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CHCFC301A: Support the development of children

Support the physical development of children

Contents

Physical development 3

The physical domain 3

How to support the physical development of the infant 3

Physical development of toddlers 8

Physical development during the preschool years 15

Physical development of school-aged children 17

Use daily routines as opportunities to acquire and practise skills 24

Changing sleep routines 25

Changing feeding routines 25

Provide access to equipment, games and toys that will develop fine and gross skills and fundamental movement skills 26

How to support the development of infants’ physical skills 26

How to support the development of toddlers’ physical skills 29

How to support physical growth in toddlerhood 33

How to support preschoolers’ physical growth 34

Handedness 38

How to support physical skills development in middle childhood 39

Provide adequate nutrition that allows for normal growth and development, and foods of increasing texture over time to stimulate speech and jaw development 42

Texture transition guide 42

Certificate III in Children’s Services: CHCFC301A: Reader LO 9246 © NSW DET 2010

Physical development

In the course of your study of child development you will come across the theories of a number of different researchers. Here we are going to examine the theories of an early maturational theorist. This theorist identified the role of nature or hereditary in children’s development. There is a long—running debate on whether our biological heritage (nature) is more important than the environment we are brought up in (nurture). In this context environment is seen to be everything external that contributes to our development. This would include things such as caregiving strategies, parenting styles and other influences, which we will discuss later in the topic. Nature is considered to be our biological inheritance. The genes in our bodies determine what colour eyes we have, for instance, and also at what age you will start walking.

Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) was an early American child development theorist who gathered normative data on a range of children and made this information accessible to the general public. Gesell firmly believed that each child’s development unfolded according to a genetic timetable. He developed a timetable of developmental events which we still use today.

The physical domainInfancy is a period of rapid physical growth. An infant’s birth weight is usually doubled by six months and may be tripled by 12 months. Growth in length (called height once the child is standing independently) is equally rapid.

Many physical changes occur during the first 18 months. Muscles, bones and nerve tissues mature to prepare the infant for walking. By 18 months, most infants have 16 of their 20 baby teeth. The digestive system matures so that not just milk but a wide variety of solid foods are acceptable.

How to support the physical development of the infantInfants need food, sleep and exercise, as well as fresh air and sunlight. They need warmth and clothing, protection from disease and injury and sensitive loving care. Infants also need to be kept clean and comfortable.

Certificate III in Children’s Services: CHCFC301A: Reader LO 9246© NSW DET 2010

When infants are breast—fed, they receive all of their nutritional needs for the first few months but as they grow older they need to be introduced to solid foods. Initially these foods are pureed but as their first teeth emerge at around six months, they can be introduced to coarser-textured food. When babies are not breast-fed, they need to be bottle-fed with special milk formulas which contain essential nutrients. It is important that formulas are prepared according to the instructions on the pack and that correct hygiene practices are followed.

Gross motor developmentDuring the first 18 months, infants learn to roll, sit, crawl, stand and walk. This requires them to develop strength, control, balance and coordination.

We use the term motor skills to refer to the individual’s ability to control their own body movements. ‘Gross motor skills’ refers to the individual’s use and control of their large muscles. Gross motor skills fall into two categories:

Locomotor skills: Skills that involve moving from one place to another. Crawling, walking and climbing are locomotor skills. These skills require strength, control and coordination.

Non—locomotor skills: Gross motor skills that do not involve moving from place to place. Swiping, reaching and bending are all non-locomotor skills and involve primarily the development of balance.

Crawling is a locomotor skill

Activity 1

Developing in a predictable sequenceGross motor skills develop in a predictable sequence. The time at which these skills develop varies. For example, one child may walk at nine months while another may walk at 15 months. However, all children will walk before they run. The timing of these skills will relate to the child’s genetic timetable or maturation and their experience or learning.


The infant first gains control of the head by using neck muscles, and then the shoulders and the trunk of the body. When development reaches the thighs, calves and toes, creeping and crawling can be mastered. The head—to—toe direction of development is described as the cephalocaudal pattern of growth, meaning that development proceeds from the head downwards. Control of the shoulders and arms comes before hands, and then fingers; from the centre of the body outward is described as proximodistal pattern of growth.

The steps that lead to independent walking are described in Table 1. You will see when looking at the table that the developmental process to independent walking follows the cephalocaudal (head—to—tail) pattern of growth and development. The ages given for the achievement of each step are average ages. There is a wide variation in the age individual infants achieve each step. The age range for the achievement of each skill is also given.

Steps to independent walking

Steps to independent walking

Description of skill Average age for skill achievement

Age range for achievement

Raises chin from ground when lying on tummy

4 weeks 2 to 6 weeks

Raises head and chest from ground when on tummy

8 weeks 6 weeks to 3 months

Sits with support 4 months 3 to 5 months

When held in a standing position, takes weight on feet

6 months 3½ months to 7½ months

Sits alone 7 months 5 to 8 months

Crawls 10 months 6 to 14 months

Walks when both hands held by an adult or older child

11 months 7 to 14 months

Pulls self to standing position using furniture 12 months 7 to 15 months

Cruising around furniture(walking using furniture as support)

12 months 7 to 15 months


Climbs stairs in crawling position 13 months 10 to 15 months

Stands alone from sitting position 14 months 10 to 16 months

Walks alone 15 months 11 to 18 months

Influences on gross motor developmentVariations in gross motor development are related to the influences of heredity, culture, nutrition, gender and experience. Heredity sets the child’s growth potential. This means that heredity determines such factors as how tall a child can grow and at what rate growth will occur. Heredity will also largely determine body shape.

Environmental conditions will determine if the child’s growth potential is reached. Environmental factors may have a negative influence or positive influence on an infant’s physical growth. Take a look at the following table:

Negative and positive environmental influences on the physical growth of an infant

Negative influences Positive influences

Long—term or chronic illness Freedom from chronic illness

Physical disability (eg cerebral palsy which affects muscle control)

No physical disabilities

Malnutrition (not enough food or not enough of the right types of food)

Good nutrition

Lack of opportunities to exercise Opportunities for exercise

Lack of love and attention Loving, responsive, sensitive care

The practices of different cultural and ethnic groups may influence when children develop particular skills. Caregiving practices too will cause variations in the sequence of development. For example, babies in Asian communities may be carried for much of the time and so walk later than Anglo-Australian babies who spend more time on the floor. Children of nomadic Aboriginal tribes were constantly carried and given little head support. Research has found that these babies as young as six months could sit unsupported on their mother’s shoulders over long walks. Anglo-Australian babies receive neck support and so are unlikely to be able to sit unsupported in this way at the same age.

