz, R. H. (1992). Sociocultural risk and opportunity. In Garbarino (Ed.). Children and families in the social environment (pp.35-70). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Hadadian, A., & Merbler, J. (1995). Parents of infant toddlers with special needs views of desired services. Infant-Toddler Intervention; The Transdisciplinary 5(2), 141-151.Hayes, V. E. (1997). Families and children’s chronic conditions, knowledge development and methodological considerations. Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice: An International Journal, 11 (4), 259-290.Herring, J. (1996). Adjusting to your child’s visual impairment. In Children with visual Impairments: A parents’ guide, edited by M. C. Holbrook, 49-72. Bethesda, MD:Woodbine House.Jenks, E. B. (2005, April). Explaining disability. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 34, 2, 143-169. Klaus, M. H. & Kennell, J. H. (1982). Parent-infant bonding (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.Li, J. (2007). Chinese parents overwhelmed: A survey. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from http://www.china.org.cn/english/china/218843.htm.Li, J. (2007). The Book of Rites: The Conveyance of Rites, LiYun 9. (In Chinese). Taiwan, Taipei: Sun MingPublishers.Locke, J. (1964). Some thoughts concerning education. Woodbury, NH: Barron’s Educational Series. (Original work published 1690)McDevitt. T. M. & Ormrod, J. E. (2004). Child development (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.McLoughlin, C., Zhou, Z., & Clark, E. (2005). Reflections on the development and status of contemporary special education services in China. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 3, 273-285.Mu, K., Yang, H., & Armfield, A. (1993). China’s special education: A comparative Analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Council for Exceptional Children, San Antonio, TX, April 5-9. ERIC reproduction # ED 361 947.Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2007). Basic statistics of special education. Retrieved November 10, 2008 from http://www.moe.edu.cn/edoas/website18/41/info3354.htmPang, Y. & Richey, D. (2005). A comparative study of early intervention in Zimbabwe, Poland China, India, and the United Sttes of America. The International Journal of Special Education, 20, 2, 122-131.Piao, Y. X. (1996). Teshu jiaotu cidian [Dictionary of special education]. Beijing: Huaxia Press.Sloper, P., & Turner, S. (1992). Services needs of families of children with severe physical disability. Child Care, Health and Development, 18, 259-282.Stratford, B. & Ng, H. (2000). People with disabilities in China: Changing outlook- new solutions-growing problems. International Journal of Disability, Development &Education, 47, (1), 7-14.Trawick-Smith, J. (2010). Early childhood development (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.Turnbull, A. P. & Turnbull, H. R. (1997). Families, professionals and exceptionality: Collaborating for empowerment (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

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VanDerHeyden, A. M. & Snyder, V. (2006). Integrating frameworks from early childhood intervention and school psychology to accelerate growth for all young children. School Psychology Review, 35, 4, 519-534.Yang, H., & Wang, H. B. (1994). Special education in China. The Journal of Special Education, 28, 93-105.Yingqi, C. (March/April, 2008). Social harmony and macroregulaiton of the funding system of early childhood education. Chinese Education and Society, 41 (2), 20-32.Zhenghao, W. (1993). China. In Cochran, M. (Ed.), International handbooks of child care policies and programs (1st ed.) 9 83-106). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.Zero to Three. (2009). Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved March 10, 2009 from http://www,zerotothree.org

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN MACAU

Diana Cheng Man Lauand

Pong Kau YuenUniversity of Macau

Education is important for the sustainable development for Macau because there is no natural resource in this area. The only thing that the city can count on to survive and excel is the knowledge and skills of its people. Currently, there is limited literature on the education system of Macau, in particular the area of special education. It is the intent of this paper to draw more attention and discussion about this field. This paper presents an overall objective view of the development of special education in Macau from academic year 1996-97 to 2006-07 by looking at the figures provided by the authority. The figures cover three major areas: the number of schools, the number of students and the number of teachers. Based on the figures and the social conditions of Macau, our study reveals the challenges that Macau is facing in terms of special education development and offers some possible solutions.

IntroductionAfter four and a half centuries of Portuguese administration, the Government of the People’s Republic of China resumed its sovereignty over Macau on 20 th December 1999. The Macau Special Administrative Region was established in accordance with the Article 31 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China. In harmony with the principle of one country, two systems, the prevailing capitalist system and way of life shall remain unchanged for fifty years.

Macau has grown in land area from 10.28sq.km. in the 19 th century to the current size of 29.2sq.km. The region consists of the Macau peninsula and the two islands of Taipa and Coloane. The population of Macau is estimated to be 557,400. According to the by-census 2006, there were 8,298 residents with disabilities. Within this group, 42.8% were males and 57.2% were females.

Macau’s economy relies heavily on the gaming and tourism industries. With the deregulation of the gaming industry after the political transition, Macau’s economy has developed rapidly. According to the SAR Government website, the per capita GDP hit MOP292,200 which is equivalent to USD36,357 in 2007.

During the period of Portuguese administration, the Government paid little attention to the provision of education. According to Rangel (1991, p. 315): Education in Macau became a priority only during the last decade of the Government’s development plans. Most of Macau’s schools are private. Religious bodies, social service organizations, commercial enterprises and individuals run them. Before the

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transition, official schools mainly catered the children from Portuguese families and had very little linkage with the local society. It was only after the political change that the authority put in more efforts in the provision of education. More resources, human, financial and technological, have poured in to study and to improve the existing situation.

Development of Special Education in Neighboring RegionsThe development of special education in East Asia and Southeast Asia was relatively recent compared with regular education due to political, economic, cultural and social reasons. In many regions, Western missionaries were the first to establish special schools (Deng, Poon-Mcbrayer & Farnsworth, 2001, Park, 2002). A more systematic and official development of special education provision generally started in the second half of the twentieth century. In East Asia, Japan is the most advanced country in terms of special education development. According to Misawa (1994), the first special school was started in 1878 for students with visual and hearing disabilities. But the development was interrupted by the war and has to be reconstructed in the twentieth century. In Korea, the most important law is the Special Education Promotion Act, which was enacted in 1977 (Park, 2002). The law regulated that free education would be provided for children with disabilities in compulsory education agencies and support would be given to private schools, which enrolled children with disabilities. In the following years, it has been reauthorized several times. In Mainland China, due to political instability, the development of education was seriously hampered from the 1950s to 1970s. Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping in the late 1970s, social order was gradually restructured. In 1986 the Compulsory Education Law was passed and schools were required to accept students with special needs (Deng, Poon-Mcbrayer, & Farnsworth, 2001). Across the Straits, Taiwan mandated early childhood special education in 1984 (Kang, Lovett, & Haring, 2002). In Hong Kong, the Education Department formed the Special Education Section in 1960 (Rowe, 1971). It is responsible for the supervision and inspection of all special educational facilities. In Southeast Asia, Governments only took a more responsible role in special education provision in the last two decades. In Singapore, special education services were provided by voluntary organizations. The breakthrough came in 1988 when the Advisory Council for the Disabled submitted their recommendations in the Report of the Advisory Council on the Disabled: Opportunities for the Disabled in 1988 (Lim & Nam, 2000). The administration of special schools was then shifted from private bodies to the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education is also responsible for fifty percent of the funding. In Malaysia, the Education Act 1996 defined students with special needs and the Ministry of Education provides special education programs for the three types of disabilities: hearing, visual and learning (Ali, Mustapha, & Jelas, 2006).

Although the speed of development of special education in these regions has been positive, there are many challenges that lie ahead. First of all, the economic conditions will affect the growth of special education. In developing countries, there are many social services that are in great demand and the Governments may not put special education at the top of their agenda. Second, people with special needs are still considered as a taboo in many regions. Kang, Lovett & Haring (2002, p. 14) notes: Beliefs regarding fate in Chinese culture may prevent family from seeking outside help, either from a family experiencing similar problems or from professionals who offer their assistance. Similar experiences were noted in Korea (Kwon, 2005). Third, better legislation in terms of quality and quantity is needed to support a more comprehensive development of the field. Fourth, more resources need to be pour in for the training of relevant personnel. Fifth, parents need to be involved and respected for policy discussion and making. Sixth, more research about disability and student differences are demanded. Seventh, very limited attention has been given to the provision of higher education to students with special needs. Eighth, vocational education for students with special needs has to follow the paces of the society and equip students with more relevant and practical skills.

Brief History of Special Education Provision in MacauThe development of special education in Macau follows the footsteps of the general situation. The responsibility of special education provision was originally taken by various private and religious organizations (Wang, 1994, Su, 2000). It was not until 1990 that the Government established a commission for the development of special education under the Education Department. In 1991, the Government enacted Law Number 11/91/M, which specified the overall education system of Macau. This law also addressed the provision of special education. More than a decade later, Law Number 9/2006 was enacted. This new law refined the structure of non-higher education in Macau and modified several areas of special education provision. Major developments could be noticed in the

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following areas: the target of special education provision, the diagnostic procedures, the mode of education, and the supporting policy for special education.

In the 1991 Law, special education solely aimed at people with disabilities. In the 2006 Law, the scope of special education was extended to cover gifted people. The issue of diagnosis was also added to the new Law. It stated that the diagnostic procedures would be conducted by government departments or entities appointed by the education authority. In addition, the issue of inclusive education was given high priority in the 2006 Law.

Scope of Special Education Provision in MacauThe scope of special education provision in Macau can be divided into two types: direct and indirect services (Chen, 1999). Direct services include counseling service for special class students, student appraisal and treatment service, and school placement suggestion. Indirect services provide assistance to activities that are related to special education, such as technical and financial assistance, co-ordination between private special education institutions, and training of educators.

Special classes are offered to children with special needs. Students are placed according to their age, type of disability and learning ability (Su, 2000). Special classes can be divided into four categories: first stage, second stage, third stage and guiding class. In addition to the contents of these classes, the four stages are also divided according to the age of the students that they are serving. First stage classes serve students between age 6 and 12. Second stage classes serve students between ages 13 to 18. Third stage classes serve students age 18 or above and guiding class serves students age six or above. For the first stage special class, courses are developed to train the mental development, communication ability, social adaptability and self-management of students. Subjects like languages, mathematics, art, music and sports are taught. The second stage special class aims to enhance the students’ ability to use tools, to improve their communication skills, to develop their music and sports ability and to increase their knowledge in civic education. It is the hope to equip students with the necessary skills to work and to co-operate with ordinary people. The major purpose of the third stage class is to improve their working abilities with the hope that they can integrate into the society. The purpose of the guiding class is to meet the demands of slow learning students. Special arrangements will be made according to their specific needs.

Different Types of Institutions Offering Special Education The structure of special education is specified in the law. Special education stretches from pre-school level to secondary level. Until the academic year 2006, special education can be classified in four ways: the nature of the institution, the language of instruction, the span of education provision and the mode of education. The different types of institutions are shown in Table 1.

Table 1Different types of institutions offering special education

The number of institutions offering special education has not changed much during the past decade (Table 2). There was only one public institution taking up this responsibility, except for the academic year 2003-2004 when there were two. All the institutions were established privately. They received financial assistance from the Government and free education was offered to students with special needs.

Table 2 Number of special schools, 1996-97 to 2007-08.

Year 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08

Classification TypesNature of the institution - Public

- PrivateLanguage of instruction - Chinese

- PortugueseSpan of education provision - Pre-school + Primary

- Pre-school + Primary + Secondary- Primary

- Special ClassMode of education - Special education

- Inclusive education

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Total 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 5Public 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

Private* 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Public % 20.0 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 16.7 28.6 16.7 16.7 16.7 20.0Private % 80.0 83.3 83.3 83.3 83.3 83.3 83.3 71.4 83.3 83.3 83.3 80.0

Note: The table is prepared with reference to figures released by DSEJ, Macau SAR Government.Caption: Private* refers to the schools which have joined the Government subsidy scheme.

Besides having special schools, special education is also offered to students with special needs in ordinary schools. The two types of schools combined are called schools that offer special education. Before the academic year 1999-2000, the scope of education was divided into four types, namely, pre-school, primary, secondary and special class. From 2000-01 onwards, it was divided into pre-school/primary, pre-school/primary/secondary, secondary and special class. The number of these schools is shown Tables 3 and 4.

Table 3The number of schools which offer special education, 1996-1997 to 1999-2000.

YearSchool 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00

Total 12 11 12 13Pre-school 2 2 1 1

Primary 2 2 1 1Secondary 1 1 0 0

Special class 10 9 10 10Source: Education Survey (1996-1997 to 1999-2000), Statistics and Census Service, Macau SAR Government.

Table 4The number of schools which offer special education, 2000-2001 to 2006-2007.

YearSchool 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07

Total 14 15 14 15 13 12 10Pre-school/Primary 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

Pre-school/Primary/Secondary

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Primary 0 1 1 1 1 1 1Special class 12 12 11 12 11 10 8

Source: Education Survey (2000-2001 to 2006-2007), Statistics and Census Service, Macau SAR Government.

The number of schools, which offer special education, can be divided according to the nature of their sponsorship, whether they are sponsored publicly or privately (Table 5). Compared to Table 2, the number of public schools, which offer special education, is greater. This shows that the public sector is mainly offering special education in special class. The percentage of special class, which is offered by the public sector, has decreased from 75% in 2000-01 to 50% in 2006-07. Special education at other levels is chiefly conducted by the private sector.

Table 5The number of schools which offer special education, divided according to their nature of

sponsorship, 2000-2001 to 2006-2007.Year

School 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05

Total Pu Pr T Pu Pr T Pu Pr T Pu Pr T Pu Pr T9* 5 14 9 6* 15 8 6 14 9 6 15 7 6 13

Pre-school/Primary

0 1 1 0 1* 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0


0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

Primary 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1Special class 9* 3 12 9 3 12 8 3 11 9 3 12 7 4 11

Special class % 75.0 25.0 100.0 75.0 25.0 100.0 72.7 27.3 100.0 75.0 25.0 100.0 63.6 26.4 100.0

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YearSchool 2005-06 2006-07

TotalPu Pr T Pu Pr T6 6 12 4 6 10

Pre-school/Primary

0 0 0 0 0 0


0 1 1 0 1 1

Primary 0 1 1 0 1 1Special class 6 4 10 4 4 8

Special class % 60.0 40.0 100.0 50.0 50.0 100.0Source: Education Survey (2000-2001 to 2006-2007), Statistics and Census Service,Macau SAR Government.

Caption: Pu: Public Pr: Private *Estimated and corrected figuresNumber of Students Receiving Special EducationThe number of registered students receiving special education has grown from 408 in 1996-97 to 507 in 2006-07 (Table 6). In year 2001-2002 there was a sudden increase to 709 but the figure dropped dramatically in 2002-03. This fluctuation might pose problems for the authority to plan and execute the educational policies. In terms of composition, the percentage of male students has always been higher than 60%. This may mean that male students have been more privileged in terms of receiving special education.

Table 6Number of registered students receiving special education, 1996-97 to 2006-07.

YearRegistered Students

Total Male Male %

1996-1997 408 282 69.1

1997-1998 433 293 67.7

1998-1999 478 316 66.1

1999-2000 548 356 65.0

2000-2001 567 378 66.7

2001-2002 709 456 64.3

2002-2003 589 384 65.2

2003-2004 575 376 65.4

2004-2005 565 365 64.6

2005-2006 515 325 63.1

2006-2007 507 323 63.7Source: Education Survey (2000-2001 to 2006-2007),

Statistics and Census Service, Macau SAR Government.

In table 7, the number of registered students is further divided according to the level of education. It shows that the majority of students are registered with special class and not in ordinary schools. For the ordinary schools, the biggest proportion of students is at the primary level.

Table 7Number of registered students according to the level of education, 1996-97 to 2006-07.Year Number of registered students

Total Pre-school Primary Secondary Special class1996-1997 408 20 51 16 3211997-1998 433 19 45 13 3561998-1999 478 18 45 19 3961999-2000 548 17 48 20 4632000-2001 567 18 61 19 4692001-2002 709 14 111 24 5602002-2003 589 25 88 30 4462003-2004 575 36 107 32 400

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2004-2005 565 27 81 32 4252005-2006 515 27 81 32 3752006-2007 507 22 83 38 364

Source: Education Survey (1996-97 to 2006-2007), Statistics and Census Service, Macau SAR Government.

Preparation of TeachersThe effective execution of special education policy demands a group of well-trained administrators and teachers to cater for the needs of students. However, the number of teachers has not increased during the past decade (Table 8). During the year 2001-02 when there was a sudden increase in the number of students, the number of teachers only increased by about ten. Another special feature in this sector is the unbalanced proportion of teachers in terms of gender. In the academic year 2006-07, the total number of teachers in basic education is 4,578. The numbers of male teachers and female teachers are 1,196 and 3,382 respectively (DSEJ, 2007). The ratio is about 1:2.8. However, in special education, the proportion of male teachers is exceptionally low compared to the general situation.

Table 8Number of special education teachers, 1996-1997 to 2006-2007.

Academic YearNumber of Teachers

Total Male Male %

1996-1997 105 14 13.3

1997-1998 91 13 14.3

1998-1999 81 10 12.3

1999-2000 93 12 12.9

2000-2001 105 14 13.3

2001-2002 112 16 14.3

2002-2003 106 17 16.0

2003-2004 116 21 18.1

2004-2005 104 16 15.4

2005-2006 100 17 17.0

2006-2007 100 19 19.0Source: Education Survey (2000-2001 to 2006-2007),

Statistics and Census Service, Macau SAR Government.