Fine motor developmentFine motor development refers to the coordination of the smaller muscles of the hands or feet with the eyes. You may have heard of the term eye–hand coordination. When a baby grasps an object and puts it into the mouth, this


involves fine motor skills and eye–hand coordination. Poking the pointer finger into objects is also a fine motor skill that develops later in this period.

The main fine motor task of the first 12 months is to develop control over picking up objects and voluntarily releasing them. The baby also develops coordination skills by 12 months, the infant is able to direct his or her grasping and releasing skills to specific objects they see and want in the environment.

When a baby grasps an object and puts it into the mouth, this involves fine motor skills and eye-hand coordination

Fine motor skills begin to emerge during the first year of life. When infants are born, their hands are often curled into tight balls. Over the first couple of weeks, the hands gradually uncurl. At first, the infant’s hand control is limited to reflexive behaviour known as the grasp reflex. As the grasp reflex starts to disappear, hands become more important in learning about the world. The whole-fist grasp is known as the palmar grasp, where the palm of the hand covers the object and the fingers then curl around it in a more intentional way. Slowly fingers gain more importance in grasping, until the infant can use the index finger and thumb together to pick up smaller objects with what we call the pincer grasp. This grasp emerges at about 12 months of age or a little later.

As babies are developing control over their fingers, they are also developing visual skills of focusing and visual tracking skills which are important in reaching and grasping desired objects. (Visual tracking skills involve following an object with the eyes as it moves around.)

As well as developing grasping skills, infants also learn to let objects go. In the first six months or so, objects fall from the infant’s grasp rather than the infant letting go of something intentionally. Voluntary release (letting something go and putting it down intentionally) develops at around 12 months.

An outline of an infant’s fine motor development2–4 weeks: Grasp reflex is present but lessening; hand held in a loose fist. Infant can follow a moving object with eyes—visual tracking

4–8 weeks: Grasp reflex is less apparent. Hand is often open and relaxed


8 weeks to 3 months: Loose, full palmar grasp when contact is made with object; bats or swings at objects.

4–5 months: Controlled palmar grasp. Transfers objects from one hand to the other. Objects fall from grasp rather than released deliberately

6–9 months: Beginning to use pincer grasp Releases objects clumsily. Coordinates grasping with what is seen—reaches for and grasps specific objects intentionally. Will bang together two objects

9–12 months: Well-developed pincer grasp—able to pick up small objects. Releases objects with control and precision; voluntary release. Points and pokes with first finger. Likes throwing objects one by one. Can twist and turn simple wheels. Picks up objects and places them in a container and then takes them out again. Clumsily throws a large ball towards another person

15 months : Holds a crayon in whole hand and scribbles moving whole arm. Some infants begin to show a preference for one hand—but still use either hand. Makes a two-block tower. Threads rings over sticks. Places objects in a container through a hole.

18 months: Turns pages of a book, often several pages at a time. Uses cup and spoon with greater accuracy. Builds a three-block tower. Hammers pegs. Scribbles lines and dots. Removes shoes and socks. Unzips zippers.

Physical development of toddlersWhat does the toddler look like?

Children aged 18 months to three years are known as toddlers. Toddlers get their name from the way they walk. Because their body shape is still out of proportion, they walk with their legs apart and have a stiff-legged gait and their arms are raised and outstretched from their bodies which helps them gain balance.

Toddler

Notice the typical toddler posture in these pictures? They show a bow-egged, flat-footed toddler with arms outstretched from the body and feet spread apart. Toddlers also are easily unbalanced and often fall onto their bottoms.


It takes very little to unbalance a toddler and they fall frequently. They trip on the edge of a mat, slip on the grass or topple over as they gather up speed and their bodies get out of control. Toddlers often fall backwards with a bump on their bottoms or fall forwards on to their hands. Falling doesn’t stop them—they are up and off again almost immediately. In the early stages of independent walking, toddlers have very limited control over starting, stopping and steering their bodies to avoid obstacles. Once toddlers have gotten up speed, they cannot stop quickly enough to avoid falling or steer accurately to go around an obstacle in their path.

As you will see as you work through this topic, by three years of age and the end of the toddlerhood stage of development, this unsteadiness has disappeared and is replaced by much more control and flexibility.

Physical growthIn toddlerhood, the body growth is steady but slower than it was during infancy. By the age of two years, children will be half the height that they will be as an adult. More enthusiastic parents are often keen to measure their two-year-old to get some idea of how tall they will eventually be. Research has shown that there is a 70 per cent chance of making an accurate prediction at this time.

It has also been found that a two-year-olds’ body weight is about 20 per cent of their adult weight and their brain is about 75 per cent of the weight of the adult brain.

During toddlerhood, the trunk and legs continue to grow in relation to the head, so that their body proportions change.

From 18 months to three years, toddlers will gain all of their 20 baby teeth. They will start to gain control over their bladder and bowel movements, so toilet-training should wait until children demonstrate that they are aware of what is happening with their body.

There are slight gender differences in physical growth. Girls tend to mature more quickly than boys. On the average, boys weigh more and are taller than girls.

Gross motor skill development in toddlerhoodAs we’ve learnt so far in this unit, toddlers tend to be on the go all the time. Their new ability to walk and reach can get them into all sorts of trouble. During toddlerhood, locomotor skills, non-locomotor skills and kinaesthetic awareness become more refined and controlled. Toddlers are often busy hauling objects from one location to another. They are developing upper-body strength as they push and pull all manner of things around their environment.


Even though running follows walking, it is not until after the age of two that toddlers learn to balance and coordination starts to allow them to lift their legs in a running motion. However, it doesn’t matter whether it is before or after two, they still manage to move very fast. They do have difficulty, however, negotiating obstacles, particularly if they are approaching them at a speed. It takes time and practice for them to learn when to stop, when to turn and when to duck.

During this time toddlers are learning to climb. This, combined with their perfecting ability to reach, can lead them into all sorts of mischief. However, sometimes climbing up is much easier for them than climbing down. Many a toddler has been found caught up a ladder or climbing frame and has been seen screeching for help to get down. They can now walk up and down stairs starting with two feet to each stair, gradually using alternate feet.

By the time they are three years of age they can usually scoot effectively on wheeled toys and with practice they become very adept at negotiating obstacles. They are also learning to jump and throw large, lightweight balls so they really start to enjoy outdoor play.

Summary of gross motor skillsA two-year old:

• walks up and down stairs two feet to each stair • picks up objects from a standing position and maintains balance• runs and is able to stop and start and avoid obstacles but will still trip and

bump into things• when running, has difficulty in changing speed and direction suddenly• pushes a tricycle with feet on the ground• stands from a squatting position without hand support• climbs up climbing frames but sometimes has difficulty coming down• jumps by lifting one foot (not very high) off the ground• moves the whole body rhythmically to music.