Another problem in Macau is that there is no local degree course, which specifically develops teachers for special education. There are only short courses or seminars that are conducted in a non-systematic fashion. Teachers who are interested in this field need to go to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Mainland China or overseas to further their studies. This may affect the positive development of special education.

Prospects and FutureCompared to its neighbors, Macau has a short history in the development of special education. Although the Government is now more active in improving the situation, there are many problems that need to be managed effectively. Pang & Richey (2006) argue that there are several challenges facing the development of special education in China: (1) the lack of an effective identification and diagnostic procedures, (2) the lack of an appropriate vocational education system, (3) the scarcity of educational opportunities, and (4) the difficulty in establishing the family and professional collaboration. As noted in the literature, these problems are common in this part of the world.

Macau is no exception. The educational authority is only at its infant stage in terms of developing the identification and diagnostic procedures. There is a lack of local expertise and it is difficult and ineffective to execute any policies unless there is a clear definition and identification of what special education is. Macau is a tiny commercial city. Students with disabilities will have a hard time finding jobs if they have to compete with other candidates. The skills that students learn at school may not be able to equip them with the necessary survival abilities. Currently the number of schools, which offer special education, is still limited. It is possible that many students who have the need to receive special education have not yet been identified and are left at the ordinary educational system.

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Macau is a Chinese society and many parents may be reluctant to talk about their children’s disability. At the same time, not all parents will know the need for special education for their children.

In addition to the above challenges, Macau faces a dilemma. The Government is strongly encouraging the implementation of inclusion. This is a positive policy because students will have the opportunity to be embedded in an ordinary environment. Nonetheless, the schools and teachers who receive these students may not be fully trained and prepared. The pressure that they face is immense.

The private sector is now taking a heavy load in special education provision. Since the Government is enjoying good financial revenues from the industries, more resources should be poured into the public sector. As noted above, there is a lack of local expertise in special education. The tertiary institutions and the education authority should co-operate to devise more appropriate courses to facilitate teacher training in the area.

Conclusion After the political transition, the Macau SAR Government has worked hard to improve the overall education system. The enactment of the 2006 Law shows that there is some major advancement. However, the actual implementation of policies is more challenging. First of all, the Government needs to determine the identification and diagnostic procedures so that the front line actors can respond accordingly. Second, most of the responsibility falls on the shoulders of the private sector. We think the public sector should play a stronger role here and the two sectors need to have a better co-ordination. Third, the Government also needs to invest more in preparing teachers for special education. Lastly, the passage from special education to inclusion education should be carefully monitored and evaluated by the authority.

Traditional Chinese philosophy believes in education for all and education according to one’s needs and potentials. The way people with special needs are met in modern society is also an important indicator of the quality of life. Special education in Macau has been improving but still there are plenty of rooms for improvement. The effective execution of special education requires strong cooperation among students, parents, schools, and the general public. In the current society, many students are molded for public examinations and outliers are often unwelcome by the system. It is important for the general society to understand that every student is different and there is a substantial group of them, who have special needs. Parents of students with special needs should come together and let their voice be heard by more people or even participate in the making of policy. The current Macau Government is focusing on inclusion education and the needs of gifted students. These are unarguably major advancements in this area. However, it is critical to research and monitor whether all stakeholders understand the mechanism of the system and are prepared and motivated in the process. This paper provides an overall view of the situation and discusses some opportunities and challenges that lie ahead. It is hoped that by drawing more attention to this area, better and more appropriate education will be provided to students with special needs in the future.

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http://www.dsej.gov.mo/~webdsej/www/inter_dsej_page.php?pt=http://&con=inter_report_page.ptp


PROMOTING ROAD SAFETY FOR PREADOLESCENT BOYS WITH MILD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES: THE EFFECT OF COGNITIVE STYLE AND THE ROLE

OF ATTENTION IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF SAFE AND DANGEROUS ROAD-CROSSING SITES

Alevriadou AnastasiaUniversity of Western Macedonia

An important pedestrian skill that young people with intellectual disabilities (ID) (mental retardation) find difficult is the ability to find a safe place to cross the road. Safe pedestrian behaviour relies on cognitive skills, including the ability to focus attention on the traffic environment and ignore irrelevant stimuli. Individuals with ID consistently demonstrate selective attention deficiencies. Other factors such as individual differences in cognitive style might play a role in road safety. The aims of the present study were to test any possible significant relationship between attention, cognitive style and identification of safe and dangerous road-crossing sites in preadolescents with ID. Participants were 40 boys with mild ID. Attention and field dependence-independence were assessed using the visual attention subtest of the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment and the Children’s Embedded Figures Test (CEFT), respectively. The participants were subdivided into two groups, matched on IQ. The two groups differed significantly in mean score on the visual attention subtest and on the CEFT. Analysis of variance showed that preadolescents with higher scores on both tests performed better than those who were more filed dependent and less attentive. Attention and cognitive style should be considered in the planning of road safety training for individuals with ID.

IntroductionAttention is a multifaceted construct that is manifested in a variety of ways. Studies of visual selective attention (Broadbent, 1982; Parasuraman & Davies, 1984) have provided considerable information concerning the manner in which stimuli are selected for processing. The assumption that underlies much of the research in this area is that the environment provides individuals with a complex array of stimuli from which a subset of stimuli may be selected for processing. Selective attention implies that attention is directed toward some stimuli and away from other stimuli. The ability to narrow attention to those stimuli that are relevant to the performance of a given task and direct attention away from nonrelevant stimuli is considered to be a characteristic of optimal selective attention processing.

Since individuals with subnormal intellectual development consistently demonstrate attention deficiencies (Bergen & Mosley, 1994; Merrill, 1990; Nugent & Mosley, 1987), selective attention processes represent a coherent focus on the search for important deficiencies in cognition associated with intellectual disabilities (ID). In particular, a significant number of theorists and researchers comparing the selective attention abilities of individuals with and without ID have consistently shown that those with ID are more distracted by the presence of irrelevant information in a stimulus array than are individuals without ID (Crosby, 1972; Hagen & Huntsman, 1971). Neil and his colleagues (Neil, 1977; Neil & Westberry, 1987) and Tipper (1985) have proposed that selective attention may involve not only facilitating processes directed toward the selected target but also inhibitory processes operating on the unselected distractor stimuli.

Experimental evidence for inhibitory deficits in individuals with ID has been found across many experimental tasks. In an early study, Terdal (1967) reported evidence that individuals with moderate to mild ID were less able to inhibit attention to background stimuli during a simple looking task involving checkerboard stimuli. Additionally, in the presence of distractors, children with ID had more difficulty in inhibiting responses caused by distracting dimensions of task stimuli (Ellis, Woodley-Zanthos, Dulaney, & Palmer, 1989). A few years later, Merrill and O' Dekirk (1994), using a flanker task, found

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that individuals with ID were affected negatively by flanking stimuli at much greater eccentricities than were individuals without ID. These authors asserted that the differences observed might have resulted from the differential use of top-down processing resources across groups. Similar findings of susceptibility to distraction or interference have been reported on Stroop tasks (Ellis & Dulaney, 1991) and identity-based negative-priming tasks (e.g., Cha & Merrill, 1994). In one study, Cha (1992) measured the ability of persons with and without ID to focus attention during a visual selective attention task in which a central target stimulus letter was presented between two flanker stimuli. The results revealed that the performance of individuals with ID was more influenced by the distracting effects flankers than was the performance of individuals without ID. In another study, Cha (1992) evaluated the degree to which individuals with ID are able to overcome the effects of the onset of distractors. The magnitude of the distractor effect differed between IQ groups. The researcher concluded that irrelevant stimuli are more powerful attractors of attention for individuals with ID than they are for individuals without ID. Recently, Merrill (2006) found that the failure to engage in inhibitory processes by the participants with ID in tasks of selective attention was related to increased distractor interference. Taken collectively, these studies suggest that individuals with ID have more difficulty than their peers without ID in controlling the focus of their attention and that, at least part, this difficulty can be traced to deficits in selectively attending to relevant cues.

On the contrary, Merrill, Cha, and Moore (1994) demonstrated that individuals with and without ID show similar negative-priming effects on a location-based task. Thus, individuals with ID may be able to utilize top-down processing to inhibit attention to irrelevant information but did not do so in all experimental contexts (see also Crosby, 1972). Furthermore, it has been shown that the susceptibility of individuals with ID to distraction is related to the level of task difficulty. For example, Sen and Clarke (1968) found that although adults with ID were distracted by extraneous stimulation during a difficult task, they were unaffected by the same distractors when the task was easy. Similarly, Belmont and Ellis (1968) found that adults with ID were not more distractible than adults without ID. They suggested that some forms of distraction might have no effect or even a facilitative effect upon performance in a learning situation because they act as general arousers, resulting in greater alertness and concomitant improvements in attention. Recently, Oka and Miura (2008) suggested that when persons with ID perform a dual-task that has no interference in the sub-storage of working memory, their function of attention allocation could work without impairment.

Although there appears to be some inconsistency between studies, a particular pattern emerges that may help to explain these differences. Specifically, it may be that in tasks in which distractors are similar to the central task stimuli (i.e., the task requires more effortful processing) individuals with ID show decrements in performance, whereas in tasks in which the distractors are easily distinguished from the central task stimuli, no such performance decrements are produced. Altogether, these data suggest that in some instances, individuals with ID have enhanced difficulty in comparison with their peers without ID in attending selectively to relevant cues (Pearson, Norton & Farwell, 1997). The challenges facing researchers, therefore, are to identify the circumstances in which individuals with ID do and do not demonstrate the ability to limit attention to task-irrelevant distractions and to develop methods and/or presentation formats that facilitate adaptive attending behavior. Additionally, the extent to which the results of laboratory-based studies of attention predict retarded individuals’ behaviour in educational and training settings remains to be elucidated. It is valuable, then, to determine whether it is possible to facilitate the use of mechanisms of selective attention by persons with mild ID across a range of cognitive tasks.

A characteristic activity that is heavily relied on selective attention is the safe pedestrian behaviour, since one has to focus attention on the traffic environment and ignore irrelevant stimuli. Pedestrian accidents are among the most common causes of death and serious injury to young children in the developed world (Ampofo-Boateng & Thomson, 1991; Thomson, 1991). Particularly puzzling is the fact that 32% of road accident deaths in Europe involve pedestrians, while 34% involve private car occupants and 34% motorcycle occupants (Gaskell, Harrison, & Goodwyn, 1989).

Tabibi and Pfeffer (2003) indicated that attention is required for identifying road-crossing sites quickly and accurately, especially for young children. Dunbar, Lewis, and Hill (1999) found that four to ten-year-old typically developing children who were better at attention switching were more likely to show awareness of traffic when crossing a road, and children who maintained concentration when challenged by a distracting event, crossed the road in a less reckless manner. Furthermore, Hill, Lewis, and Dunbar (2000) found that four to nine-year-old typically developing children have difficulty paying attention to

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the features that make a road-crossing situation dangerous; namely, they have difficulty paying attention to relevant information and ignoring irrelevant.

Personal safety skill instruction is considered by many as being as important as teaching communication, motor, and social skills to persons with disabilities (Collins, Wolery, & Gast, 1991; Mechling, 2008). Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to the relationship between pedestrian skills and attention for children and adults with ID. A limited number of studies have demonstrated that individuals with mild ID show difficulties to find a safe place to cross the street and supported the need for pedestrian skill instruction (Alevriadou & Grouios, 2007; Matson, 1980; Page, Iwata, & Neef, 1976; Phillips & Todman, 1999). Specifically, Alevriadou and Grouios (2007) found that children with ID enhanced difficulty in comparison to typically developing mental age controls in attending selectively via the visual mode to road-crossing sites, especially when irrelevant information stimuli are involved. Additionally, there has been only one study, which shows that there is a significant relationship between attention and identification of safe and dangerous road-crossing sites in adults with mild ID (Alevriadou, Angelou & Tsakiridou, 2006).

Cognitive skills such as selective attention may play a role in road safety, but we also need more information about the influence of other factors such as individual differences in cognitive style (Zeedyk, Wallace, Carcaty, Jones, & Larter, 2001). This might provide a key variable in the explanation of pedestrian accidents by individuals who are particularly at risk.

Green (1985) defines cognitive style as consistencies in the ways in which people perceive, think, respond to others, and react to their environment. He contends that cognitive styles are bi-polar, value neutral, consistent across domains and stable over time. With nearly 5,000 references in the literature, field dependence/independence has received the most attention by researchers of all the cognitive styles (Chinien & Boutin, 1993; Davis, 1991; Kent-Davis & Cochran, 1989).

The Field Dependent-Independent cognitive style was hypothesized by Herman Witkin (e.g., Witkin, 1950; Witkin & Goodenough, 1981) and refers to the extent to which a person is dependent versus independent in organization of the surrounding perceptual field. Measures of cognitive style provide a more extensive and more functional characterization of the child than could be derived from IQ tests alone (Messick, 1984). Field-dependent individuals tend to operate in a global, holistic manner and be distracted by background elements. They generally attend to the field as a whole, thus having a global perception (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993; Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, & Cox, 1977). They also tend to attend to external cues, and tend to accept percepts or symbolic representations at face value. This tendency hinders their ability either to concentrate on particular elements of the task or to reconstruct the whole task (Witkin, et al., 1977). They are also likely to be influenced by authority figures or by peer groups. Seeking approval and guidance, they seem to obtain their needed cues from others (Ruble & Nakamura, 1972). Konstadt and Forman (1965) noted that field dependent individuals looked at the examiner’s face almost twice as often as those scoring field independent. Field-independent individuals, on the other hand, tend to abstract an item from the surrounding field, following a more analytical approach (Clark & Roof, 1988). They are more independent from authority, socially detached, and dependent on their own values and standards (Witkin, et al., 1977). They attend to internal cues, and this is associated with a greater aptitude for restructuring, i.e., for imposing organization on received information. This implies that individuals, in some way, move through a process of sifting out relevant from irrelevant information. Field-dependent and field-independent individuals are frequently shown to demonstrate qualitative and quantitative differences in their preferences for choosing certain cues and ignoring others (Richardson & Turner, 2000).

As for the matter of intelligence, children with ID have particular difficulty in overcoming a preference for wholes, showing a field dependent mode of perceiving (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981; Shah & Frith, 1993). They do not readily separate an item from its context. Young typically developing children are also holistic processors, having difficulty distinguishing between the whole and its parts (Garner, 1974). The difference is that children with ID remain field-dependent, while typically developing children start as field dependent and become more field-independent as they get older. Some researchers (Alevriadou et al, 2006; Bice, Halpin, & Halpin, 1986) investigated cognitive style differences between children with and without ID. The results showed that children with ID scored as more field-independent than those without ID. The difference, though, between the younger children with and without ID (8-9 years old) was less than the difference between the older children with and without ID (12-13 years old).

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A principal measure of field dependence-independence is the Children’s Embedded Figures Test (Karp & Konstadt, 1971), in which children locate a previously seen figure within a larger, complex figure. Bowd (1976) states that this test of cognitive style is one of the most widely used measures designed to assess field dependence- independence in children aged 5 to 12 years.

The aims of this study were to test: (1) if there is a significant relationship between attention and identification of safe and dangerous road-crossing sites in preadolescents with ID and (2) the effect of field dependence-independence on their ability to identify safe road-crossing sites. The task was presented by means of a table-top simulation displaying a selection of road-crossing sites varying in complexity in order to investigate the variables (attention and cognitive style) influencing preadolescent’s ability with ID to select safe road-crossing sites.

MethodParticipantsThe participants consisted of 40 young boys with mild ID. They were all males due to well-documented gender differences in cognitive style (e.g., Johnson & Mead, 1987; Kerns & Berenbaum, 1991). To test their ability to select safe road-crossing sites, the 40 participants were further subdivided into two groups, matched on IQ, using the Test of Non-Verbal Intelligence (TONI-2) (Brown, Sherbenou, Johnsen, 1990): Group A (Mean IQ=66, SD=1.85) and Group B (Mean IQ=66, SD=1.99).

All preadolescents with mild ID were receiving special education in the nearest school in their community (inclusive education) and none were living in institutional settings. They were living in the broader area in the city of Kozani, Greece and were referred for diagnosis to the Counseling Centre for children with special needs. None of the children received any specific pedestrian skills instruction.

Group A composed of 20 boys with organic mild ID ranging in chronological age from 10.5 to 12.3 yrs (M=11.3 yrs, SD=0.85). Ten of the participants were premature and had anoxia at birth, two had postnatal head trauma, five had encephalitis, two were infected by the rubella in the mother, while the other seven had epilepsy. Group B consisted of 20 boys with organic mild ID (13 boys and 13 girls) ranging in chronological age from 10.6 to 12.1 years (M=11.2 yrs, SD=0.79). Ten of the participants were premature and had anoxia at birth, four had postnatal head trauma, five had encephalitis, while the other seven had epilepsy.

Attention and field dependence-independence were assessed using the visual attention subtest of the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment (Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 1998) and the Children’s Embedded Figures Test (CEFT) (Karp & Konstandt, 1971), respectively. The two groups differed significantly in mean score on the visual attention subtest [Group A, Mean raw score=12.70, SD=2.05 (age equivalent=7:5 years), and Group B, Mean raw score=4.30, SD=1.83 (age equivalent=3:5 years)], [t(38)=11,92, p<0.0001]. The performance of Group A (M=16.9) on the Children’s Embedded Figures Test was higher than that of Group B (M=10.5) [t(38)=9,36, p<0.005].