A two-year old can push a tricycle with feet on the ground


Gross motor development: two to three yearsBetween two and three years, children build on the basic motor skills they have already achieved during the first two years. Instead of just listing the motor skills that the child can do during this period, we focus our attention on the difference in the performance of motor skills at two-and-a-half and at three years. For this reason, the following table outlines motor development during the two to three years’ period by motor skills rather than ages.

In Table 4, the performance of the particular skill is described at two-and-a-half and at three. For children’s motor development at this age, focus on how they perform a particular skill—eg all three-year-olds can run (unless there is a disability), so your interest is in how the child runs.

Performance of particular skills at two—and—a—half and at three years

Skill Two-and-a-half years Three years

Using stairs Walks up and downstairs confidently; alternate feet going up; two feet to a step coming down

Alternate feet going up; may use alternate feet coming down but not necessarily

Walking May still watch their feet while walking to avoid obstacles

Walks in adult fashion, swinging arms; can walk in a straight line; can walk without the need for close inspection of feet

Running Running improved but not totally smooth; cannot turn sharp corners well or come to a sharp stop; will still bump into things and trips and falls

Runs with a smoother action and control over stop and start

Jumping Jumps from low step with one—foot leading; may jump lifting two feet off the ground; bends knees, swings arms, with a lot of effort barely clears the floor in whole body action.

Jumps with less effort, lifting two feet off the ground jumps from low step with both feet together

Climbing Climbs easy climbing equipment; may still need help down

Up and down jungle gyms, ladders, ropes and trees (if confident)

Balance Stands on tiptoe for a short while

Balances for several seconds while standing on one foot; walks and runs on tiptoes

Using wheeled toys

Pushes wheelbarrow toys skilfully; propels tricycle using alternate feet, pushing off the ground

Pedals tricycle and steers to avoid obstacles


Influences on the development of gross motor skillsThe development of gross motor skills in the toddler years is influenced by both heredity and the experiences they have in the environment. Both heredity and environment will influence when toddlers develop certain skills and the quality of the skills that they develop.

The rate of maturation of muscles, nerves and bones involved in gross motor skills is determined by heredity, as is the quality of those skills.

How often toddlers are encouraged to play and practise their skills will affect the rate at which they will develop. Nutritional levels will also affect toddlers’ development of gross motor skills. Children who are hungry or are suffering from malnutrition often are too tired for strenuous activities.

Of course, different cultures and families will place different emphasis on different skills and if a particular culture does not perceive the development of gross motor skills as important as other skills, there will be less opportunity for those skills to develop as quickly. For instance, in Reggio Emilia, Italy, there is a greater focus on the development of children’s thinking skills and creativity than there is on the development of physical skills.

Gender sometimes influences the development of skills. For example, boys might be encouraged to be involved in physically active play outside while girls are encouraged to be quieter and play indoors and so spend less time practising those gross motor skills.

Gross motor development needs during toddlerhood To achieve optimum gross motor development the toddler needs:

• appropriate equipment and toys which encourage the use and refinement of gross motor skills

• experiences which provide opportunities to practise developing gross motor skills

• encouragement and support from caregivers• an environment which has space and is safe.

Fine motor and coordination skill development in toddlerhoodBy the end of infancy babies have perfected their pincer grip and voluntary release; they are now able to feed themselves and turn the pages of a book with an awkward action.


Toddlers improve their fine motor skills and coordination between the ages of 18 months and three years. They are now gaining strength in their fingers and have improved hand and finger flexibility so that they can manipulate and use a variety of implements. They now start to enjoy finger plays as they are now starting to be able to move each finger independently.

They can now kick a stationary ball by walking into itit takes time to learn to swing their leg backwards as part of the kicking action, so sometimes they overbalance. They can throw or catch a large ball using both arms.

Toddlers can throw or catch a large ball using both arms

They can now unscrew lids of jars and turn door and tap handles. They can rotate their wrist so they can complete an insert puzzle. They become adept at squeezing substances from squeeze bottles (the shampoo and conditioner in the shower recess, for instance) and they can start to hold a pencil with a thumb and three—finger grasp.

Summary of fine motor and coordination skills developed during toddlerhoodBy two years, a toddler can:

• kick a stationary ball by walking into it• turn door and tap handles• unscrew lids of jars• build a six-block tower • copy a block bridge structure (two square shapes with a gap between

them and one sitting on top to ‘bridge’ the gap)• start to show left- or right-hand preference • hold a crayon in a full hand grasp• hammer but with a random rather than coordinated action• draw using circles, lines and dots (with full arm movement rather than

wrist movement)• turn the pages of a book one at a time


• throw a ball with an arm action but may lose balance when throwing• unwrap packages (cling wrap can be a challenge).

The following table is about two children aged 2½ and 3 years. Remember that not all children are the same.

Toddlers’ skills

Skills Sammy is 2 ½ years, and he:

Ellen is 3 years, and she:

Using balls Throws a large ball with stiff arms, whole body involved to project ball; catches a large ball using arms and whole body; kicks a large stationary ball but may overbalance

Throws without losing balance, using whole arm and body; catches large balls using full arm; kicks a large stationary ball and does not overbalance

Manipulating puzzle pieces

Rotates puzzle pieces in a 10–12 piece puzzle; handles three- or four-piece geometric puzzle (eg circles, squares, triangles) with ease; insert pieces

Solves 10–12 piece puzzles; matches shapes to hole and inserts a piece

Hammering Uses a wooden hammer and hammers pegs in hammering toy

Uses light adult hammer with big nails and soft material to hammer into

Drawing Holds a pencil with thumb and three-finger grasp; imitates vertical and horizontal lines (painting and drawing may go outside paper boundary)

Holds pencil with thumb and first two fingers; controls a variety of drawing implements; imitates a cross if shown how; draws a circle

Using scissors May try to use scissors with two hands; will have difficulty using them

Snips with scissors but has difficulty

Threading Threads large beads on a stiff threader

Needs a stiff threader but is able to thread objects with a smallish hole (eg, large buttons with large hole)


Physical development during the preschool years

Physical growthPhysical growth during the preschool years

Change Description

Changes to body proportions

The body proportions of preschoolers now change. They take on more adult-like proportions rather than the large-headed look of earlier years. At this stage, preschoolers’ bodies grow faster than their heads and as their body grows longer their stomach becomes flatter — the pot-belly look of the toddler disappears.

Development of facial muscles

Now that they have all of their first set of teeth, you’ll notice the development of the cheek and jaw muscles. Note that speech becomes clearer (and they also talk more).

The development of the jaw gives more balance to the face. The bridge of the nose also develops, making the eyes appear further apart.

Brain development The preschooler’s brain is developing at a steady pace and by the end of this period, it will be about 90 per cent the size of an adult’s brain.

Changes to height, weight and general appearance

By four years of age, the height of most children would have doubled what it was at birth.

Preschoolers have a leaner look and you can notice their muscle definition, particularly in boys. You may notice that girls tend to carry slightly more fat than boys, but boys tend to be slightly heavier than the girls. This is due to greater muscle weight.

Preschool children come in all shapes and sizes and are still within the normal range for height and weight. Although most children go through various sequences of physical development, there are many individual differences in the rate and timing of these changes.

Individual differences in physical growth will be a result of factors such as:

• genetics (racial background and physical types that run in the family are indications)

• nutrition level, health and access to health care (this may reflect socio-economic background)

• disabilities


• emotional environment.

Generally speaking, children from poor homes (low socio-economic backgrounds) have slower rates of growth compared to those from more affluent backgrounds; this can be related to nutrition and available health care.

As well, ethnic origin (or racial background—for example, Polynesian, Anglo-Saxon) appears to be a factor in the rate and timing of physical growth and development. For example, generally Polynesian children (eg, Maori, Samoan and Tongan) tend to be taller and heavier than children from an Anglo-Australian background. Children of Asian backgrounds tend to be smaller than their Anglo-Australian playmates of the same age.

Gross motor skill development in the preschool yearsPreschoolers love to run, jump and swing and explore their world with great enthusiasm. Exploring space becomes a new obsession and they are happy if they have objects to crawl into, through, over and around. These experiences give them increased body awareness and will contribute to their development of self-concept.

Between the ages of three and five years, as preschoolers’ bodies become slimmer, stronger and less top-heavy, their gross motor skills improve dramatically.

By the age of five, many children are skilled and graceful. Most five-year olds can ride a two-wheel bike, climb a ladder, pump a swing and throw, catch and kick a ball. They are now able to perform skills that require balance and coordination. They can walk on a balance beam, skip rather than gallop and even copy simple dance steps. They really enjoy moving to music and this helps them become more aware of their bodies in space.

Gross motor development during the preschool years involves:

• the refinement of an existing skill—for example, walking and running• the gradual integration of an already existing skill—for example, throwing

and catching and kicking a ball while walking or running• the development of new skills—for example, skipping and hopping.

If we provide preschoolers with a variety of gross motor activities and encourage them, we will greatly support their gross motor skill development at this stage. For example, children who are encouraged to catch and throw balls will develop overarm throwing skills during the preschool years. Preschoolers who are not given this encouragement and experience are more likely to throw with a slightly awkward underarm motion.


Fine motor skill development in the preschool yearsAs you have already learnt, fine motor skills are those which involve the small muscles of the hand controlling the precise movements of the fingers and thumb.

During the preschool years, increasing control and accuracy using these fine muscles is developing. However, fine motor skills can be much harder for young children to master than gross motor skills. Activities such as pouring water from a jug into a glass, cutting food with a knife and fork, cutting with scissors, controlling a pencil and tying a shoelace can be challenging for preschoolers. With practice and experience, they can do these tasks with greater competence at the age of five than they can at three.

Preschoolers start to be able to combine two skills during this stage. For instance, they start to be able to engage in conversation as they are managing utensils while eating.

Fine motor skills can be much harder for young children to master than gross motor skills

Physical development of school-aged childrenWhat do school-aged children look like?

School-aged children come in all shapes and sizes and there is quite a difference in the way a five-year old looks compared to a 12-year old.


Physical growthPhysical growth at middle childhood

Proportion Children’s bodies are now in proportion and they lose the chubby appearance of the younger years.

Teeth Their first teeth are replaced by permanent teeth during middle childhood.

Height Growth is at first slow and steady but a growth spurt usually occurs towards the end of middle childhood. This is particularly true for girls.

On average, height increases at the rate of about 6 cm per year. Up to around ten years of age, boys tend to be taller than girls, but then girls tend to grow faster after that.

If you had ever organised a Year 6 social, you’d have found the differences in height between boys and girls to be obvious.

Puberty Towards the end of middle childhood, some children may enter puberty. Puberty is the physical process that brings boys and girls to sexual maturity.

Girls tend to mature physically faster than boys.

Health Their health is generally good. However, when they start school they may be exposed to many infectious diseases—for example, chicken pox, measles, mumps, impetigo (school sores) and conjunctivitis.

Immunisation has helped reduce the contraction of some diseases; however, not all children have been immunised and outbreaks do occur in schools.

It is important that good health, hygiene and nutrition habits are encouraged.

Physical skills and energy level

Children at this stage seem to have a lot of energy. They often choose strenuous and sometimes dangerous activities as they test their newly—acquired or developing physical skills.

To fuel this growth and activity, they need to eat more than they did in the preschool years. In particular, their appetites increase towards the end of middle childhood when the growth spurt occurs.

Varying rates of growthA number of factors, including nutrition and disease, will affect children’s growth. Studies in different parts of the world have found that children in urban areas are generally taller than those living in rural areas. They have found too that middle-class children are usually taller than children from families with lower incomes.

Malnutrition and disease also appear to play a large role in differences in physical growth. Children who have experienced malnutrition and disease have been found to be shorter and lighter than children who have not.

Ethnic origin plays a role as well. For instance, Asian children tend to be somewhat shorter than European and African children, even when growing up in


comparable environments. In the United States, African-American children tend to grow slightly more rapidly than Anglo children.

Brain growthA newborn’s brain is approximately 25 per cent of its adult weight, and by the time the child is two years old it is 75 per cent of its adult weight. Between the ages of five and seven years, it is said that there is a spurt in the growth of the brain to achieve 90 per cent of its adult weight. From this age to adolescence, the brain matures to its adult state.

Body imageTowards the end of middle childhood, children may become concerned about their physical appearance. It has been found that children’s feelings about themselves are influenced by their body image. Children who are happy with their physical appearance feel positive about themselves. Children who are unhappy about their physical appearance tend to feel negative about themselves.

Eating disordersSociety’s concept of an ‘ideal body’ can start to have an influence on 11- and 12-year olds’ attitudes about themselves, particularly girls. There have been instances of children as young as 11 or 12 being diagnosed with the eating disorders known as anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Both anorexia nervosa (starving) and bulimia (extreme bingeing on food and then self-induced vomiting) are on the increase in our society.

ObesityObesity refers to the condition of being overweight. It is said that someone is obese if they are over 20 per cent heavier than the average weight for their stage of development and body frame.