Tests and InstrumentsThe Children’s Embedded Figures Test is a validated instrument for the measurement of field dependence-independence (Karp & Konstadt, 1971). The Children’s Embedded Figures Test consists of 25 complex colored figures. Each complex figure contains one of two simple figures: a triangle or a house. In administering the test, the simple figure is shown to the child and then removed. The child is then asked to find the simple figure within the complex colored figure. A maximum of 3 minutes per card is allowed, after which, if no response is given, a 0 (zero) is recorded and the next card presented. For each incorrect response, a 0 is given; for each correct response, 1 point is given. A maximum score of 25 can be obtained with the higher score being indicative of field independence and a lower score of field dependence.

Internal consistency reliability coefficients for the Children’s Embedded Figures Test were .88 and .86 for the groups A and B, respectively. A coefficient alpha reliability estimate of.88 was found overall for the participants of this study.

The visual attention subtest of the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment (Korkman et al., 1998) is designed to assess the accuracy with which a child (3-12 years old) is able to focus selectively on and maintain attention to visual targets within an array. The maximum score is 40.

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The method involved the use of a large traffic mat measuring approximately 120X100 cm. It comprised a street layout on which a range of trees, buses, and toy cars were placed to create situations similar to those individuals might encounter in the real traffic environment. The task was based on previous research on pedestrian skills (Ampofo-Boateng & Thomson, 1991; Tabibi & Pfeffer, 2003).

The recognition task featured the toy pedestrian standing at the edge of a road facing towards the road. Twenty-five road-crossing sites were represented separately, including one practice trial. Two tasks were designed using the 24 road-crossing sites: a) recognition task without irrelevant information constituted of 12 road-crossing sites (Task A relevant) and b) recognition task with irrelevant information constituted of 12 road-crossing sites (Task B irrelevant), respectively. For the recognition task without irrelevant information, distracting visual information was removed from the scene (such as cats, dogs, children playing) allowing the participant to focus on the road site.

The situations were all matched as far as possible for complexity and surrounding layout. The sites included junctions, bends, parked cars or other obstructions. In constructing the sites, care was taken that each was rendered dangerous by the presence of only one of these features. Selection of the sites in both tasks was done with the aid of the Hellenic Ministry of Education (Road Safety Educational Programs). A range of possible situations was presented to independent judges who evaluated them. Only situations that showed 100 per cent agreement as to their manifest safety or danger were selected for use.

Road-crossing sites were presented in random order with a 1-min interval between trials. Trials were not time limited. The experimenter, a certified psychologist, tested every individual individually. Road-crossing sites information was recorded on a standard data collection form. Correct identification of a safe road-crossing site was given 1 point. No point was given for identification of a dangerous road-crossing site.

ProcedureInformed consent was obtained before the investigation from the parents of all included children. All children with mild ID were examined in the Counseling Center. The pedestrian task conditions were presented randomly to the participants. The examination was performed on individual basis. The pedestrian toy was positioned near to each of the road-crossing locations and each child was asked to judge whether should (safe) or should not (dangerous) cross the road. Depending on the participant’s speed of performance, the task took 15 minutes to complete for group A and around 25 minutes for group B. The Children’s Embedded Figures Test and the visual attention subtest of the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment were individually administered to each preadolescent in a quiet room by the experimenter.

ResultsIn order to compare the performance of each group in the two tasks, a one-way analysis of variance was performed. Analysis indicated that there was a significant main effect of group in both tasks, with Group B to mark lower score than Group A in Task A relevant (M= 8.00 and M=4.90 for groups A and B respectively) and in Task B irrelevant (M=5.15 and M=2.30 for groups A and B respectively) (Table1).

Table 1Means and Standard Deviations of Tasks in each Group

Group Variables

Group A Group B M SD M SD F

TASK A relevant 8.00 0.86 4.90 0.79 135.141*TASK B irrelevant 5.15 0.75 2.30 0.86 122.332*

*p <0.001

In order to test the performance of each group separately in task A relevant vs task B irrelevant, the technique of paired samples t – test was performed. It was found that the performance on task A relevant was significantly higher than the performance on task B irrelevant, for both groups (group A: t = 12.255, df = 19, p < 0.001, group B: t = 10.177, df = 19, p < 0.001). Thus, both groups showed a higher performance on the easier task (task A relevant).

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Finally, in order to test which variables could predict the scores in the two tasks; linear regression analysis was performed for each group separately. The independent variables that used for the regression models were: IQ, visual attention score, and cognitive style. For the group A, regression analysis indicated that no one of the independent variables was significant in prediction of the task A relevant. However, cognitive style and visual attention score were significant in prediction of the task B irrelevant (Table 2).

Table 2Predicting, task B irrelevant (group A)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients TB Std. Error

(Constant) 5.13 1.44 3.56**Cognitive style 0.26 0.14 2.71*Visual attention score 0.19 0.10 2.36*

p < 0.05, ** : p < 0.005

For the group B, regression analysis indicated that the visual attention score and cognitive style are both significant in prediction of the task A relevant and the task B irrelevant (Table 3 & Table 4).

Table 3Predicting, task A relevant (group B)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients TB Std. Error

(Constant) 3.10 0.88 3.53**Visual attention score 0.21 0.11 2.54*Cognitive style 0.17 0.09 2.28*

p <0.05, **: p < 0.005Table 4

Predicting, task B irrelevant (group B)Model Unstandardized Coefficients T

B Std. Error(Constant) 3.10 0.88 3.53**Visual attention score 0.25 0.13 2.67*Cognitive style 0.19 0.10 2.36*

* : p <0.05, **: p < 0.005DiscussionPreadolescents of group B, who showed low scores at the attention subtest and on the CEFT, were less accurate at the road-crossing sites tasks. Our results indicate that attention and cognitive style are required for identifying road-crossing sites accurately. When the preadolescents with ID asked to choose a safe route across the road, group B tended to select the shortest, most direct route as the safest. They tend to behave like five and seven -year old children who go directly to their destination, walk between parked cars and other obstacles blocking their vision (Ampofo-Boateng, Thomson, Grieve, Pitcairn, Lee, & Demetre, 1993).

Irrelevant information affected the ability of all preadolescents with ID. This is consistent with published results on attention (Tabibi & Pfeffer, 2003), which suggest that the animated distractions (adding more visual information) may have been sufficiently demanding for all the participants. An increase in irrelevant information may highlight the vulnerability of all participants to interference more. This explains the fact that the performance of both groups in task B irrelevant is the lowest compared with the task A relevant. On the other hand, group B individuals experience enhanced difficulty inhibiting the influence of distractors (irrelevant information) than group A individuals.

It seems that group B who exhibited poorer selection skills and smaller suppression effects seem to show some kind of cognitive inertia (Ellis & Dulaney, 1991; Dulaney & Ellis, 1997). Zacks and Hasher (1994) suggested that these suppression processes might be important components of attention. If irrelevant stimuli are not effectively suppressed, they continue to demand processing resources associated with limited capacity working memory. This would reduce the functional capacity of working memory for the processing of relevant stimuli, and, as a consequence, the efficiency of processing relevant information would be reduced. Hence, inefficient stimulus suppression processes

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may result in performance decrements for individuals with ID across a variety of tasks, such as road-crossing identification (Tomporowski & Tinsley, 1997). According to the matter of field dependence/independence, group B, who was more field dependent, found very difficult to separate an item from its context. They were more likely to go along with the field as is, without using processes like analyzing and structuring. Field dependence reflects a high sensitivity to interference, with subjects being less able to inhibit attention to irrelevant aspects of the distracting whole. The characteristics, shown by field dependent and independent preadolescents in road crossing tasks, lead us to expect a greater disposition by the latter group to use learning strategies (Tinajero & Paramo, 1998). Feuerstein (1980) noted that many persons with ID do not attend differentially to the stimuli, which is characteristic of the field dependent person. His intervention program aims at transforming the passive and dependent cognitive style of the individuals with ID into the characteristic of autonomous and independent thinkers, using mediated learning strategies.

In summary, our results indicate that selective attention and cognitive style are, at least, partially required for identifying road-crossing sites accurately. Regression analysis indicated that cognitive style and visual attention score were significant in prediction most of the tasks in both groups. On the other hand, no one of the independent variables was significant in prediction of task A relevant in group A. This group seems to be unaffected (the score was 8 out of 12); they were able to control their focus probably because the task was relatively easy. Their function of attention probably works without severe impairment (see also Belmont & Ellis, 1968; Sen & Clarke, 1968).

In general, although there are statistical significant differences between group A and group B, the differences are quantitative in nature. The results showed that there are some qualitative similar patterns between the two groups. Presenting participants with a mat-based task under controlled conditions facilitates the focusing of attention to the task in hand. The real pedestrian environment does not facilitate the focusing of attention; on the contrary it is more likely to provide interfering and distracting stimuli. It is expected that the role of the visual attention should be even higher in the natural environment. Further research is needed to determine which aspects of attention are most important for safe pedestrian behavior and the type of distractions that are the most deleterious for pedestrians with ID. Attention and cognitive style should be considered in the planning of road safety training for individuals with ID. Future research employing virtual reality technology in road safety education is advocated (Simpson, Johnston, & Richardson, 2003).

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RETHINKING LITERACY DEVELOPMENT OF BILINGUAL STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS:

CHALLENGES, STRUGGLES AND GROWTH

Pierre Wilbert OrelusNew Mexico State University

&Mary D. Hills

Chesnut Middle School, Springfield, MA

Literacy development of special education students is a topic that has been at the center of debates revolved around school reforms. Drawing on socio-cultural theoretical framework, this case study examines the literacy development of a special education bilingual student, Angel. A qualitative method is used to analyze texts Angel produced over the course of one academic year in order to examine in what way and to what degree he grew academically. Findings suggest that the teaching practices of Angel’s teachers, his self-motivation, and support received from his family contributed to his literacy development. The authors point out the limitations of this case study and propose that the literacy development of Angel be contextually situated and analyzed to avoid possible generalization about the literacy development of all special education bilingual students.

Special education bilingual (SEB) students have faced many linguistic, cultural, and academic challenges in the U.S. school system (Yates & Ortiz, 2004; Ortiz & Garcia, 1995). This is even more so for those from lower socio-economic background. At school, SEB students face the challenge of learning not only a new language and understanding a new culture but also of taking up new identities and roles as learners (Smith, 2001; Mercer & Mercer, 1998; Robertson et al., 1994). Unfortunately, many teachers who are expected to guide them through this difficult process are sometimes not prepared to take on this gigantic task (Fu, 2003; Birch, 2002; Schleppegrell, 2004). As a consequence, schools become for SEB students a site with serious academic, psychological, linguistic, and cultural hurdles to overcome (Nieto, 2005; Cummins, 1988). In addition to facing the challenge of learning the English language, they are to acquire learning strategies to achieve academically (Artiles & Ortiz, 2002; Cummins, 1989).

Like their monolingual counterparts without special needs, SEB students want to achieve in school. The challenge, however, is that achieving requires them, among other things, to develop creative ways of using language to make meaning of texts often not designed for them (Ortiz & Garcia, 1995; Yates & Ortiz, 2004; Valdes & Figueroa, 1994). Furthermore, the school system wherein SEB students are expected to succeed is mainly structured for students without special needs (Male, 2003; Layton & Lock, 2002; Ortiz, 2000). However, some SEB students manage to succeed academically. The questions then become: What are the resources that have enabled them to do so? To what extent do special education teacher’s teaching methods and strategies and support from family contribute to the development of their literacy skills? This case study sought to answer these questions. Drawing on sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978; Bloome et al. 2005; Bloome &Willett, 1996; Street, 1995; Bahktin, 1986) and data gathered over a year period, the researcher and a middle school teacher examined whether or not teachers’ teaching method and strategies enabled Angel to acquire literacy skills over the course of a year. Second, we analyzed texts that Angel produced within a year to examine in what ways and to what degree he grew academically. Finally, we explored in what ways and to what extent Angel’s self-motivation and the support received from his family contributed to his literacy development. In the sections that follow, we briefly review sociocultural theory informing this case study. We then describe the larger context in which this study took place. We go on to delineate the methodology used and discuss the findings of the study.

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Theoretical FrameworkAs noted earlier, this case study is grounded in sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978; Bloome, 1999; Bloome &Willett, 1996; Street, 1995; Bahktin, 1986). We drew on this theory because of an interest in learning what classroom literacy events and pedagogical choices that may have enhanced Angel’s literacy development. In addition, we used socio-cultural theory as our analytical lens to explore how Angel may have used these literacy events to co-construct knowledge with his teachers and peers and develop academic language to produce texts. A text is broadly defined here as the transcript of a face-to-face conversation between two people; the interaction between teachers and students; a transcribed interview; or a sample of students’ essays. Finally, we used sociocultural as our conceptual framework because it enabled us to examine how Angel used language to make meanings in texts embedded in and informed by his classroom situational context.

To achieve these goals, we drew on, among other terms, Vygotsky’s concept of knowledge construction. According to Vygotsky (1978), knowledge is not constructed in isolation. It is collectively constructed and historically and socially situated. Language plays a central role in co-construction of knowledge and meaning making. In effect, it is the medium whereby people attribute meaning to and deconstruct meaning from texts. It is also the tool used to produce texts in specific contexts. As Knapp & Watkins (2005) put it:

Texts are always produced in a context. While texts are produced by individuals, individuals produce those texts as social subjects; in particular, social environments. In other words, texts are never completely individual or original; they always relate to a social environment and to other texts. (p. 18)

The anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski (1923, 1946) took the word context a few steps further, linking it to the social function of language. To better understand and describe in depth the immediate context in which texts are produced, he coined the term context situation, which, in his view, needs to be linked to a broader influential context, which he calls cultural context (Knapp & Watkins, 2005). As demonstrated later, the written texts that Angel produced in his classrooms were constantly informed and influenced by the cultural context of the school. Moreover, the language that Angel used to produce and make meanings through the texts (e.g. short sentences, essays) has various functions: social, linguistic, and cultural (Halliday, 1994). Sociolcultural theorists explore these multiple dimensions of language (Vygotsky, 1978; Bloome, 1999; Street, 1995; Bloome &Willett, 1996; Gee, 2001). Bloome et al. (2005) examined the extent to which language is used by teachers and students through classroom interactions to co-construct knowledge and make meanings of texts. Bloome et al. (2005) also pointed out the importance of language in conducting research and analyzing literacy events taking place in classrooms. They stated that:

Our approach to the micro-ethnographic analysis of classroom language and literacy events is informed by our continuously evolving understanding of language, literacy, and classrooms. For us, language is not a transparent vehicle for the communication of information. Any use of language (spoken, written, electronic, etc.) involves complex social, cultural, political, cognitive, and linguistic processes and contexts—all of which are part of the meaning and significance of reading, writing, and using language. (p. xvii)

What Bloome et al. (2005) pointed out does not happen in a vacuum; the meaning that people make through the social use of language can be best understood by placing it in context. In Vygotsky’s conception (1986), establishing the link between text and context is key in knowledge construction; for example, how students construct knowledge and/or make meaning of texts in their community differs from the way they construct knowledge with and/or make meaning of texts with their teachers and peers.

According to the proponents of sociocultural theory, language and texts are equally important factors in the domain of knowledge construction. People use language to co-construct knowledge both verbally and textually; as such, texts (written, oral, visual or otherwise) are the centerpiece of knowledge construction (Fairclough, 2003; Freire, & Macedo, 1987). Just as people construe meaning verbally, they do so through written texts (Fairclough, 2003; Halliday, 1994). We were interested in looking at how Angel used language to make meaning of texts read in class as well as how he utilized it to produce texts.

Halliday (1994) and Fairclough (2003, 1995) argue that the content of texts have different social effects on people depending on how they interpret and analyze them. Making meaning of texts, as Fairclough

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(2003) eloquently puts it, depends upon not only on what is explicit in a text but also what is implicit—what is assumed (p. 11). What is assumed to be in the text is frequently a reflection of the meaning analysts attribute to it. One can therefore only provide one’s interpretation of texts, and such an interpretation needs to be substantiated with evidence from the text (Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999). This is why making meanings of texts requires situating and linking such meanings to context. Freire (1970) maintains, The understanding attained by critical reading of a text implies perceiving the relationship between text and context (p.67). In the case of a text written by an individual, what is ‘said’ in [such] a text always rests upon ‘unsaid’ assumptions, so part of the analysis of texts is trying to identify what is assumed” (Fairclough, 2003, p. 11). In trying to identify what is assumed in texts analysts sometimes bring in their own assumptions into such analysis. However, these assumptions need be critically examined to avoid possible misinterpretation of texts. With this in mind, when we first started interpreting and analyzing the texts Angel produced, we discussed our interpretation and analysis of his texts with colleagues and peers. This enabled us to gain a better understanding of what purposes Angel was trying to achieve in his texts.

Context of StudyThis study stems from a collaborative research project in which a middle school teacher, the co-researcher, and the researcher were involved. At the time of this study, the co-researcher was pursuing a master’s degree at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst through ACCELA (Access through Critical Content and English Language Acquisition). ACCELA is a home/university collaboration between the Department of Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies at University of Massachusetts at Amherst and two urban school districts. Through this partnership, urban elementary and middle school teachers in Springfield and Holyoke, Massachusetts, enroll in an inquiry-based master’s program during which they acquire theoretical and applied knowledge in L1 and L2 literacy and in multicultural education. As an ACCELA fellow, the researcher helped the co-researcher critically examine her research and meet the technical challenges of their inquiry-based Master’s projects.

Angel was placed in the classroom of the co-researcher for about a semester. As the researcher and the co-researcher were working collaboratively, they witnessed Angel’s slow but steady academic development. Because they wanted to document an SEB student’s academic growth over a relatively long time period, they became particularly interested in Angel, who, over the course of a year, achieved significant gains in his literacy skills. The relationships they established with Angel, and subsequently with his single mother, enabled them to explore to what degree his family contributed to his literacy growth.

The Focal StudentAngel is a special education bilingual student whose native tongue is Spanish but received instruction in English. He could speak both languages, but could neither read nor write in Spanish. Angel was a quiet young man who at times portrayed himself as a very emotionally needy student. He often shut himself down refusing to participate in class.

Angel was well liked by his teachers and peers. He seemed to do better in a classroom with well-established routines and procedures. Angel usually answered questions very directly without elaboration. His classroom work was modified, and he required much scaffolding and had to be engaged in meaningful activities to more or less grasp what was happening in class.

At the time of the study, he was completing his third year at the middle school, where he participated in the Learning Life Skills program. This program is designed for students with significant learning challenges. Students are placed in this program only after an extensive evaluation that demonstrates that they are functioning in the intellectually deficient range of cognitive development I.Q. score below 70, and their adapted behavior (what students can produce) in the classroom is commensurate with this diagnosis.

The SchoolThis study took place at a middle school located in Massachusetts. At the time of the study, the city where the school is located was in receivership. During that period, the school district lost over 1, 000 teachers. Most of these teachers were highly qualified and experienced. Uncertified teachers on waivers replaced them. The school served approximately 1220 students of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Most students who attended this school were Latino/as and African Americans of working class background.

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Approximately 250 students spent their academic day in an exclusive English Language Learners program, and 320 students received some level of special education. There were four Assistant Principals at the school. One was in charge of the sixth grade and the Inclusion Special Education programs along with the Developmental Skills, Life Skills, and Language Learning Disability program; the seventh and eighth grades each had a counterpart assistant principal. The other assistant principal was in charge of the Bilingual program and supervised the self-contained special education programs and the Social Emotional Behavior Support program.

According to the coordinator of special education, previously one of the four assistant principles covered all the special education programs. The school then decided to involve all assistant principles in the special education program at some level so that they would be familiar with the laws and regulations regarding special education programs.

During this study, the school had many programs including Talented and Gifted programs (TAG). TAG was designed for students who were considered gifted and talented. These students’ talent and gift were evaluated based on their academic performance and scores on standardized tests. According to the school bilingual counselor, bilingual students rarely made it to the TAG program.

Method Data Collection For this study we used a qualitative approach, specifically a case study approach. Case studies, which are part of the framework of qualitative research, enable researchers organize the data by specific cases in order to accomplish an in-depth study (Patton, 1990, p.23). Examining case studies through a similar lens, Nieto (2005) contends that, case studies can help us look at specific examples so that solutions for more general situations can be hypothesized and developed (p.6). Case studies also entails collecting data through participant observation and keeping a record. This includes taking field notes, taking photographs, making maps, and using any other means to record your observations (Spradley, 1980, p.33).

Our role as participant-observers in this study allowed us to take field notes and conduct informal and formal interviews with Angel. Some of these interviews occurred during the course of our participant observation. We collected artifacts including previous tests of Angel and essays that he produced over the course of one academic year. In addition, we videotaped Angel’s classroom interaction with his peers and teacher. From these videotaped sessions, we extracted transcriptions of student/teacher and student/student interactions. In addition, we used a reflective journal that Angel’s special education teacher kept over a year. This journal was designed to enable that teacher to reflect on her own teaching practices.

Data for this study were systematically collected from September 2006 to May 2007. The first set of data was collected in the co-researcher’s classroom where Angel spent a semester. The rest of data was collected in Angel’s special education class where he was placed for the remaining academic year. Two to three days a week were spent observing Angel in the co-researcher’s classroom as well as his special education teacher. Over the course of one academic year, we were able to collect a rich set of data consisted of audio and videotape recordings of teacher-student interaction, transcription of teacher/student and student/student interactions, field notes, test results of Angel, as well as samples of his writing classroom projects and art work. Other body of evidence included: several short interviews that we conducted with Ms. Santana; the school bilingual counselor; and with Angel about his reading comprehension. We used this data set to document Angel’s early struggles with literacy skills such as reading and writing. Data AnalysisWe focused on Angel’s reading skills in order to understand his literacy development. To this end, we took a closer look at how he drew on his limited vocabulary and reading comprehension to navigate through texts of which he was expected to make meaning. In addition, we analyzed major components of his reading ability, such as his strategy to identify and read challenging words, his vocabulary and background knowledge, and reading comprehension. Moreover, we reviewed and analyzed Angel’s prior literacy assessments, looking for connections between formal and informal assessments, and the implications these assessments had for his literacy development. We went on to analyze a reading miscue test that we administered to him. Finally, moving from the analysis of the reading miscue test, we examined his writing and drawing skills.

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To document whether Angel’s writing skills improved over time, we made specific use of short essays that he wrote in class over the course of two semesters. We collected two short essays out of many short essays he produced during that time period. We first did a broader analysis of them all, looking for possible growth overtime with his writing. These essays were short reactions papers that Angel wrote about short stories he read in class about heredity and global warming. After carefully reading and analyzing all the essays, we then decided to select two of them that seemed to illuminate the gradual improvement of his writing skills. While carefully analyzing the first paragraph essay, we noticed that he seemed to struggle to make complete and coherent sentences. However, the analysis of the second essay revealed significant progress in his writing.

As we were analyzing the gradual writing progress of Angel, we sought to find out what could possibly be his audience and the purpose he was trying to achieve with his writing. Moreover, we tried to explore whether or not the writing assignments were meaningful to Angel’s life. To this end, we did a line-by-line analysis of his short essays to determine how much he seemed to invest in them. In addition to the essays, we analyzed a self-portrait that he drew in class. This self-portrait stemmed from a classroom activity focusing on heredity in which Ms. Santana engaged all of her students for about a week.

We administered a reading miscue test to Angel as a strategy to assess his reading proficiency. A miscue analysis looks at the multiple cueing systems that a reader utilizes as he or she reads. As Wilde (2000) eloquently puts it, more specifically, miscue analysis helps us understand what strategies struggling readers are using and how effective those strategies are, in a way that doesn’t focus on weakness, doesn’t oversimplify, and doesn’t label readers (p.4). Taking Wilde’s statement a step further, we argue that miscue analysis is an important tool for teachers and researchers to use, for it might help them understand how readers construct meaning from texts. From the information gathered through this analysis, we gained a better understanding of what strategies a struggling reader like Angel used to deconstruct meaning from texts.

Findings & Discussion We began the analysis by using the Burke Reading Interview protocol (Wilde, 2000), which allowed us to identify Angel’s miscues. Angel seemed to have a good self-knowledge of his limited reading ability. It is evident that he relied on other people to help him when he got stuck on a word, as he stated in the interview below.

Researcher: When you are reading and come to something you don’t know, what do you do?Angel: I raise my hand and ask.Researcher: Do you do anything else?Angel: Try my best.Researcher: Do you think you are a good reader?Angel: A little. Researcher: What do you need to do to get better? Angel: Keep on studying. Try to learn by myself. Ask my brother.

When we asked Angel how he learned to read, he stated, Trying to put the words together (field notes, November 2007). Moreover, Angel acknowledged in this interview that he would like to learn how to read better. He showed a reliance on his family to achieve this goal, as evident by his first strategy, that is, going to his brother for assistance. Angel chose the text The Pig Who Learned to Read from a group of four selections that were offered to him. He stated that he chose this because he likes pigs (see Appendix A for the miscue analysis of Angel’s reading comprehension of The Pig Who Learned to Read).

We asked Angel if the pictures were part of this decision, and he stated that, I like to read about things that I like (field notes, November 2006). We went on to ask Angel to read out loud the selection the way he would normally read, and to do the things he would do if he came to a challenging word and there was not someone to ask. In having Angel read this text, our overarching goal was to find out whether he would be able to make meaning of it on his own. We started with word recognition and pronunciation. As illustrated in our miscue diagnosis test above, Angel mistook many words for others as he was reading them out loud. For example, he mistook went for want and special for surprised. We underlined words that Angel either mispronounced and/or was not able to identify at all. We wrote his mistaken words over the words he was asked to identify. When coming across he word he could not identify, sometimes he simply said, I don’t know (field notes, December, 2006). We registered the

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response he provided, as we wanted to investigate further what prevented him from identifying these words.

As we recorded his miscues, we had reservations about whether the text was too difficult. At first glance Angel seemed to struggle. After we completed the analysis, we realized that he had done a lot better than we had anticipated, especially with retelling the story in his own words. He was able to retell the story while expressing his opinion about it. Angel’s retelling of the story was simple, yet comprehensible. He gave a fair description of the story line and character development. Angel was able to demonstrate what he knows, not what he doesn’t know, which is important to focus on for students with special needs like him. He answered his own questions about the plot when reflecting upon the story.

Researcher: Did the Pig learn to read in the story?Angel: Don’t remember. Researcher: Does his father help him? Angel: I think so.Researcher: Does he learn to read?Angel: He learns to read.

In listening to Angel’s retelling, we noticed that he showed some understanding of the story. We went on to ask him what crossed his mind as he was reading it. Angel stated that the main character reminded him of his own learning struggle.

Researcher: Did you think of anything else when you read this story? Angel: Reminds me of when I couldn’t read.

At the end of this session, we asked Angel some more questions about his reading strategies, which gave us more insight about where to go next. We went on asking how he identifies and deconstructs words. In so doing, we noticed that Angel struggled with words that have more than one syllable, in particular the word because. This led us to wonder if Angel developed some skills along the way to deconstruct challenging words, but sometimes reluctant to use these skills.

Researcher: Did you have a hard time with some of the words? Angel: (Pointing to the word because)Too long.Researcher: What do you do when you come to a word like this?Angel: I try to understand the first letters.Researcher: OK good (covering up cause), what does the first part of this word say?Angel: BeResearcher: How about this letter (pointing to letter c).Angel: Reads out loud letter c, and then says because.Researcher: When you are home, what do you do when you come to a word like this?Angel: If I don’t get it, I skip it or I ask my brother.

The excerpt from the interview above gave us a good sense of Angel’s strategy and stance towards school-based reading, and his focus on obtaining extra help from family when encountering challenging words embedded in texts. Though Angel is cognizant of what he does not know, his perseverance in reaching out to people for extra help shows his level of motivation to learn. Moreover, although Angel seemed to feel challenged decoding the meaning of some words, he was able to connect with the story. This led us to infer that special education students like Angel can develop a personal sense of learning ownership while reading if they get to read texts that are meaningful and matter to their lives. In extending the analysis of Angel’s reading and developing literacy, we explored the relationship between his reading and writing skills. Specifically, we took a look at the texts that Angel produced in one of his special education classes.

Angel’s Drawing and WritingAs Angel’s special education teacher was working on the heredity unit, she engaged her BSE students in classroom discussions where they talked about their physical traits such as the color of their hair, their eyes and their height. After spending about two days explaining to her students what heredity entails, she then asked them to draw a self-portrait. After students finished drawing their portrait, they shared it with the class, explaining different components of it. Like his peers, Angel drew a portrait that he felt was a true representation of him. After several drafts and with the help of Ms. Collin and his classmates, Angel drew the self- portrait and explained in what ways and to what degree it represented who he is (see Appendix B for a copy of Angel’s self-portrait).

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When asked Ms. Santana why she allowed her students to draw in her class, she stated that many of her bilingual special education students expressed themselves best through drawing, and that she felt that she had to accommodate the needs of all of her students. As participant observers in this study, we could confirm Ms. Santana’s statement. For example, while being in Ms. Santana’s class, we noticed that some of her students had difficulty composing long and comprehensible essays. However, they did not seem to struggle drawing.

From our experience working with special education students and teachers, we learned that what is equally helpful is teachers’ willingness to allow BSE students to use creative ways to express their thoughts and ideas about themselves and others. Drawing seems to be one of the creative ways that BSE students often use to do so. Ms. Santana showed that she understood this. She created space in her class for her BSE students to communicate their thoughts through drawing.

Alongside the self-portraits, Ms. Santana asked her BSE students to describe themselves through writing. She provided her students with a list of adjectives from which they chose several. She also helped students generate through dialogue adjectives that were not included in the list that she provided. Indeed, through brainstorming and scaffolding some students generated additional adjectives. Students were allowed to use as many adjectives as they needed to describe themselves. As demonstrated later in his first paragraph essay, Angel used a few of the adjectives that he and his peers generated in class to describe his physical traits and characteristics. Specifically, he described the color of his hair, eyes, and height. Ms. Santana also encouraged Angel and his peers to mention in their descriptive paragraph essay physical traits that they thought or knew they inherited from their parents and grandparents.

Ms. Santana used themes such as heredity to which her students could relate. Students usually engage assignments that are meaningful to their lives and stir up their interests. This somewhat confirms what scholars such as LeCourt, (2004) and Zamel & Spack (1987) claim about writing: when the purpose of writing is clear or made clear to students and/or when they have the opportunity to write about what matters and is relevant to their identities, writing can be very meaningful to them. In a short paragraph essay that Angel wrote about him, he described physical traits and characteristics that he thought he inherited from his father. He also attempted to compare himself to his father (see Appendix C for a sample of Angel’s short paragraph essay).

Although the paragraph essay that Angel produced is short, it is evident that he engages the writing and shows some level of investment in it. The meaning embedded in the essay is clear. His sentences are coherent and syntactically correct. Even though Angel does not fully succeed in using comparative adjectives correctly in sentences such as I am tall from my dad (rather than I am taller than my dad), this does not seem to prevent him from expressing his ideas. In fact, misuse of comparative adjectives seems to be one of the most common mistakes made by non-native speakers of any language, especially those with special needs. Angel demonstrates that he understands what he was asked to write about, and tries to do so in spite of some linguistic challenges. In addition, he used basic sentence structure and explained the writing purpose in context.

Unlike the first essay, in the essay that follows, Angel is asked to express his point of view about global warming. Before writing this essay, Angel and his peers read a short text on global warming. First, Ms. Santana had each student read this text silently. Then, she had each student read a portion aloud. Finally, she engaged the whole class in a discussion about the text, as a way of assessing reading comprehension. After this discussion, each student was to write an essay stating three major things that might happen to the world as a result of global warming. Implicit in the assignment is a demonstration that Angel can follow the writing steps written and posted on the classroom wall by Ms. Santana.

05/15/2007Teacher’s prompt: Explain what you think will happen if we go into global warming. Two paragraphs.Angel’s answer: If we go into global warming it will get hot, we could die. First it will get hot because the temperature will go up the humidity will go up with the heat the rivers could dry up. Secondly, the oceans will rise. The penguins will die. Lastly we could die because our plants will be because they could die. We will not have fresh water we will not have a place to live.

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Angel begins by writing a thesis statement signaling the three points that he will be making and elaborating on. He then lays out three things that could happen as a result of global warming. Angel’s use of the temporal connectives first, second, and lastly connects points in his argument. Moreover, he shows that he understands the need to elaborate on each point made in academic writing, through proper use of causal conditional connectives such as because. In addition, Angel demonstrates that he is capable of putting forward a point of view and using concrete examples to support it.

Angel consistently uses modals of possibility in sentences, such as, The river could dry up; We could die to express his projective viewpoint. Angel uses these modals in a sophisticated way. Furthermore, there are two important new developments in Angel’s writing: He uses phrasal verbs such as dry up, and go up to make meanings; and he uses future tense to indicate that he is referring to things yet to come.

More importantly, Angel makes intertextual links between his text and the text on global warning he read in class. That is, he strategically draws on some of the information and words such as humidity, heat, and dry provided in the text to take a position and justify it with evidence. Structurally, this essay shows improvement in organization from the first text that Angel wrote. His command of modals, connectives, verb tense, punctuation and sentence structure is strong. Equally important, in this essay Angel makes statements through which he represents the reality about global warming.

Given that Angel is considered a bilingual student with special needs, it is remarkable that he was able to produce an essay that is coherent and whose meaning is clear after being in Ms. Santana’s class for about a semester. This suggests that Ms. Santana’s teaching methods and support and Angel’s self-motivation played a significant role in Angel’s literacy development. Equally important was the support that Angel received from his family, namely from his older brother and his mother as he was striving to improve his literacy skills.

Implications and Recommendations for Further ResearchAnalysis of the data revealed that Angel drew on many available resources to grow academically. When we first started this study, Angel was not able to write a complete sentence. However, at the end of this study, he composed short paragraph essays to achieve his purpose and was beginning to write longer paragraphs. This serves as evidence of Angel’s literacy growth over a year period. Although Angel struggled writing and reading, he saw himself as a writer and a reader. This means that he did not give up despite the challenges that he encountered as a BSE student. He showed the desire to become a better writer, stating that he needs to keep on writing and try to learn by myself (field notes, March, 2007). It can be inferred from this statement that he wanted to take ownership of his learning. Thus, what special education teachers working with BSE students can do is to build on these students’ funds of knowledge (Moll, 1988) to explicitly and systematically teach them effective writing strategies so they could strengthen their writing skills. Moreover, special education teachers can best support BSE students in their effort and desire to learn by focusing on their strengths, rather than on their weaknesses. Doing so may help them in their struggles to acquire stronger literacy skills such as reading and writing.