We frequently assume that heavy children will outgrow their baby fat. However, this is not always true. Most overweight children become overweight adults. Recent research shows that the number of Australian children who are overweight is increasing.

Obesity in middle childhood becomes a social problem. Obese children tend to be less popular. They tend to perform poorly in athletic activities and so are excluded from many children’s games. To be included, they sometimes have to accept


humiliating nicknames such as ‘Fatty’ or ‘Tubby’. This can contribute to low self-esteem. Unlike the stereotype, fat children are not necessarily happy children.

Obesity tends to run in families. While there is an obvious genetic link, there is also a link to over-eating or eating foods that are high in fats or sugar. Watching television also appears to play a role in the development of obesity. Firstly, children tend to consume snacks while watching television; secondly, their eating habits are influenced by the television advertising of junk food and sweets; and thirdly, television watching is a sedentary activity. When children are not engaging in activities that will burn up calories, they are more likely to put on weight.

Watching television appears to play a role in the development of obesity

Activity 2a

Activity 2b

Activity 2c

Activity 2d

Gross motor development in middle childhoodThroughout middle childhood, children steadily improve in their ability to perform various gross motor skills. They now have more strength, stamina, endurance and agility. Children are now eager to participate in group games and athletic activities that require the movement and coordination of large muscles. They enjoy catching and throwing balls, hopping, jumping, climbing, pedalling and balancing on bicycles.


Between the ages of eight and ten years, children are showing balance, coordination and strength. These allow them to engage in gymnastics and team sports. They also enjoy riding scooters and using roller blades and skateboards (that is, of course, if they’ve got such equipment and have the opportunities to practise the skills). They enjoy swinging by their arms, hanging by the knees, and doing somersaults and cartwheels. They can now learn to swim, and play games that involve skipping, hopping and jumping.

You know that there is a great deal of individual variation in relation to gross motor skill development. During middle childhood any special talents in the sporting area become noticeable. As well, on average boys tend to develop greater forearm strength than girls and do better at games like tennis and baseball. This strength difference continues in later development.

There are no clearly defined stages of gross motor skills development during middle childhood but it is useful to have a general idea of what skills children learn at different ages. These skills are listed in Table 8 according to ages.

A summary of children’s gross motor skills in middle childhoodAt six… On average, six-year olds:

• enjoy climbing and can use climbing ropes• enjoy swinging by their arms and hanging by their knees• enjoy somersaults and cartwheels • play simple skipping games• begin to use a bat and ball and achieve greater accuracy in throwing and

catching.

At seven… On average, seven-year olds:

• can walk along a narrow plank• can hit the ball of a T-stand• gain rhythm in dancing• can participate in activities such as trampolining and gymnastics.

At eight to 12 years… On average, eight-to-12-year olds enjoy more complicated coordinated activities such as:

• hopscotch and skipping games• hiking expeditions and hill climbing• swimming (they have considerable swimming skills)• team games.

Remember these age summaries are very general and there are really no such clearly defined stages in gross motor or coordination skill development during


middle childhood. The skills listed at each age do emphasise the increasing strength, stamina, coordination, agility and flexibility and the use of judgement in gross motor skills.

Fine motor skill development in middle childhoodAs well as developing greater strength, flexibility and judgment in gross motor skills, five- to 12-year olds gain control over their fine motor movements. They can now use their hands and fingers in a more precise way. By the age of seven, most children can tie their shoelaces and hold their pencils and pens as adults do. They can now fasten buttons, zip zippers, brush their teeth, wash themselves and coordinate a knife and fork.

Their eye-hand coordination allows them to play using a bat and ball and they can move their fingers independently so that they can play a musical instrument and enjoy computer games.

Writing and drawing are now an important part of a school-aged child’s day and hand preference is well established. Between the age of five and 12 years they are refining their writing and drawing skills. They move from using pencils to pens and using lines to guide the shape of their work to being able to write quite neatly on one line. Their drawings become more detailed and complex and they enjoy using a range of media to create the effects they want.

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By about 12 years of age, the end of the middle childhood stage, children are able to perform any skill that an adult can. The quality of the skills a child develops depends on heredity factors and the encouragement and opportunities they are offered and the amount of time available for practice. On average, girls are more likely to have better fine motor control than boys during middle childhood. More will be said about influences on motor skill development during middle childhood a little later in this learning topic.

Influences on motor skill development during middle childhood

Gender differencesPerformance: Throughout middle childhood, boys and girls perform similarly in most motor activities.

Strength: Boys show slightly greater overall strength and this is particularly true with regard to forearm strength that aids them in swinging a bat or throwing a ball.


Flexibility: Girls show greater limb coordination and overall flexibility. These skills are valuable in dancing, balancing and gymnastics. Girls who are short, lean and small-boned seem particularly well suited to gymnastics.

Competitiveness: During middle childhood, boys seem to be involved in more competitive games than girls. Compared to girls, boys also appear to enjoy activities that are more vigorous.

FitnessFitness has now become quite an issue in our society. The health benefits of exercise for both adults and children are well known. The experts tell us that exercise reduces the risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes and certain forms of cancer. It is also believed that fitness influences self-image and concentration or attention to tasks.

Research has found that children who have a high level of physical activity are more likely to have parents who encourage them to exercise and who actively exercise themselves.

We can help motivate children to engage in regular physical activity by being interested and involved with their play. We can promote opportunities for walking, swimming and riding bikes. We can encourage outdoor play during daylight hours after school. However, we need to be careful not to put excessive performance demands on children. We need to allow them to progress at their own pace.


Use daily routines as opportunities to acquire and practise skills

The term routine refers to a baby’s daily pattern of sleep times, feeding times and awake times. The baby’s awake times may also have a certain pattern—times when the baby is grizzly and unsettled ,and times when the baby is content and enjoys and responds to caregiver interaction.

You have learnt that by the end of the neonate stage most babies have developed their own individual routines. Some babies quickly develop a predictable pattern while other babies’ sleep–awake patterns seem unpredictable and irregular.

The following example shows the difference in routines for two babies, Lily and Joel. Lily and Joel were born in the same week at the same birth centre. Two months later, each has quite a different routine.

Lily sometimes sleeps or plays for only an hour between feeds, particularly in the late afternoon. Sometimes she drinks a lot of milk and at other times she doesn’t drink much at all. She usually goes to sleep around 10 pm and wakes about 5 am, feeds and goes back to sleep, and then wakes again around 9 am, feeds and goes back to sleep again until midday. From midday to late in the evening, she feeds and plays and sometimes sleeps for an hour or two.

Joel has a more regular pattern than Lily. He has four—hourly feeds and usually drinks a full bottle. He mostly sleeps through the night, from around 8 pm to 7 am. He often sleeps again in the late morning and again after lunch. He’s usually awake in the late afternoon and early evening and is sometimes grizzly around 5 pm.

When caring for babies, you need to know the routine that best suits each baby. If you try to force a baby to a strict timetable, this will lead to discontent and frustration for both the baby and the caregiver. Babies respond best to a predictable, but flexible, routine which has been developed around their individual needs.

When caring for an infant, time has to be set aside for bathing, feeding, changing nappies and, of course, a sleep routine. Some planning needs to be carried out in order to complete the daily tasks. However, because each infant is an individual, the best routine is a flexible one. Routines also have to be adjusted as the baby grows and develops.


Changing sleep routines Let’s look firstly at an infant’s sleep pattern. Initially many infants seem to need lots of sleep but this is gradually reduced during the first 12 months to perhaps two short naps per day, and by 18 months to one afternoon sleep. In the early weeks, some infants like to be wrapped up tightly when put down to sleep. However, this changes as the baby begins to stretch and reach. Some babies begin to sleep through the night in the early months, while others may not do so for a couple of years. There are lots of individual variations in between.

Changing feeding routines Feeding is another routine that varies greatly over the first 12 months. It begins with bottle or breastfeeding five or six times a day, although some babies feed more frequently. The number of feeds is gradually reduced as the infant adapts to sleeping more at night and is further reduced as solid foods are introduced. By the end of infancy, the child is ready for three main meals and two snacks a day.


Provide access to equipment, games and toys that will develop fine and gross skills and fundamental movement skills

How to support the development of infants’ physical skills

How to support the development of infants’ gross motor skillsTo achieve optimum gross motor development, an infant needs:

• to be allowed to develop skills according to their own maturation timetable

• toys and equipment that encourage developing gross motor skills • opportunities and experiences that encourage developing gross motor

skills • caregiver encouragement and support of the infant as he or she attains

each skill.

To support infants’ gross motor skill development, you need to remember that although the sequence of gross motor milestones is predictable, there is a wide variation in the rates of development between individuals.

As carers, we need to be able to recognise what each infant is ready or interested in doing developmentally, and then provide an environment and experiences that will support and extend this development.

We need to provide many opportunities for them to develop strength, balance and coordination during their daily activities. Some of these opportunities are listed below. By carrying infants, they are able to strengthen their muscles and gain control over their neck and head movements. As we move with them, they gain lots of information about their body in space. This helps them to develop a


sense of balance or kinaesthetic awareness. We can use baby slings and pouches to give infants these experiences.

Interesting toys Safe objects

If we provide interesting toys and safe objects within reach, we are encouraging the development of their reaching skills.

If we place infants on their tummies when they are awake, we are allowing them to practise holding their head up. This strengthens their shoulders and upper arms that will then lead them to learn to push themselves up so they are ready to crawl.

We need to take care that infants are not pushed to develop skills before they are ready. For example, propping a baby up with cushions will not help that baby learn to sit. It is more important that the baby is placed on the floor for tummy play so that they can start to develop strength in their upper body.

As carers, we can actively guide, encourage and support infants’ gross motor development. This means that we respond positively to their efforts and achievements. We might give them a big hug when they take their first steps, smile and cheer when they pull themselves up for the first time and tell them how clever they are. We may also provide physical support when they are learning a new skill. For example, we might hold their hands when they first start to walk.

When supporting infants’ gross motor skills, it is important to respect parents’ wishes. For example, in some cultures it is customary for babies to be carried for the first 12 months. Some parents may feel disturbed if their babies are placed on the floor as they see the floor as a dirty place. We must always listen to the concerns of parents and find other ways to support their children’s development. For instance, parents may be happy for the child to be placed on large mattresses on the floor or we can get them to bring in slings that they use at home and do lots of movement activities with the baby in the sling. As carers, we need to be flexible in the way we support children and their families.

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How to support infants’ fine motor skill developmentWhen you are aware of the sequence of development of fine motor skills, you are able to provide experiences that will encourage this fine motor development. As caregivers, we need to provide an environment that is interesting and that will encourage infants to develop and extend their grasping and visual abilities. Much of this can be done through our play with infants.

As we play with infants, we need to give them objects that are the right size. If they are too big, they can’t be grasped by the infant and of course if they are too small, the infant will not have the control to pick them up. A guide is that objects should be about the size of the baby’s fist. In other words, the toys we provide should challenge the infant to reach and grasp in a variety of ways, yet not cause frustration. Movement in toys and other items in the environment will encourage the child to track and develop their sense of space and depth.

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We can support infants’ development of fine motor skills by providing toys and everyday objects to handle, so they can practise and refine their skills. We should also give lots of encouragement and praise in our play with them.

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How to support the development of toddlers’ physical skills

How to support the development of toddlers’ gross motor skillsPerhaps the most important thing that toddlers need in order to practise and refine their gross motor skills is space—a space to run, to climb, to jump, to roll and to scoot. This space should be safe but have a variety of surfaces within it. By this we mean soft areas such as grass, soft-fall outdoor mats and hard areas such as cement, as well as uneven and textured surfaces.

Secondly, toddlers need appropriate equipment and toys that will encourage the use and refinement of gross motor skills.

The caregiver needs to provide equipment, materials and experiences which encourage the development of the full range of toddler gross motor skills:

• running and walking and climbing (locomotor skills)• bending, pushing, pulling (non-locomotor skills)• balancing skills (kinaesthetic movements).

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It is important that, as carers of toddlers, we are actively involved with toddlers and encourage them as they strive to develop and extend their gross motor skills. We should be aware of children’s capabilities and be ready to hold a hand to give that extra balance, support their body if they are climbing on equipment and be ready to intervene if we perceive they have gone beyond their capabilities.

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Fine motor and coordination development needs during toddlerhoodTo achieve optimum fine motor and coordination development, the toddler needs:

• appropriate equipment, materials and experiences which encourages the use of fine motor and coordination skills

• encouragement and support from caregivers.

How to support the development of toddlers’ fine motor skillsSometimes helping toddlers with their fine motor skills can be slightly frustrating. As you will learn later in this topic, they are also developing a sense of autonomy and independence and tend to want to do everything for themselves. It can be difficult when the toddlers’ fine motor skills do not allow them to be in control of a task. This is where we need to show lots of patience.

Toddlers need achievable tasks. They need guidance to help them complete fine motor tasks. We may need to hold the plastic thread so they can get that bead on, or we may need to help them push the piece of Lego into place so the two pieces connect.