Furthermore, carefully analyzing the reading and writing skills of BSE students can help teachers become more attentive to them in terms of where these students might need help with their literacy skills. Additionally, as this study shows, analyzing BSE students’ writing skills without putting a failure or at risk label on them can inspire these students to take ownership of their own learning. By focusing on the positive aspects of BSE students’ limited reading and writing skills, special education teachers can make a difference in helping build on these skills.

Importance of Study Many studies (Ortiz & Garcia, 1995; Yates & Ortiz, 2004) have explored the academic growth of BSE students. However, these studies have mostly focused on elementary and high school BSE students. Moreover, these studies generally address the outcome of BSE students’ academic achievement. In contrast, this case study examines a different age group— BSE students in middle school, which in Massachusetts encompasses sixth, seventh, and eighth grades —and centers on the processes leading to BSE students’ literacy growth. In this sense, it will contribute to the small number of socio-cultural studies examining the processes of successful learning in a different context. The context of this case study differed from others done in suburban areas in that it was conducted at a poorly funded urban middle school located in a city with a high rate of crime and poverty. Additionally, this study will add

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to the literature examining the literacy growth of Puerto Rican BSE students. These are an ever-increasing group of Latino/a students who, unlike their Mexican counterparts, have yet to be fully studied. Finally, this case study underscores the role of teachers’ teaching practices; students’ self-motivation, and support from family in SEB students’ literacy development.

Limitations of StudyA major limitation of this case study that needs to be pointed out is its focus on one Puerto Rican BSE student’s academic growth. Given the limited scope of this study, it should not be used to generalize about Puerto Rican BSE students’ academic growth. Nor should it be used to generalize about all BSE students. Another limitation of this study is that we did not observe the classrooms of all the teachers who were involved in Angel’s learning; nor did we interview all of his teachers. We only interviewed and observed the classroom of Ms. Santana, his special education teacher. Furthermore, we were only able to observe her classroom twice to three times a week. Given these limitations, more studies need to be conducted to further explore the literacy development of BSE students.

With that said, Angel’s academic growth must be analyzed and understood in its own context; failure to do so may lead to the over-generalization of his academic trajectory and diminution of his individual accomplishment. In other words, not acknowledging the context in which Angel was recognized as an academically advanced BSE student may lead, on the one hand, to romanticization of his story or, on the other, to condemnation of those who fell behind his academic growth. Instead, we must critically examine the lack of resources that may have prevented his peers them from doing as well as Angel did.

Drawing on Angel’s case, we propose that, to gain a fuller understanding of how certain group of BSE students advance academically, it is imperative that researchers critically explore to what degree resources such as students’ family background, parental involvement, and investment in their learning have enabled them to do so. Moreover, we strongly suggest that researchers carefully investigate the root causes that have prevented non-achiever BSE students from taking advantage of the resources that enabled Angel’s academic development. In Angel’s case, his teacher, family, and his motivation contributed greatly to his academic growth. For students without access to these advantages, what can take their place? The resources that led to Angel’s academic growth can be best documented through case studies; test scores, for example, are simply too one-dimensional to assess his intellectual development. Had Angel been judged merely on his test scores, his school would not have recognized him as an academically advanced BSE student. Furthermore, despite what Angel achieved at school, perhaps he would not have been recognized as an achiever had he been in at a school with privileged BSE students. Given this reason and others already mentioned, we recommend that BSE students’ institutional literacy development be contextually situated and critically analyzed.

ReferencesArtiles, A. J. & Ortiz, A.A. (2002). English language learners with special education needs: Identification, assessment, and instruction. McHenry, IL: Delta.Bakhtin, M.M (1986). The dialogic imagination. Austin: University of Texas Press.Birch, B. (2002). English L2 Reading: Getting to the bottom. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, PublishersBloome et al. (2005). Discourse Analysis And The Study Of Classroom Language And Literacy Events: A microethnographic perspectives. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Bloome, D. (1999). Reading as a social process in a middle school classroom. In Bloome (Ed.),Literacy and Schooling (pp.123-199). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Bloome, D. & Willett, J. (1996). Toward a Micropolitics of Classroom Interaction. In Collier, V.Promoting Academic Success for ESL Students: Understanding second language acquisition at school. Elizabeth, NJ: New Jersey Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages-Bilingual Educators.Chouliaraki, L and Fairclough, N. (1999). Discourse in Late Modernity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Cummins, J. (1989). A theoretical framework for bilingual special education. ExceptionalChildren, 56, 111-119.Cummins, J. (1988). Empowering minority students. Sacremento, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis: The critical study of language. London and New York; Longman. Fairclough, N. (2003). Analyzing Discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London:Routledge.

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Field notes taken at the site (November and December, 2006 and March 2007).Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.Freire, P. & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the world and the world. South Hadley, MA:Bergin & Garvey.Fu, D. (2003). An Island Of English: Teaching ESL in Chinatown. Portsmouth NH: HeinemannGee, J. P. (2001). Critical literacy as critical discourse analysis. In Critical Perspectives on Literacy: Possibilities and practices (pp.2-16). 46th Annual Convention of the International Reading Association.Halliday, M. (1994). An introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edition, London: Edward Arnold.Knapp, P., & Watkins, M. (2005). Genre, Text, Grammar: Technologies for teaching and assessing writing. Australia: UNSW press.Layton, C.A., Lock,R.H. (2002). Sensitizing teachers to English language learner evaluation procedures for students with learning disabilities. Teacher Education and Special Education 25(4) 362-367.LeCourt, D. (2004). Identity Matters: Schooling the Student Body in Academic Discourse. New York: SUNY. Male, M. (2003). Technology for inclusion: Meeting the special needs of all students. Boston:Allyn and Bacon.Malinowski, B., [1923] (1946). The problem of meaning in primitive languages. Supplement I, by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards. In C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards (eds). The Meaning of Meaning 294-334. Eighth edition. New York: Harcourt Brace and World.Mercer, C.D., & Mercer, A. R. (1998). Teaching students with learning problems (5h ed.). Upper Saddle Creek, NJ: Merrill.Moll, L. (1988). Some key issues in teaching Latino students. Language Arts, 65 (5), 465 472.Nieto, S. (2005). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. New York: Longman.Ortiz, A. A. (2002). Including students with special needs in standards-based reform: Issues associated with the alignment of standards, curriculum, and instruction. In Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning: Including special needs students in standard based reform (pp.41-64). Aurora, CO: McREL.Ortiz, A. A., & Garcia, S.B. (1995). Serving Hispanic students with learning disabilities:Recommended policies and practices. Urban Education, 29, 471-481.Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Robertson, P., Kushner, M.L., Starks, J., & Dreshcher, C. (1994). An update of participation rates of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education: The need for a research and policy agenda. The bilingual Special Education Perspective, 14 (1), 3-9.Schleppegrell, J.M. (2004). The language of schooling: A functional linguistics perspective. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Smith, D.D. (2001). Introduction to special education: Teaching in an age of opportunity (4th ed). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Spradley, J.P. (1980). Participant Observation. New York: Holt, Rinehant and Winston.Street, B.V. (1995). Social literacies: Critical approaches to literacy in development, ethnography and education. New York: Longman.Valdes, G., & Figueroa, R. A. (1994). Bilingualism & Testing: A special case of bias. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Wilde, S. (2000). Miscue Analysis Made Easy: Building on student strengths. Portsmouth NH:Heinemann.Yates, J. R., & Ortiz, A.A. (2004). Classification issues in special education for English language learners. In A. McCray Sorrells, H.J. Reith, & P.T. Sindelar (Eds.), Critical issues in special education: Access, diversity, and accountability (pp.38-56). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Zamel, V., & Spack, R. (1998). Negotiating Academic Literacies: Teaching and learning across languages and cultures. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers

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Appendix A

Miscue analysis of Angel’s reading comprehension of The Pig Who Learned to Read

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Appendix BAngel’s self-portrait

Appendix CAngel’s short paragraph essay

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STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES IN MAINSTREAM SCHOOLS:DISTRICT LEVEL PERSPECTIVES ON ANTI-BULLYING POLICY AND PRACTICE

WITHIN SCHOOLS IN ALBERTA

Małgorzata Gil and

José da CostaUniversity of Alberta

Many researchers around the world point out that bullying in schools is aimed towards others, in many cases against students with disabilities. Bullying is a serious issue, which involves many students and is, by far, the biggest violence problem in schools in many countries. The researchers investigated how provincial legislation and jurisdictional policy in Alberta (Canada) related to anti-bullying policies within schools. The fundamental goal of this research was to develop an understanding of the relationships between anti-bullying policies and perception of how these policies were implemented in schools from the points of view of central office administration in two school jurisdictions. An analysis of policy documents from two districts in Canada provided no evidence of protections for disabled students specifically. Interviews with central office respondents suggested no need to establish special regulations. Interviewees believed that initiatives implemented in their schools were enough for ensuring that students behaved pro-socially toward all students, including disabled peers.

Violence and aggression is a serious problem in contemporary schools. The bullying phenomenon is a problem of international significance and is documented in the literature internationally (Charach, Pepler, & Ziegler, 1995; Craig & Pepler, 1998; O’Connell, Pepler, & Craig, 1999; Pepler et al., 2006; Due et al., 2005; Nansel, et al., 2001; Rigby & Slee, 1991; Reiter & Lapidot-Lefler, 2007; Ando, Asakura, & Simons-Morton, 2005). Bullying violates the essential right of every child to live with a sense of security. Violence and aggression at school are asocial phenomena, which threaten the normal development of the every student. Many researchers, from around the world, point out that bulling in schools is aimed against others. Reports from various countries show that many students, especially those with disabilities, suffer from episodes of severe bullying.

As defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), a child with a disability refers to a child:… with mental retardation, hearing impairments (including deafness), speech or language impairments, visual impairments (including blindness), serious emotional disturbance, orthopedic [sic] impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health impairments, or specific learning disabilities; and who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services. (IDEIA, 2004, Sec. 602, 3A)

Children with disabilities are more likely to experience violence and they have an increased risk for being victimized (Nabuzoka & Smith, 1993; Yude, Goodman, R., McConachie, 1998; Sobsey, 1994; Martlew & Hodson, 1991; O’Moore & Hillery, 1989; Whitney, Smith, & Thompson, 1994). Since students with disabilities are often mainstreamed, they are more exposed to potential attacks from peers. The studies mentioned above suggest that students with learning problems are overly represented in the victim population. Students with disabilities often demonstrate a lack of social awareness which may make them more vulnerable to victimization (Unnever & Cornell, 2003). Classmates may be negatively biased towards children with disabilities or more generally towards children who are different (Bell-Dolan & Wessler, 1994).

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There are currently many different definitions of bullying. Rigby (1996) noted that in England the common term is bullying, but the term harassment is more common in the United States. At present in the specialist literature as well as in everyday life both terms are used interchangeably. According to Alberta Education (2008a): Bullying is a relationship problem. It is the assertion of interpersonal power through aggression. Bullying involves: (a) repeated and consistent negative actions against another, (b) an imbalance of power between the bully and the target, and (c) contrasting feelings between the bully and the target as a result of the bullying episode where the child who bullies may feel excited, powerful and amused, while the target feels afraid, embarrassed or hurt

(http://education.alberta.ca/teachers/safeschools/bullying.aspx).

For this paper the authors use the definition of bullying which emphasizes that bullying is a special type of aggressive peer interaction in which a powerful classmate repeatedly intimidates, exploits, and victimizes a weaker classmate (Doll, Song, & Siemers, 2004, p. 161). Authors understand power, in this context to include physical as well as social aspects.

There are some factors that can increase the risk of children with disabilities being involved in harassment situations. These students bear a stigma related to their disabilities, making them obvious targets for harassment and students with disabilities in an inclusive environment may experience inadequate protection against the bullies in such environments (Reiter & Lapidot-Lefler, 2007). Certain students may react aggressively and become victim-bullies themselves (Nabuzoka & Smith, 1993). Peer rejection is a social risk factor that contributes to victimization (Hodges & Perry, 1996). Attending special classes or requiring extra help in school can raise the danger of students with disabilities to be present in bulling situations (Dawkins, 1996).

A study by Whitney et al. (1994) suggested that bulling is often related to the student’s disability. Kochenderfer and Ladd (1996) stated that peer victimization is a precursor to school avoidance having considerably more impact as children move further along in their educational experiences. Every school is responsible for preventing and counteracting aggressive behaviours. A central goal of most, if not all, educators is the promotion of pro-social behaviours and greater safety in schools.

The central purpose in this paper concerns the protection of students with disabilities from the school jurisdiction point-of-view. In particular, the researchers explore the policy implications of protecting children, specifically children with disabilities, from bullying.

According to a 2003 report from the Canadian Council on Social Development (CCSD), 25% of children with special needs (with physical, learning, intellectual, and emotional disabilities), aged 10 to 15, felt out of place at school, compared to 17.5% of children without special needs. Children with special needs, aged 10 to11, reported that they were bullied more often than their peers: 10.6% stated that they were bullied all or most of the time (in comparison to 5% of peers) and an additional 12.2% stated they were bullied some of the time (as compared to 6.4% of peers). Fewer children with special needs (80.1%) reported that they received extra help from their teachers when they needed it most or all of the time than did children with no special needs (85.4%). Seventy-seven percent of children with special needs stated that their teachers treat them fairly all or most of the time, compared to 90% of children without special needs. These data suggest that children with disabilities are at an increased risk of victimization and marginalization at school.

Review of the LiteratureGenerally, McMaster, Connolly, Pepler, and Craig (2002) found that the victims may belong to different ethnic groups from the majority population among whom they live, study, and work. They may be exceptional physically or unusual in appearance (e.g., shorter, stouter), and/or exceptionally intelligent. However, Olweus (1991) maintained that the findings of his research do not support the stereotype that bullying victims have exceptional physical attributes. Later, he added that some of the victims suffer from body anxiety, fear of hurting themselves or of others hurting them (Olweus, 1993). Roland (1989) found that low self-esteem was a common characteristic among students who were vulnerable to harassment, noting that the victims may view themselves as deserving their fate, as if they convey the message that I deserve to be a victim. He also found that victims of harassment tended to belong to relatively poor social strata and achieved less well on intelligence tests. Roland’s findings are supported by Stephenson and Smith (1989) who found a relationship between social discrimination and harassment. The victims were not popular among their peers and had low self-esteem. They were

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cautious, sensitive, and quiet. They were characterized by passive behaviour, anxiety, and lack of self-confidence.

Currently, a paucity of research exists about the phenomenon of bulling, with respect to (a) children and youth with physical disabilities (Yude, et al., 1998) and (b) children and youth with intellectual disabilities (Horner-Johnson & Drum, 2006). In this review, we explore the existing literature related to these areas but from the perspectives of visible and non-visible disabilities.

Children with Visible Disabilities Very little research exists examining the relationship between bulling and students with disabilities (Mishna, 2003). Dawkins (1996) compared the rates and types of bullying in two groups of paediatric outpatients: one group of children with visible physical disabilities and a control group of children without visible physical disabilities. Results indicated that 50% of the children with visible physical disabilities were bullied at school at least once during the school term. Boys in both groups were more likely to be bullied than girls. Name-calling was the most common form of bulling.

Yude et al. (1998) looked at bullying of mainstreamed children with hemiplegia in England. They researched 55 mainstreamed 9 to10 year-old children. First, the authors suggested that the association between the presence of hemiplegia and the peer relationship problems might have resulted from biases towards children with disabilities. Second, children with hemiplegia tended to lack social awareness and to have social skill deficits. Finally, hemiplegic children might instigate oppression due to their sensitivity to comments about their disability and their predisposition to become visibly upset to cry easily.

Nadeau and Tessier’s (2006) Canadian study found that girls with cerebral palsy (CP) were consequentially less accepted and more rejected than comparison group girls while boys with CP did not differ from the same-sex peers in the comparison group. This study, which included 60 mainstreamed children (25 females and 35 males) with CP and 57 comparison children recruited from the classes of the children with CP who were matched to children with CP for sex, age, parents’ education level, and family income, also found that peers reported children with CP experienced significantly more verbal victimization and marginally more physical victimization.

Social and personality variables are integral aspects of the phenomenon of bullying. One of the major characteristics of populations with intellectual disabilities, distinguishing them from non-disabled populations, are deprivations and disabilities in social adjustment and social skills and competencies (Basquill, Nezu, Nezu, & Klein, 2004; Jahoda, Pert, & Trower, 2006; Luckasson et al., 2002).

Children with Non-Visible DisabilitiesIt is necessary to remember that many children with disabilities do not necessarily look different from their peers. Disabilities that are less noticeable and require more time to observe and differentiate are defined as non-visible. Martlew and Hodson (1991) explored bullying as a part of a study that examined issues of social integration for students with mild learning disabilities (LD). They observed that children with mild LD had fewer friends and they were teased much more that the children without LD. Studies of students with LD indicated that these students tended to be: (a) more shy, (b) victims of bullying, and (c) sought significantly more help than average students (Nabuzoka & Smith, 1993; Nabuzoka, 2003). A very important finding in this examination was that girls with LD were largely at risk for being bullied. Almost ten years earlier, Sabornie (1994) examined the social-affective characteristics, including victimization, of students with LD. This study showed that students with LD were being threatened, physically assaulted, or having their possessions removed from them with greater regularity than their non-disabled peers.

Children with LD are at greater risk to be bullied, and they are characterized as less socially skilled, less collective, more shy, and having fewer friends (Miguel, Firness, & Kavale 1996; Svetaz, Ireland, & Blum, 2000). They also tend to have difficulty staying focussed and they are often described as destructive, impulsive, and emotionally immature (Mishna, 2003). It is clear that children with LD are at increased risk for being bullied, but some research suggests they are also more likely to bully others (Kaukiainen, et al., 2002; Mishna, 2003). Kaukiainen, et al. (2002) study, with 141 grade five children from four classrooms in Finland (28 with LD and 111 without LD), found that children with LD were rated by peers as being low on social skills and significantly higher on bulling behaviour (21.4% of

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children with LD were nominated as bullies, versus 6.3% of children without LD). Bullying behaviour was associated with high self-concept only among boys without LD.

A relatively recent Canadian study was conducted by McNamara, Willoughby, Chalmers, & YLC-CURA (2005) in which comparisons were made among 230 youth with LD, 92 youth with co-morbid LD/ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), and 322 youth without LD or ADHD, matched for age, sex, and school. They found that students with co-morbid LD/ADHD reported the highest levels of direct and indirect victimization. Also a study by Baumeister, Storch, and Geffken (2008) confirmed that children with a co-morbid psychiatric diagnosis (LD/ADHD) reported greater peer victimization than those without.

Another study conducted by Unnever and Cornell (2003) included students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). They investigated the influence of bullying and victimization in the public schools. Results from their survey indicated that students with ADHD were at an increased risk for being victimized by bullies: at least two or three times per month. The authors suggested that students with ADHD suffer from poor peer status. As well, they indicated that the poor social skills or mistaken behaviour of several students with ADHD could elicit aggressive responses from their classmates.

In New Zealand, Kent (2003) conducted a study of 52 youth aged 11 to 15 who were designated as hard-of-hearing (HOH). The survey assessed students’ perceptions about school, being bullied or bullying others. Kent found that 41% of HOH students were reported to have statistically greater levels of isolation and peer victimization than all other students. Youth with HOH were found to be more vulnerable to peer victimization than other youth.

It is clear that students with visible disabilities who received their education in a range of settings (e.g., resource or remedial classroom, full-time special education classrooms, or inclusive, general education classrooms) are more often the targets of bullying than their non-disabled peers. The majority of studies in which gender analysis was conducted, suggested that boys are bullied more frequently than girls (Dawkins, 1996; O’Moore & Hillery, 1989). However, Nabuzoka and Smith (1993) suggested that girls with learning disabilities are more at risk of being bullied than boys with or without learning disabilities.

Theoretical FrameworkThe theoretical basis for the analysis of anti-bullying policies at the jurisdictional level draws on: (a) theory of legitimate/illegitimate power (Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003; Carver & White, 1994), and (b) theory of change (Weiss, 1972). Power permeates almost every part of social interaction. Legitimate power comes from the authority of one’s formal position in the chain of command. It refers to the power attributed to an individual because of his or her relative position and the duties attached to the position within organization. It also includes the formal authority delegated to the holder of the position by the organization. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of power. In the present case, school boards have legitimate power and they can use this power, within the legal constraints imposed by the provincial government, to enact policies governing such attributes as anti-bulling. Power which emerges from control over valuable resources and the ability to administer rewards and punishments activates the Behavioural Approach System (BAS), but powerlessness activates the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) (Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003; Carver & White, 1994). The BAS (Gray, 1990, 1994) stimulates approach behaviours in response to signals for reward or non-punishment. It may be associated neuro-physiologically with the motor programming system. The BAS is the engine of behaviour and the BIS is the braking system. Signals of punishment, non-reward, and inherent fear stimuli lead to behavioural inhibition and increased attention. The BIS may be considered both as a cognitive and physiological system (Fowles, 1988). The BAS is theorized to meditate sensitivity to conditioned signals of reward or non-punishment. In contrast, the BIS is theorized to mediate sensitivity to conditioned signals of punishment or frustrative non-reward (Cooper, Gomez, & Aucote, 2007, p. 296). Current research and thinking suggests that when individuals have more control over resources, their own and others’, are more proactive (Anderson & Berdahl, 2002), act more (Galinsky, Gruenfeld, & Magee, 2003), and are ready and able to negotiate more (Magee, Galinsky, & Gruenfeld, 2007) (i.e., the BAS is stimulated).

Responding to aggression in schools between students, school administrators have developed innovative programs and approaches to help resolve problems, prevent violence, and promote pro-

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social behaviours among students. An earlier study, by Shultz and da Costa (2007), reported 22 different programs, all presumably focussed on the reduction of bullying behaviours, had been implemented throughout Alberta schools in 2006 (e.g., Bully Beware, Bullying.org, Character Education, I Believe in Respect, Lions-Quest, Rock Solid, Roots of Empathy, Stop Bullying Me, Team Excellence). If these programs work as advertised and are implemented, the results should demonstrate their power to address bullying problems in schools. The diverse approaches implemented in schools often seek to make short- and long-term changes by positively influencing those who participate in the intervention or interventions. These programs have the potential to offer many opportunities to transform students’ attitudes and behaviours, intergroup relationship, and social institutions and policies; yet this potential is often not realized. Theory of change enables us to conceptualize why this is the case.

A theory of change refers to the causal processes through which change comes about as a result of a program’s strategies and action (Weiss, 1972). A theory of change is a specific and measurable description of a social change initiative that forms the basis for strategic planning, on-going decision-making, and evaluation. Like any good planning and evaluation method, it obliges participants to be clear on long-term goals, identify measurable signs of success, and formulate actions to achieve goals. Weiss (1995) hypothesized that a key reason complex programs are so difficult to evaluate is that the assumptions underlying them are poorly articulated. Initiatives typically are unclear about how the change process will unfold and therefore little attention is paid to the early and mid-term changes. However, these short- and medium-term changes need to happen in order for a longer term goal to be reached. Weiss popularized the term theory of change as a way to describe the set of assumptions that explain both mini-steps that lead to the long-term goal of interest and the connections between program activities and outcomes that occur at each step of the way.

These two lenses serve as our filters for making sense of the data gathered from central office representatives in selected school jurisdictions. While these lenses serve to highlight salient characteristics, we are also aware that they serve as blinders causing us to ignore potentially important insights.

MethodResearch Strategy, Problem, and Case SelectionTo explore the phenomenon of friendly schools for all and pro-social behaviour of students towards their classmates with disabilities investigators have decided to conduct a series of case studies in the Alberta context. The present study reports on the initial investigation into school jurisdiction central office perspectives of anti-bullying policies. Using a case study approach enabled the researchers to draw on a variety of data collection instruments including surveys, multiple histories, and analysis of archival information. Yin (2003) suggested that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry investigating a phenomenon within its real-life context.

To this end, the investigators interviewed superintendents’ designates having the necessary expertise and insight of the district policies in which we were specifically interested. Additionally, the authors also analyzed documents related to the protection of students with disabilities. In this study the investigators used documents, classified by Wellington (2000) as openly published, which were available free on application or via the internet (p.112).

The following research question served to focus our study: How does legislation protect against bullying of students with disabilities in mainstream schools? To address this question the researchers selected two school districts (referred to here as District 1 and District 2) in Alberta in which children with disabilities are mainstreamed. While both school jurisdictions in this study are public, they are technically classified as Separate. In 1867, the British North America (BNA) Act, section 93(3), gave provinces joining confederation the power to establish separate schools by minority Catholic or Protestant religious groups. Since these school jurisdictions are public in the true sense of the word, all provincial regulations and legislation concerning schooling in Alberta are obligatory for both Public and Separate schools. Separate school districts are publicly funded school jurisdictions created through powers retained by Canadian provinces at the time of joining the Confederation as defined in the British North America Act of 1867 (also known as the Constitution Act, 1867) and re-affirmed in the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 (also known as the Constitution Act, 1982).

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Within these districts key central office persons, designated by the respective superintendents, with administrative responsibility for student safety, were interviewed for approximately one hour each in the participants’ offices. The District 1 interviewee will be referred to by the pseudonym John while the District 2 interviewee by the pseudonym Linda. These school boards were purposely selected because they were conveniently located and they represent different missions and ideas about schooling. Furthermore, one is a large (relative to Alberta school jurisdictions), urban school jurisdiction while the second is a smaller, sub-urban one (see table 1).

Table 1School District DemographicsDistrict 1¹ District 2²

Student population 5000-10000³ 20000-40000Teaching staff (certificated) 300-600 1500-2500Support staff (classified staff) 150-300 750-1500¹ District 1.(2007). District Annual Education Results Report 2006/07, p.1. ² District 2.(2008). Districts Satisfaction Survey Results 2007/08, p.20. ³ Ranges are provided for the demographic information to protect the identities of the jurisdictions.

Two methods for the collection of the data in a mixed-methods approach were used: (a) interviews with the key central office representatives and (b) interpretation of government and school district documents (e.g., policy documents and annual reports prepared for government). All documents analyzed for this study were identified as relevant by the participants as addressing student safety or anti-bullying policy. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with the participants. Interview questions were provided in advance of the interview sessions to enable interviewees to develop thoughtful and complete responses to questions. The questions were focused on enabling the authors to explore the relationships among the constructs.

Documents were subjected to content analysis using themes as the unit of analysis in a constant comparative grounded theory approach as described by Strauss and Corbin (2007). As themes, grounded in the evidence, emerged from various documents, evidence from all of the documents supporting or extending the themes was sought out.

ResultsLegislation and Policy Concerning Safety at SchoolsAlberta Education supports schools that are safe caring, orderly, positive, productive, respectful, and free from the fear of physical and emotional harm, because a safe and caring environment contributes to successful schools (Alberta Education, 2008b). The main characteristics of a safe and caring school are: (a) safety and security, (b) positive relationships among students and staff, and (c) positive social and behavioural expectations. The mission of the Alberta Education’s Safe and Caring Schools Initiative (2008b) is to encourage and assist members of the school community in developing the knowledge, skills, attitudes and supports needed to ensure that all Alberta schools are safe and caring. Anti-bullying policies for schools in District 1 and District 2 have to be and are compliant with all provincial legislation contained within the Alberta School Act. Specifically, the Alberta School Act contains sections mandating that student conduct in schools is the responsibility of the school district through its principals, teachers, and the students themselves. The School Act in Alberta states that principals of schools must [...] maintain order and discipline in the school and on the school grounds and during sponsored or approved by the board (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Section 20(f)). The School Act also places great responsibility on teachers to ensure that order and discipline existing in schools, it states: A teacher while providing instruction or supervision must [...] maintain, under the direction of the principal, order and discipline among the students while they are in the school or on the school grounds and while they are attending or participating in activities sponsored or approved by the board [...]. (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Section 18(1(f)))

Furthermore, students are obligated to follow and respect school regulations; the Alberta School Act also states that a student shall comply with the rules of the school (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Section 12(d)) and respect the rights of others (Section 12(f)).

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Provincial regulations concerning safety at schools expect some corrective interventions for students who represent inappropriate behaviour in the classroom, in the school, on school grounds, or while attending a school board approved activity:

A teacher or a principal may suspend a student in accordance with subsection (2) or (3) if in the opinion of a teacher or principal (a) the student has failed to comply with section 12, or (b) the student’s conduct in injurious to the physical or mental well-being of others in the school. (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Section 24(1))

Section 25(1) further extends the powers of the school board with regard to student behaviour; this section states:On considering the report provided to it under section 24(6)(b) and any representations made to it under section 24(9), the board may expel a student if (a) the principal has recommended that the board expel the student, and (b) the student has been offered another education program by the board. (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a)

The School Act goes on to state that a board shall ensure that each student enrolled in a school operated by the board is provided with a safe and caring environment that fosters and maintains respectful and responsible behaviours (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Section 47(8)).

The participant Alberta school districts reported on in this paper are the part of the public education system and they have members representing their interests on the Alberta School Boards Association (ASBA). The ASBA created the document entitled A Vision and Agenda for Public Education (2000a) which states that the Alberta system of public education must be founded on a commitment to educate all children well (p.1). It is essential that public education fosters and supports the intellectual, social, physical, emotional and spiritual development of each child. In order to achieve this goal, there are some of necessary conditions that must be in place. Schools must provide safe and caring school environments in which children, staff, and parents are secure: The ASBA believes that reasonable and appropriate discipline (order) in classrooms and class areas from grades 1 through 12 is not only desirable but necessary if the product of our schools is to become law-abiding citizenry (ASBA, 2000b, p. 1).

Arising from the School Act and heavily influenced by local context (i.e., beliefs underlying Separate Schools’ philosophies), district level policies and regulations are created, which translate into actual administrative regulations, and a student code of conduct. The Board of Trustees of District 1 expects students to exhibit socially responsible and respectful behaviours.... Students shall conduct themselves in a manner that demonstrates respect for the dignity others ... (District 1, 2002, I-140). The codes of conduct from the two jurisdictions were analyzed and found to be designed to assist students to live by the principles of a school rooted in Christian Scripture and Spiritual beliefs. Not surprisingly, both school districts were committed to providing the best possible education for their students. Among their identified goals were the creation and maintenance of a safe and inviting learning environment. Districts recognized the need for learning environments that are well ordered, safe, developmentally appropriate, and non-threatening. Both school districts had very high expectations for their students. These expectations were recognized by the districts to encourage all students to manifest responsible behaviour benefitting every person. In both districts, all students were expected to respect and adhere to the schools’ expectations and understand the consequences of their own activities. The student conduct policies served to promote positive attitudes and acceptable behaviours in schools. Appropriate student behaviour was seen as essential in achieving goals for student achievement and the development of caring, compassionate, self-reliant and productive citizens. Student conduct policies were based on the principles of respect for oneself and for one another (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Section 12(f); District 1, 2002, I-140-AR; District 2, 2000, 104.4).

Corrective interventions reflecting Christian social justice principles protecting the dignity of both the individual person and the common good involve the administration of fair and consistent disciplinary procedures. Corrective measures or disciplinary action, including suspension or expulsion, depending on individual circumstances, were considered when student behaviours violated the school or district code of conduct and/or the School Act. Some examples of unacceptable behaviours included: (a) verbal, physical, sexual, or emotional threats or assaults; (b) discrimination or harassment; (c) disruptive behaviour; and (d) bystander encouragement or involvement in instigating or escalating aggressive behaviour (e.g., taunting, fighting). Analysis of the Districts’ documents confirmed that

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failure of a student to meet the expectations for student conduct could result in one or more of the following consequences: (a) making appropriate apologies and making restitution, (b) losing privileges for a period of time, (c) being temporarily excluded from the class, (d) serving an in-school or out-of-school suspension, (e) receiving assistance from the police liaison officer, and (f) being expelled from the school. In the event of student misbehaviour, students and parents had the right to offer an explanation, and to be informed about consequences of misbehaviour (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Sections 24, 25; District 1, 2002; District 2, 2000, Interviews, 2008).

Documentation from the school jurisdictions and the School Act confirmed that all students have the right to be treated with dignity, respect and fairness by others students and staff. Furthermore, they shall be provided with a learning environment that is free from discrimination, harassment and abuse of any kind (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a; District 1, 2002; District 2, 2000). Children with disabilities were not specifically identified in provincial legislation nor in either of the two districts’ policy documents as requiring special protections.

Legislation and Policy Protecting Students – District Perspectives from InterviewsBased on the many studies focusing on the bullying phenomena in schools, especially with regard to students with disabilities, the researchers explored safety issues inherent in the schools’ policies during their interviews. According to John:

Administrative regulations talk about expectations with regards to bullying behaviours or how to discourage such behaviours. In the code of conduct there is specific wording that allows teachers to judge if a student is in breach of those regulations or the code of conduct and what consequences will look like.

Linda also stated that We have no specific policies regarding bullying, but we are re-vamping the school conduct policy. At another point she stated that In general, our […] schools’ policies are moderately effective. John elaborated on the notion that existing policies were adequate for addressing bullying behaviour because these policies exist within a general culture that is intolerant of bullying, he stated: The schools maintain a proactive culture, building programs and putting them in place to prevent bullying from starting. Both interviewees reported that they had seen considerable benefit from the programs in place in their respective schools. Both respondents also noted that the practices in place were effective in decreasing bullying behaviours through active character education programming. They reported their schools are very vigilant with respect to anti-social behaviours. Both respondents also stated that their principals and schools’ staffs are proactive in implementing strategies and consequences that they are empowered to use to reduce anti-social behaviours. But as Linda stressed: You can write many policies, but if there no action, it falls apart. She went on to say that: We foster the idea that everyone is responsible for every child. Every staff member, from the custodian up, is responsible for every student.

Schools in both districts have implemented various pro-social programs (e.g., Roots of Empathy, Knowledge and Employabilities) Both John and Linda were sure that the programs made their schools friendly for all. Within the health curriculum, as a part of the Alberta Education mandated program of studies in every grade, there are learner outcomes based on active citizenship. This ensure that all students participate in classes having learning objectives focussed on working well with others, and getting along with others, and understanding the needs of others; how well students integrate what they have learned has not been empirically established by the school jurisdictions.