We need to provide a variety of toys and equipment that will reflect and extend toddlers’ fine motor skills. Initially, they need bigger puzzles with bigger pieces with bigger knobs, they need bigger beads to thread on stronger, stiffer plastic thread, they need bigger brushes to dip into the paint pot and to paint on the paper. If you notice toddlers having difficulty with a task, it’s a good idea to direct them early before they become frustrated.

Playdough and, later, clay is good for strengthening finger muscles that will be needed to do fine motor tasks. Finger painting too can help muscles of the hands and fingers. It is also a very soothing activity.

Toddlers enjoy filling, pouring and squeezing. Activities such as water play will give them the opportunity to do this. Just ensure you have lots of squeezie bottles, cups, jugs, funnels and water wheels.

The larger version of Lego called Duplo is good for this age group. You will expect that they will, first of all, be very good at pulling the pieces apart before they develop the skill of putting the pieces together.

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Summary of appropriate caregiving strategiesTo support the development of fine motor and coordination skill development of toddlers, caregivers need to:

• provide a variety of toys and equipment at the appropriate level• be prepared for a toddler to move between activities as they have a short

concentration span• support and guide children by such methods as guiding the toddler’s hand

movements by putting your hand over the toddler’s hand• model skills:• you build a tower that the toddler can copy• you put on a hand puppet and manipulate it and encourage the toddler to

do the same• encourage play by being actively involved (eg pretend to eat the

playdough sausage made by the toddler)• praise toddlers attempts (do not put emphasis on the final product as the

learning is in the process, not what is produced)• display toddlers’ artwork and other creations and make positive

comments about them• start the toddler off on an activity (eg threading beads and then withdraw

as the toddler gets better)• be prepared to redirect the toddler to another activity if the toddler is

getting frustrated (eg doing a puzzle that is too hard—don’t force the child to complete the puzzle).

Special issue for caregivers: Toddlers and safetyWith better motor skills, toddlers become explorers of their world. They are now reaching out, grasping, manipulating and letting go. They can move their bodies from one place to another, climbing over obstacles and climbing up to reach the previously unreachable. Toddlers move around the environment from object to object, looking, touching, tasting, smelling and listening.

As they explore, they also start to experiment as well. They try to find out what they can do and what objects can do. They drop, squeeze, bang and pull things to see what will happen, carrying out an endless series of basic experiments.

Toddlers easily have accidents. Toddlers are accident-prone for four reasons:

• They are now mobile and reach many objects that were not accessible earlier.

• Their fine motor development allows them to open containers that previously they could not explore.

• They are curious, persistent and eager to gather information through all their senses and many interesting things go into their mouths.


• They lack the experience and the ability to predict dangerous outcomes of situations.

A safe environmentIt is critical to ‘toddler-proof’ the environment. Most important, stay alert and watchful. Watch children closely. Children at this age must never be unsupervised even for a moment. Here are some basic safety pointers but don’t limit yourself to these—always be alert to any possible hazards.

Danger Safety pointers

Electricity Make sure that electrical cords are safely out of children’s reach. Put safety plugs in any power points that are not being used.

Furniture Have safety catches on low cupboard doors and drawers.

Be careful when opening and closing doors. They can be very dangerous and children’s fingers are often caught in them. Discourage children from playing near doors.

Furniture should be strong and stable, with no sharp edges.

Toys Make sure toys are in good repair and have no splinters or sharp edges that children could hurt themselves with.

Poisons Store all cleaning products and poisons in places inaccessible to children. Buy brands with childproof tops.

Keep all medicine in a place that is totally inaccessible to children (eg a locked cupboard that is up high) and always keep medicines in the original container with a childproof top.

Check to make sure that any plants in the room are non—poisonous and kept out of reach of children.

Choking Make sure there are no small objects lying about that children might choke on, or that may cause damage if swallowed (eg safety pins, staples, tacks, bobby pins, chipped paint).

Be aware of older children’s toys that may have small pieces that are dangerous to toddlers.

Never give toddlers foods like nuts or other small, hard things they might choke on.

Cuts, scalds and burns Keep sharp objects like scissors and knives out of reach.

Don’t drink coffee or other hot drinks around toddlers. A single cup of coffee spilled on a child could cause a third degree scald over two—thirds of the child’s body.

Check the water temperature in hot water taps and turn it down if necessary. Tap water should not be warmer than about 45°C.


Never leave saucepan handles hanging out over the edge of the stove, and never leave kettles or their electric cords close to the edge of a bench or table where toddlers may pull them over.

Nappy changing Never leave a child unattended on a change table. Keep nappy buckets covered and in a place that toddlers can’t get to.

Outdoors Make sure there are no gaps in fences and gates of outdoor play areas. Check outdoor areas for potential hazards (eg poisonous plants and berries, rubbish, animal droppings).

How to support physical growth in toddlerhoodObviously, for toddlers to grow into healthy little people they need sufficient amounts of food, a nutritionally balanced diet and adequate rest and sleep to restore energy levels. They also need physical activity and exercise to develop muscles and bones, and they need protection from diseases, accidents and, of course, from the sun.

Like infants, toddlers need consistency, stability and predictability in their day. Although toddlers are developing some independence, they still like and respond to a familiar and well—organised environment and to routines. They need to have some predictability with meal times, rest and sleep times, bath times and play times.

Routines should follow the same pattern each day but should be flexible and timed to suit the toddler’s needs. For example, on some days a toddler may be particularly tired and may need a sleep earlier than on other days.

Toilet-trainingIt’s important that we, as caregivers, remember that bowel and bladder control rarely comes before 18 months and sometimes not until the toddler is two or even three years old. When a toddler is later to toilet-train than others of a similar age, it is always good to remember that not too many children go to school in nappies!

Toddlers can only start to be toilet-trained when they are ready. Besides their body being physically mature enough to have the needed muscle control for bladder and bowel control, they need to show some signs that indicate that they are aware of wetting or soiling their nappy.


When a toddler shows signs of being interested in using the toilet and has some words, then maybe this is the time to start. I can remember with my first child worrying about when I was ever going to get around to toilet-training him. He was two and two months when his baby brother arrived and showed no sign of being interested in using the toilet.

Two months later we started talking about the toilet, made the big trip to the shops to buy grown-up underpants and within a week he was fully trained during the day. Wow, what a relief! Waiting for signs of readiness to toilet-train can often mean that it happens more quickly and with less fuss.

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How to support preschoolers’ physical growth

Good nutritionFor preschoolers to grow into healthy active people they, like toddlers, need food that is in sufficient amounts and is nutritionally balanced. We need to be careful that preschoolers don’t have too much ‘junk’ food as this has a high amount of fat and kilojoules but not much nutritional value. Preschoolers are now more aware of their environment, which means they can be influenced by the advertising of these foods, and in our busy world parents and carers sometimes give in to the convenience of ‘junk’ food.