Linda and John both conceded that in spite of implementing programs and actions aimed at avoiding bullying in schools, it still happens. Neither saw their school jurisdictions’ schools as bully free, but both emphasized that they work very hard at achieving bully-free learning environments. There are steps in place to support the victim. This is made clear through the teachers and assistants – students have considerable access to support. The teachers’ role is to communicate very clearly what the process is and what they can do to advocate for students and what they can do to assist students to advocate for themselves. School staffs, in general, are aware of the need to advocate for every child. This was mentioned specifically as a focus in one the districts (John’s Interview, 2008). Students could speak with school counsellors as well with any adult or student colleague with whom they were comfortable. Students were seen to be generally supportive of their peers if they were perceived to be in need (Linda’s Interview, 2008). As identified in the policy documents of both school jurisdictions, the student who is a victim of any bullying incident can expect to have support from a caring adult. Both

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jurisdictions’ program plans identified this type of support under strategies: speak to the person doing the bullying, and then speak to an adult (John’s and Linda’s Interviews, 2008). Student victims were also seen as needing to be involved in problem solving so they could gain strategizing skills and coping techniques to solve problems that might emerge amongst themselves (John’s Interview, 2008).

Interview respondents from both jurisdictions indicated that, within the parameters established by the Alberta School Act and district policy, each school had the ability to develop its own specific discipline process (John’s Interview, 2008); namely, the series of steps taken if a student is judged to be in breach of the school code can be unique to a school. This could also include specific student reprimands, correction, and consequences. However, school conduct policies tended to be very similar across schools, typically addressing different consequences for severe and minor infractions (John’s and Linda’s Interviews, 2008). Minor consequences were typically dealt with by having the school communicating with home, and then referring the student to the office. Consequences could also be progressive, for example, if students caught being abusive could maintain two months without a suspension (i.e., a temporary exclusion from a class or the school), their previous offences could be expunged from their school record (Linda’s Interview, 2008). In junior-high schools, expulsion (i.e., permanent exclusion from the school or school jurisdiction) was not typical, so suspension would be the most extreme response. Students could be expelled for demonstrating repeated bullying behaviours; however, the School Act wording prevented the school jurisdiction from expelling students unless it had an alternate education program available for them (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2003a, Section 25(1)(b); John’s Interview, 2008).

The safe development of every student in both school districts seemed to be the most important for both interview respondents. John stated that Our first priority is to foster emotional, behavioural, physical, and intellectual well being in all students. So we begin with the physical, social, and emotional, in order to get to the intellectual. And he also stated that The education system acknowledges that if a child is feeling victimized, they can’t learn.

With respect to promoting anti-bullying policies, both interview respondents indicated that their jurisdictions would continue to dedicate resources to professional growth for staff to help students cope with bullying and reduce bullying behaviours. One of the interview participants suggested that school jurisdictions need to get better at giving teachers professional development activities so that the teacher can be better at negotiating, modeling, and bringing these behaviours to a conscious level (John’s Interview, 2008). In District 2, recognition of the need to provide additional resources which could help staff and students to prevent aggressive behaviours at schools while supporting them in implementing pro-social behaviours among students was made.

There is not enough funding to have support when you think you could do more. When you cut back funding at a school, it’s the counselling time that falls. A school resource office time would be wonderful. (Linda’s Interview, 2008)

The representatives from both school districts were aware that inclusiveness and close contact can be sometimes dangerous for students with disabilities.

The school district promotes education of students with disabilities in regular classes, but do also offer segregated sites.... In programs where students with disabilities are in regular classes, the model of accepting disabilities and honouring inclusivity is very good. Individual Program Plans are created for students with disabilities and lots of attention is goals is paid to behavioural programming, because find that one challenge with enrolling these students in regular classes is that if they are ever bullied or marginalized, they tend to bully and marginalize. (John’s Interview, 2008)

Most of the time we try to keep them [students with disabilities] in regular classes so they are a part of our lives, and so they are considered part of the community. Positive relationship between average students and students with special needs can`t be formal when they are segregated classrooms. Of course, inclusivity and close contact can be dangerous for students with disabilities sometimes; as they are usually the ones bullied or preyed upon. (Linda’s Interview, 2008)

The role of parental support is central in the schools’ efforts to keep students, particularly those with LD, safe from bullying behaviours.

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We have two education situations – first at school giving knowledge and models of behaviours, and second at home which is implementing pro-social behaviours, and if bullying is not taken seriously by the parents, then it doesn`t make sense to the students. (John`s Interview, 2008)

In District 2, Linda noticed that: Bullying even happens online now, and it affects life at school, but parents don`t think the school should deal with it because it`s happening while the student is at home. This kind of situation can be dealt with in the conduct policy because it affects life at school (Interview, 2008).

District Survey Results All districts in Alberta are obligated to submit to government and make public their education results reports. The annual education results reports were prepared under the direction of the school boards in accordance with their responsibilities under the School Act (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2008a) and the Government Accountability Act (Alberta Queen’s Printer, 2008b). In addition to providing clear and concise information for stakeholders, the school districts use the results to develop strategies for education plans to help ensure that all students can acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes they need to be self-reliant, responsible, caring and contributing members of society. These results reports highlight the progress, accomplishments, and results achieved in the past year as a result of implementing the jurisdiction education plan (District 1, 2007; District 2, 2008).

According to the information gathered during the interviews, students are safe at schools, are learning the importance of caring for others, are learning respect for others, and are treated fairly at schools. An interesting observation emerged through the data analysis of the annual results reports; standing in stark contrast to the positive claims made by the jurisdictions in their annual results reports were a relatively large number of students, in both districts, who did not feel particularly safe at school. The investigators found that 9% (approximately 575) of students in District 1 and 6.5% (approximately 2080) of students in District 2 felt unsafe in their school buildings. The authors estimated, based on the education results report from District 1, that approximately 1250 students (just fewer than 20% of the total student population) perceived themselves to be subjected to ongoing harassment, intimidation and/or bullying in their school (District 1, 2007, p.35). Similar data were not available for District 2.

In the same district, District 1, 19.6% (about 1200) of students felt that student discipline was not handled fairly (District 1, 2007, p.35); in District 2, approximately 16.3% (about 5216) of students felt this way (District 2, 2008, p.11). Parents’ perspectives painted a less bleak picture of student safety at school, survey results indicated that 95% of parents of students in District 1 (2007, p.35) and 93.9% of parents of students in District 2 were satisfied that their child’s school provided a safe environment (District 2, 2008, p. 8). Moreover, in District 2, 94.7% of parents agreed that their child’s school‘s discipline policy and practice demonstrated reconciliation, forgiveness, and an understanding of the human person as essentially good (District 2, 2008, p.11).

In the districts’ opinions, high levels of satisfaction were reported by each of the student groups as well as by the parent group. These results provide outcome measures necessary for district accountability, information for setting goals, identifying target areas for growth, and recognizing areas of strength. While districts are committed to providing a safe learning and working environment for all members of their communities, it is curious that such a large proportion of students still report not feeling safe.

Discussion and ConclusionsProvincial regulations form the basis for policies which guide school life in both of the participant districts in this study; in fact, the same regulations apply to all publicly funded school jurisdictions in Alberta. The Alberta School Act and the Government Accountability Act determine the main directions for school administrators and leaders in Alberta. Unfortunately, none of the policy documents analyzed provided any evidence of particular regulations or legislation concerning safety of children with disabilities. In fact, all of the documents analyzed treat all students, regardless of LD, in the same way. This, despite the fact, as pointed out in Nabuzoka and Smith (1993), Yude et al. (1998), Sobsey (1994), Martlew and Hodson (1991), O’Moore and Hillery (1989), and Whitney et al. (1994), that children with disabilities are more likely to be the targets of bullying.

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Representatives from the districts were aware of some bullying issues in which students with disabilities are involved, but they do not perceive the need to create detailed rules to prevent them. Their argument for this perspective was that existing policies applied to everyone – everyone was entitled to be treated with dignity and respect.

Integrating all students in classrooms, introducing new programs, and upbringing students in accordance with the Christian values are the main ways, described by the respondents, to achieve the complete harmony between average and disabled peers. We found no evidence that, at the jurisdictional level, the power imbalances among students were considered in the conceptualization of district policies and implementation of school-based programs. Programs and approaches were accepted and used on the basis of face-validity of their developers’ claims. As was the case in Shultz and da Costa’s (2007) findings, no evidence was found of systematic evaluation of the anti-bullying programs implemented in the school jurisdictions was found in the present study. Anti-bullying programs are typically implemented and assumed to achieve what they purport to achieve with respect to reducing bullying in schools. Drawing on theory of change, there is no reason to believe that these programs will have any short or long-term effects since there is no systematic implementation on multiple social levels (i.e., individual, the classroom, the school, the home, and the greater community) of the program goals.

In the opinions of the district representatives interviewed, for students who are bullied, if these are students who also have disabilities, total help and support are already guaranteed through the current policies. The main kind of support for them is through interaction with school staff (e.g., teachers, principal, and counsellor). The school jurisdictions’ representatives both believed their policies to be sound; however, they believed greater financial resources targeting anti-bullying initiatives would help them to provide services to better address related issues.

Interestingly, annual survey results gathered from students, parents, and staffs suggest that issues of safety on school grounds and in school buildings may not be as positive as was suggested through the interview data and even some of the statements made in the annual survey results reports themselves. The researchers are alarmed that in a one year period approximately 1250 students in one district alone reported being involved in harassment or bullying in their schools.

In this research, no evidence was found to support belief that students with disabilities should be accorded extra or more rights and privileges in schools beyond their non-disabled peers. Not surprisingly, given the view that additional policy protections are not required to protect children with disabilities from bullying, the authors also did not find any evidence of programs at the jurisdiction level to mitigate against bullying of students with disabilities specifically. Reflecting on the notions of power relations among children and teenagers and the various studies pointing to the fact that students with LD tend to be victimized more frequently than non-LD students, we are surprised by the belief expressed to us that current policies address the needs of all students – disabled or not.

The present study only provides insights from provincial and district policy documents and from the vantage point of leaders in the districts’ central offices. It does not provide insights to questions concerning safety of students with disabilities at the level of the schools. It will be crucial to conduct research at schools to be sure that understandings of anti-bullying policies, particularly as they might apply to students with disabilities, are explored and understood.

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Areas for Further ResearchDespite the progress that has been made on understanding the importance anti-bullying policies in schools, pressing needs exist for research in many areas. Foremost among those, in the authors’ opinion, is the need to research the understanding and perception of these policies by principals, teachers and, most importantly, students. Keeping child development stages in mind, such work needs to be conducted in elementary schools, junior high schools (or middle schools), and high schools. It is also critical that understandings of the relationships between anti-bullying policies and the perception of the effects of these policies by students, teaching and support staff, and school leaders (e.g., principals and vice-principals) are developed. Given the volatility of children transitioning through adolescence, it seems most useful to first explore how students in junior-high schools view anti-bullying policies made by school boards and how these policies impact their social behaviours. Such research should explore how bullies and victims view their roles and how legitimate and non-legitimate forms of power affect their relationships. It will also be important to investigate how junior high school students with disabilities perceive they are affected and protected by existing anti-bullying policies.

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CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH EBD:A DECADE OF UNDERSTANDING

Sumita Chakraborti-GhoshEmily MofieldKaree Orellana

Tennessee State University

This paper presents cross-cultural comparisons on definitions, prevalence, and outcomes of students with emotional-behavior disorders (EBD). In addition, the paper addresses the concern of disproportionality and the need for teachers of students with behavior problems to be culturally responsive to perceived inappropriate behaviors. A review of literature revealed that most Western countries recognize EBD as a disability and provide special services to students with this label, while developing countries continue to be more likely to address more visible disabilities. The review of literature modestly suggests that (1) labeling results in appropriate intervention, positive outcomes, and accountability data, (2) teachers must recognize how their beliefs on behavior are mediated by a number of factors (including ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender), (3) inclusive practices must be implemented responsibly in the context of high accountability reform, and (4) preventive approaches to EBD must begin early in the classroom with culturally competent teachers.

Cross-cultural comparisons on emotional-behavior disorders (EBD) have remained scarce over the past decade; however, such research could broaden our understanding of how vastly different behavior is perceived and addressed in various cultures. In the United States where cultural diversity is a norm, it is also important to determine if and to what extent strides have been made toward cultural competence. Research indicates that in the United States, there is an ongoing concern regarding the over-identification of students with EBD from diverse backgrounds, particularly African American students (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). In order to understand how to address behavior, and thus EBD, in the context of culturally diverse classrooms, it is necessary to investigate how various countries and cultures define, perceive, and provide services for students with EBD worldwide. The past decade has prompted attention to global inclusive movements in education (Clough, Garner, Pardeck, & Yuen, 2005), proactive positive approaches toward behavior interventions, collaboration in comprehensive programming, and an urgent call to address disproportionality among students with EBD (Kauffman, Brigham, & Mock, 2007; Osher et al., 2007).

To determine progress over the past decade the present paper will address the following questions: 1) Have improvements in educational outcomes been identified? 2) Have other countries and cultures developed a new understanding of this long-ignored disability? 3) How are students with EBD being served throughout the world? 4) Are teachers adequately prepared to be culturally responsive to the needs of students from diverse cultural backgrounds? This study will present differences in definitions, perceptions, and education of students with EBD over the past ten years across various nations and cultures. Implications from this review may potentially help schools in the United States as well as the rest of the world better serve students with EBD.

DefinitionsIn the United States, the definition of emotional disturbance has remained the same over the past decade. The current definition is similar to that used in the early 1960’s (Ysseldyke, Algozzine, & Thurlow, 2000), though the terminology of serious emotional disturbance was replaced in IDEA 1997 by emotional disturbance to eliminate the negative connotation of serious (Knoblauch & Sorenson, 1998). In 1998, students with emotional disturbance in the United States were identified based on the

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following characteristics: (a) an inability to learn regardless of intellectual, sensory, or health factors; (b) an inability to build satisfactory relationships with peers and teachers; (c) inappropriate types of behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances; (d) depression or mood swings; or (e) the development of physical problems or personal fears. The term also included individuals with schizophrenia and autism, but did not include socially maladjusted children unless they were considered seriously emotionally disturbed (U.S. Department of Education, 1998). This definition, however, has faced criticism for its vagueness, redundancy, lack of empirical support, and ambiguity (see Cullinan, 2005).

Definitions for behavior disorders have not been as easy to come by in other countries. In 1998, one research study specifically looked at the differences between two countries, the United States and India, regarding the definitions, perceptions, views and education of students with behavior disorders (Chakraborti-Ghosh, 2008). In India, a formal definition does not exist. Children with learning and behavior disorders are rarely identified. More often, children with behavior problems are typically not perceived as disabled. Students with EBD are not served formally through special education; rather they are served under a formal system of juvenile justice (Chakraborti-Ghosh, 1998).

In a comparative study of special education in 26 nations by Mazurek and Winzer (1994), like India, EBD definitions were generally absent among non-Western countries. In many developing countries, areas of exceptionality were only beginning to emerge. For example, in Nigeria, there were only a few categories of exceptionality which are still poorly defined. A more recent report noted that only .42% of school-aged enrolled students are children with handicaps (Garuba, 2003), though emotional handicapped was a category (Obiakor, 1998). Currently in developing countries, it is still nearly impossible to determine definitions and outcomes of students with behavioral disorders, because in essence, they do not exist. The school enrollment rate for children with disabilities has only been 1-3 percent in developing countries (Jonnson & Wilman, 2001). Definitions such as disadvantaged children and children with special educational needs include a broad range of disabilities from profound to mild (including social and emotional difficulties). Jonnson and Wilman (2001) stated, as a result of different definitions and poor data there is no single correct figure on the prevalence of disability (p. 4). In many developing countries, meeting the needs of persons with EBD is likely to fall by the wayside in the midst of national hardship. If special needs are addressed at all, persons with more traditional disabilities will be more likely to receive specialized attention (Winzer, 2005).

In 1988, Israel passed its first special education law, The Israeli Special Education Law of 1988 (SEL). This law defined an exceptional child as an individual between the ages of 3 and 21 who may experience faulty development in physical, intellectual, mental or behavioral skills which results in a restricted ability in adaptive behavior and, therefore, requires special education services (Gumpel, 1996). Though behavior was a component of the new law, no clear definition existed for behavior disorders.

In Europe, the following countries currently recognize some form of behavior or emotional difficulties as part of their legal definitions for students having special education needs (SEN): Germany, Austria, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (The European Agency Development for Special Needs, 2007). The Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) (2005) has developed three categories of disabilities in order to make cross-cultural comparisons on categories and placements for students with SEN: category A includes students with clear organic impairments, category B includes students with learning and behavior difficulties without clear organic origins, and category C which includes disadvantaged students who receive additional educational resources due to their social and/or language background.

In most countries, students with EBD (or a variant label such as behaviour problems, -severe emotional disability, -emotional difficulties), fall under category B (i.e., Belgium-Flemmish, Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Ireland, and United States) (Evans, 2003). According to Evans’s (2003) OECD report, students identified in category B (which also includes other types of disabilities such as learning disabilities, giftedness, and students in need of remedial teaching) are served mostly in segregated settings in Germany (87%), the Netherlands (98%), and France (100%). However, students in category B are served mainly in regular classes in the Czech Republic (73%), Finland (89%), United States (88%), and Canada (100%). In some countries, however, EBD is considered to be from organic pathologies and falls under category A (e.g., Japan, Luxembourg, and Spain). In Japan, 80% of

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students in category A are served in segregated settings, 60% in Luxembourg, and 15% in Spain. This data is only somewhat informative because category A also includes other types of disabilities (e.g., hearing impaired, visual impairment, mental handicap), so it is difficult to ascertain what percentage of students with EBD are served in inclusive or segregated settings. The Netherlands and Switzerland serve students with behavior problems under both categories A and B. For example, Switzerland serves students with behavioural disorders under category A in special schools while students with behavioural difficulties are served under category B in special classes. No form of specific EBD labeling was noted in the following countries: France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Poland, Sweden, Turkey, or United Kingdom, though behavior difficulties may be recognized under a non-categorical umbrella of SEN (e.g., Greece, United Kingdom).

In short, terminology of EBD differs widely within the cultural context of countries. Winzer (2005) has noted that Iran, Brazil, and Indonesia use the term emotionally disturbed, Israel uses the term mentally disturbed children, Slovakia uses defective behaviour, the Czech Republic and Poland use socially maladjusted, and some Muslim countries such as Malaysia and Pakistan label persons with emotional disturbance as mentally retarded. Even within large countries, identification can vary widely from different regions in the nation (e.g., Brazil and South Africa) (Winzer, 2005). Thus, conceptualizations of EBD differ based on the cultural lens from which behavior is perceived.

Perceptions Making comparisons of children with EBD cross-culturally is a nearly impractical task since EBD must be understood in the context of culture. Disordered behavioral functioning is a subjective reality that is constructed on the basis of a judgment as to what is tolerable, appropriate and desirable (Winzer, 2005, p. 23). For example, aggression is rarely manifested in the Phillipines and Thailand because it is frowned upon by the culture. Deviant behavior is viewed as bringing shame on the family or as a punishment for sins of ancestors (Cheong, 1996). Differing views on parenting among various cultures can lead to a number of child development outcomes. Intervention beyond the nuclear and extended family is viewed as unwarranted in some cultures (Winzer, 2005). Thus, inappropriate behavior in one country may not be viewed as such in another, and may not necessitate specialized attention within an educational context. However, even across diverse cultures, similar perceptions do exist. For example, in Chakraborti-Ghosh’s (1998) qualitative study, teachers in India and the United States had similar perceptions as to what causes behavior problems. Many of the teachers in the study agreed that behavior problems were often the result of an unhealthy family environment, low socioeconomic background, lack of family education, and drug, alcohol, sexual and physical abuse.

Educational Opportunities In the United States students with disabilities have the right to be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE) which was first defined in 1975 under Public Law 94-142. Vaughn, Bos, and Schumm (2007) described the least restrictive environment (as defined by IDEA) as the setting most like that of non-disabled students that also meets each child’s educational needs (p. 4). The LRE requires that all students with disabilities receive an education in a setting which allows the student to develop his or her highest potential in an environment with non-disabled peers as appropriate (Smith, Polloway, Patton & Dowdy, 1995; Hardman, Drew, Egan & Wolf, 1990). Data from the 27 th Annual Report to Congress (2005) indicated that the percentage of students with emotional disturbance receiving special education services outside the regular class for more than 60% of the day has decreased from 35% in 1994 to 30% in 2003; the percentage of students with emotional disturbance being served in separate public facilities has decreased from 8% to 6.5%.

Internationally, the United Nations has taken efforts in addressing the education of individuals with disabilities through inclusive education. In 1989, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children declared that all children have fundamental rights that must be available to them. In 1994, the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs (UNESCO, 1994) emphasized inclusive practices of education in the general school system and the abandonment of special schools and classes.

Despite inclusive efforts emphasized by the Salamanca Statement, in many countries, students labeled emotionally disturbed are more often served in segregated classes or schools. For example, in 1997, Germany served over 97% of students with disabilities in separate schools (Cloerkes, 1997). A more recent report in 2005 indicated that 87% of Germany’s SEN students continue to receive instruction in segregated settings (The European Agency for Development, 2007). In Belgium’s French education

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system, over 99.9% of SEN students are served in segregated settings (including those with behaviour problems); in Belgium’s Flemmish education system, only 91% of SEN students are served in segregated settings (The European Agency for Development, 2007). Moreover, in the last 15 years, the proportion of students in special classes in Switzerland has considerably increased; these classes consist of a substantial proportion of students with behavioural problems and learning difficulties (The European Agency for Development, 2007). There is no legislation in Russia for mainstreaming students with disabilities into regular classes (Roza, 2006); emotional disabilities are one of eight types of disabilities, and these students are served in classes for mentally retarded children (Reynolds & Fletcher-Janzen, 2007). However, some Russian students with behavioral problems are served in special classes in the regular school as part of a more recent integrative education effort (Lauwers, 2003).

ClassificationIn the United States, students with EBD are at the greatest risk for dropping out of school (U.S. Department of Education, 2005) and have a higher percentage of incarceration and unemployment compared to other disabilities (Lehr & McComas, 2005). With poor outcomes associated with the EBD label, researchers and practitioners must question, does the EBD label hurt or help? In an OECD report, Leroy, Evans, and Deluca (2000), compared disability prevalence and identification between the United States and selected European nations. One phase of the study investigated the relationship between disability prevalence in the United States and social indicators of a child’s well-being. Results indicated that emotional impairment was negatively correlated with seven social indicators (infant mortality rate, child death rate, teen death rate, teen birth rate, high school drop out, teens out of school/work, and children living in poverty). These findings imply that identifying students with EBD is related to improved social outcomes for these students. Leroy et. al. (2000) noted that states that have high EBD identification rates such as New Hampshire and Minnesota have lower rates of poor child outcomes. On the contrary, states such as Alabama and Mississippi, which have relatively low EBD identification rates, have high rates of poor child outcomes. Thus, this data offers possible assumptions on the positive aspects of labeling students with EBD; interventions can be made available to students who need them which leads to improved student outcomes (Leroy et. al., 2000).

Some countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia have favored a non-categorical approach to labeling students with disabilities (Wheldall, 1994; McLaughlin et al., 2006), thus it is difficult to ascertain specific outcomes for students with EBD. A non-categorical approach has several advantages. Services are made available to students based on a student’s need rather than a label. Labeling is often a gatekeeper, prohibiting some students from receiving services they need; this can also result in fragmented services and programs. Furthermore, categories of disabilities are seldom helpful in providing instruction (Wheldall, 1994). In reviewing the literature, McLauglin and others (2006) indicated, increasingly, researchers have acknowledged that the approaches, methods, and techniques that teachers must use to meet the educational needs of students with differing disability labels vary more in terms of intensity than in type (p. 54). Unfortunately, because there is no specific label for these students in countries that embrace the non-categorical approach, data is not available to determine outcomes for categories of students such as those with EBD. Further concerns for a non-categorical classification include the lack of allocations of resources, funding, accountability, and follow-up data for specific disability types (McLauglin et al., 2006).

Outcomes in United StatesIn the United States, according to the 27 th Annual Report to Congress (2005), drop out rates for students with EBD have decreased considerably from 69.2% in 1994-1995 to 55.9% in 2002-2003. Graduation rates have increased from 27% in 1993-1994 to 35.4% in 2002-2003. However, every year from 1993 to 2003, students with EBD consistently had the highest drop out rates and lowest graduation rates. The 26th Annual Report to Congress (U.S. Department of Education, 2004a) indicated that 44% of secondary students with EBD in 2001-2002 had the goal of attending a two- or four-year college, but only 11% of students with EBD took college entrance exams in 2001-2002.

DisproportionalityDespite improved outcomes for students with disabilities in the United States secondary students with emotional disturbance are more likely to be male, black, and to live in poverty than secondary students in the general population (p. xiv, U.S. Department of Education, 2005). For the past decade, many concerns have been expressed regarding the disproportionality of students placed in special education, particularly those identified as EBD. Research indicated that this is due to institutional racism,

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stereotypes, cultural incompetence, racial bias, and inequitable discipline policies (Lehr & McComas, 2006). Some have suggested that students who stand out from the norm are more likely to be labeled by educators as having EBD even though their behavior is similar to that of their white peers (Oswald, Coutinho, & Best, 2002). Teacher perceptions on behavior play a powerful role in referring students to be identified with EBD. These perceptions of student behavior are influenced by gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (Casteel, 2000). Thus, it is imperative that teachers develop cultural competency to bridge cultural discontinuity between teachers, students, and families (Osher et al., 2007; Diller & Moule, 2005). Cultural competency involves educating students in the context of minority status, respecting culturally defined needs of diverse populations, acknowledging that culture shapes behavior, and recognizing that thought-patterns from diverse cultures are equally valid, though different, and influence student perceptions (Cross et al., 1989). Finally, Oswald and Coutinho (2006) explained that students from diverse ethnic backgrounds may have higher prevalence of disability not because they ‘stand out’ but because of the inherent stress of living as a member of a minority group (p. 3). With the understanding that stress is associated with living as a minority member within a homogenous community, supports can be developed to help students from diverse backgrounds cope with this stress as an effort to reduce disability prevalence (Oswald & Coutinho, 2006).

While African-American and American Indian students are overrepresented in EBD categories, Office for Civil Rights (OCR) data indicates that Latino and Asians are underrepresented (Fierros & Conroy, 2002; Parrish, 2002). Risk ratios, however, vary by state. According to Parrish (2002), risk factors for Latinos range from .25 in Arkansas to 2.33 in New York while risk factors for African Americans range from .65 in Idaho to 6.06 in Nebraska. Generally, there have been underrepresentation patterns in EBD and other high incidence categories nationwide for Latino populations (Artiles, Trent, & Palmer, 2004).

Schnoes, Reid, Wagner, and Marder (2006) conducted a study intended to identify students with ADHD who were receiving special education services. According to the authors, ADHD now constitute(s) the majority of students in the categories of emotional disturbance and other health impaired (p. 483). Using data from the Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study (SEELS), the researchers were able to gather information on over 5,000 students served in special education with the primary disability categories of LD, ED, SLI, MR and OHI. Of these students, 467 were also identified by both parents and schools as having ADHD. Results found that Hispanics are noticeably underrepresented. As compared to a group of students with a Caucasian background, Hispanic students were less than half as likely to be identified with the disorder. Continued research must be conducted in order to better understand the underrepresentation of Hispanic students (Schnoes, Reid, Wagner, & Marder, 2006). Osher et al. (2007) contend, we must consider whether appropriate responses to disproportionate representation should be designed to raise identification rates for underserved subpopulations (p. 70).

Though institutional racism for the Hispanic population exists somewhat in special education, it is especially prevalent in overall dropout rates, grade retention, suspensions, and testing bias. Dropout rates and retention rates are a concern for Hispanic students, specifically Hispanic immigrants. In 2000, the dropout rate for Hispanics was 28% (7% for Whites and 13% for African Americans). The dropout rate for Hispanic students born outside of the United States is 44%, whereas first-generation Hispanic students have a dropout rate of 15% (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002).

In the United States, disparities among ethnic groups also exist in services provided for students with EBD. Students of color are disproportionately placed in more restrictive settings than their white peers, and fewer black students with EBD receive counseling when compared to white students with EBD (see Osher et al., 2007). On average, when black students do receive counseling, the average dosage of counseling is less (Osher, Woodruff, & Sims, 2002). In reviewing the literature on service disparities, Osher and colleagues (2007) indicated cultural discontinuity, both between teachers and students and between schools and students, (which) can place children at risk of developing EBD or being inappropriately identified as having EBD (p. 56). When there is a lack of understanding of behavior and learning styles, there are likely to be disproportionality in rates of suspensions, expulsions, and discipline referrals (Skiba, Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2000; Webb-Johnson, 2003).

Cultural competency has been a recommended policy in the field to battle the misidentification and inappropriate treatment of children of color (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, and Isaacs, 1989; U.S. Dept. of Education, 1994). For example, in 1994, the Office of Special Education Programs reported valuing

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and addressing diversity as a target strategy to effectively meet the needs of students with EBD. The target strategy goal included to encourage culturally competent and linguistically appropriate exchanges and collaborations among families, professionals, students, and communities. These collaborations should foster equitable outcomes for all students and result in the identification and provision of services that are responsive to issues of race, culture, gender, and social and economic status (U.S Department of Education, 1994, Strategic Target 3, 1). A decade later, the Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004b) amended IDEA 1997 and authorized that states must work to prevent inappropriate overidentification and disproportionate representation by race. Despite these efforts, disproportionality continues to exist in the EBD category, forcing us to examine the quality and effectiveness of how practitioners are prepared to operate in culturally diverse settings.

DiscussionBy reviewing cross-cultural comparative research over the past decade, we were able to determine that globally, strides have been made in addressing the needs of students with EBD in the regular classroom. Several industrialized countries are recognizing this long ignored invisible disability with varied terminology. However, students with EBD continue to be cited as the least accepted and the most negatively stereotyped of all exceptionalities (Winzer, 2005, p. 27). Even in many Western countries, they are still served mainly in segregated settings, despite international efforts promoting inclusive education. Should this be a surprise? Certainly not in light of high-stakes accountability. While standards-based reform movements such as No Child Left Behind in the United States call for the education of all, the high accountability places pressures on teachers to have the underperforming troublesome student removed from the regular classroom so that the teacher is not held responsible for the child’s academic progress (or lack of). The result can be exclusion legitimized by the student needing specialized attention away from the mainstream setting (Coulby & Jones, 2001). Thus, we are faced with an important question: can inclusive education co-exist with high stakes accountability? Are schools, administration, and teachers more concerned with adequate yearly progress rather than meeting the individual needs of students? If students with EBD are placed in inclusive settings, it is imperative that this is done responsibly with appropriate supports that include culturally competent professionals.

As the world moves toward inclusive education, we must not lose sight of the individual’s needs. Kauffman, Brigham and Mock (2007) have indicated that justifications for inclusion are often centered on increased opportunities for higher academic achievement and social interaction; however, some research suggests that students with EBD in more segregated settings are less alienated socially than their peers in inclusive settings (see Fulk, Brigham, & Lohman, 1998, p. 24). Thus, we must move away from the dichotomous mindset of inclusion is good, exclusion is bad and thoughtfully determine if and how educational needs can be met in the mainstream classroom (O’Brien & Guiney, 2005). We must continue to embrace scientific inquiry to guide efforts in determining how and where to most effectively address the needs of students with EBD (Kauffman, Brigham, & Mock, 2007).

Our research revealed that in developing countries, students with EBD are rarely identified as students with special needs; services are more likely to address those with more visible disabilities. Meeting the educational needs of students with any disability continues to be an overwhelming challenge in the midst of civil war, poor sanitation, malnutrition, inadequate health care, and ruptures in social institutions for several countries (Winzer, 2005).

In countries with diverse cultural backgrounds, such as the United States, strides must be taken to adequately prepare teachers in cultural competence, empowering them to become more aware of how to prevent problem behaviors from occurring and how to respond to behaviors. While IDEIA 2004 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004b) calls for attention to disproportionate representation by race and ethnicity in special education, an action plan to equip teachers to be culturally competent is missing. Similarly, No Child Left Behind legislation (U.S. Department of Education, 2001) requires teachers to be highly qualified; however, cultural competency is not recognized as a necessary skill for teachers to achieve highly qualified status. In order to adequately address the issue of disproportionality in special education, particularly in EBD, teachers must be adequately trained to recognize how their own perceptions of inappropriate behavior is mediated by culture.

Overidentification and disproportionate representation of students in EBD categories can be prevented at the stage of pre-referral. Pre-referral strategies must take into account the teacher’s construction of

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EBD as well as the student’s social, emotional, and cultural background. Pre-service and in-service trainings must address the following issues: on-going dialogue on how the term EBD is constructed among practitioners, exploration of diverse personal beliefs on culture and how these beliefs contribute to school experiences, and guidance on appropriate ways to adapt teaching styles to meet student needs (Chakraborti-Ghosh, 2008). Finally, preventive approaches to reduce EBD should be embraced. Research has indicated that early identification of academic learning problems may reduce risk for EBD (Lane et al., 2002). Thus, as efforts are made to improve academic competence for all learners, teachers must be adequately prepared to address diversity in classroom activities, interactions, and communications (Chakraborti-Ghosh, 2008).

In the United States, outcomes for students with EBD have generally improved: drop out rates have decreased while graduation rates have improved. Over the past decade, school-wide behavior supports, proactive positive models of prevention and intervention, and empirically based approaches such as functional assessment based interventions have been embraced. Thus, it is important to continue to embrace scientific investigations to determine appropriate interventions for students with EBD. Practitioners must also consider a student’s cultural background when implementing interventions such as functional behavior assessments (Townsend & Osher, 2002). Furthermore, as researchers in Western societies continue to develop knowledge, it is important to understand if and how western practices can be transferred to other countries and cultures.

SummaryIn order to appropriately meet the educational needs of students with EBD, the literature suggests: labeling students with EBD can potentially result in appropriate intervention, positive outcomes, and efficient methods to determine student outcomes; inclusive practices must be implemented responsibly in the context of standards based reform; teachers must recognize how their beliefs on behavior are mediated by a number of factors (including ethnicity, culture, socioeconomic status, and gender); and preventive approaches to EBD must begin early in the classroom with culturally competent teachers. Finally, we recommend that education reform include incorporating cultural competency as a requirement for highly qualified status in order to adequately address the issue of disproportionality of culturally diverse students with EBD.

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