The preschool years appear to be a sensitive period for the development of food preferences and, therefore, children should be introduced to a wide variety of foods. Young children should be encouraged to taste new foods but they should not be forced to eat food they do not like—even if it is good for them! If a child refuses to eat a particular food, don’t keep insisting. Instead, offer the food again on some other day. This time, the child may be willing to have a taste.


You have learnt that during the preschool years, growth is slow and steady and during the preschool years there is a decrease in appetite. Children should be allowed to decide the amount they want to eat.

Sleep and restPreschoolers need a balance of active and quiet times during their day—that is, lots of fresh air and physical activity and exercise to develop their muscles and bones as well as rest and sleep to restore their energy levels.

Their general health and stamina will influence how much rest they have in any one day. On average, preschoolers need 1–1½ hours rest during the day. It is important to remember that this rest does not necessarily mean sleep. It can be sitting quietly with books, listening to music, playing with puzzles or talking quietly. It also does not have to be in one chunk of time.

Preschoolers still need consistency, stability and predictability in their day. They need to have routine meal times, rest and sleep times, bath times and play times.

Like toddlers, preschoolers need to follow the same routine each day, but routines should be flexible and timed to suit their individual needs. Preschoolers, however, do cope with the unexpected better than they did when they were toddlers.

Safety and the preschool childSafety is still an issue for preschoolers, and because they seem so much more grown up than they were as toddlers, we need to take care not to overlook dangers. We need to remember that preschoolers are still active explorers and are fascinated by new experiences. We need to keep dangerous objects locked away from children and avoid dangerous situations.

Remember, preschoolers still have only limited experience of dealing with many situations and sometimes they are not aware of the consequences to their actions. We need to ensure they are supervised at all times and that we keep their environment safe. We also need to ensure they wear appropriate clothing that is not flammable and not restrictive when they are playing.

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How to support preschoolers’ gross motor skill developmentSome of the ways in which we can support preschoolers’ development of their gross motor skills are listed below.

Provide time Provide time for them to practise, experiment and use equipment.

Enable variety in play Provide a variety of play equipment, activities and experiences.

Provide equipment that allows them to push, pull, climb, balance, jump, bounce and swing.

Keep an open mind about how children use equipment.

Provide enough equipment

Ensure there is enough equipment for the number of children.

Provide ideas Offer suggestions and ideas to extend children’s use of outdoor equipment.

Encourage, motivate and praise

Encourage them to engage in physically active play.

Motivate them to find new ways of using their bodies (more about this a little later).

Encourage participation by all children.

Give praise where it is due.

Guide and demonstrate Guide and demonstrate how a particular skill is done. For example, we can show them how to hold their hands to catch a ball.

Demonstrate and teach them the correct methods of using equipment—for example, the best way to hold a bat.

Be aware of individuality Be aware of individual children’s capabilities and personality. Do not insist that a child participate in activities if they are reluctant.

Participate Actively participate in their activities. Do not just supervise and call out instructions.

Supervise Remember to be constantly vigilant about safety! For example, we need to ensure that the space where preschoolers play is safe and that there are soft surfaces for them to land on if they fall

Suggest new ways to use their bodies and skills

Offer suggestions and help to the children when they’re exploring play equipment. For example, obstacle courses can provide challenges for children and allow them to use a range of gross motor skills — they can balance, climb, slide, crawl, bounce and swing to get from one point to another.

The important thing to remember is that preschoolers are having fun while meeting new challenges, using their gross motor skills.


Provide equipment that allows preschoolers to push, pull, climb, balance, jump, bounce and swing

Gross motor skills practised by preschoolersA caregiver needs to provide activities or equipment or materials which promote any of the following gross motor behaviours of preschoolers:

sideways body rolling moving by crawling, dragging body with arms

climbing, including stretching, hanging by arms, reaching

walking: small steps, big steps, fast, slow, backwards, forwards and sideways

stair climbing; up and down jumping: over, down

hopping on either foot skipping: fast, slow, in time to music

galloping: fast, slow running: short spurts, longer distances, stop, start and around obstacles

pedalling and steering: fast, slow, around obstacles, stopping

balancing: while remaining in one place, while moving, balancing objects

body in space: going through, between; curling up; hiding behind, under and over

swinging: pumping a swing, hanging by hands and swinging

bouncing: body up and down throwing: overhand, underarm

kicking: stationary balls, moving balls hitting: ball and bat games

handling objects: lifting, pulling, pushing swaying to music

twisting and turning digging: in sand, in soil.

Preschool children will use any of these gross movements in a free play situation.

Examples of how they use these movements are:

• climbing equipment or obstacle course • playing with large cardboard boxes or during dramatic play • music group• role plays during stories.

Preschool children are on the go all the time and will be continually practising and using these skills.


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How to support preschoolers’ fine motor skill developmentWe need to provide activities, materials and equipment appropriate to children’s level of fine motor skill development so they can practise and experience mastery and control.

They need time to practise and to carry out fine motor tasks at their own speed. As carers, we need to be aware of individual differences in fine motor development and consider children’s level of concentration and frustration. Their concentration capacity and frustration level is related to their temperament and to earlier experiences. We can expect that five-year-olds can attend longer and will experience less frustration than when they were three.

It’s important that we demonstrate, guide and teach children the best way of using equipment, so that, for instance, they know how to hold a pencil or knife and fork and to use scissors.

We need to also provide opportunities for preschoolers to develop strength in their hands and fingers. They will now enjoy pounding and moulding clay and playdough and tearing paper. By providing finger-painting opportunities and engaging them in finger plays, we will help them develop the skill of moving their fingers independently.

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HandednessMost children will develop hand preference during the preschool years. This means that they can be identified as being either predominantly right-handed or left-handed.


It seems that handedness is unique to humans. The development of the preferred hand is related to which hemisphere of the brain becomes dominant. As children develop a hand preference, they are able to specialise their fine motor skills.

For children to develop a preferred hand, they need lots of opportunities to use both sides of their bodies. They need experiences for balancing, jumping on trampolines and climbing, using both sides of their bodies. They benefit from their experiences in using their fingers and hands for activities such as drawing, painting, construction and puzzles.

Children should not be forced to use the hand that is not their preferred hand. If they are, they may become clumsy—that is, unable to be competent in fine motor tasks. They can also become frustrated and suffer low self-esteem.

How to support physical skills development in middle childhood

How to support gross motor skill development in middle childhood

• Provide opportunities for practice• Provide lots of opportunities for children to practise, experiment and use

equipment.• Provide interesting activities• Provide activities and games according to children’s interests and be

aware of the current trends and fads among children. For example, during the cricket season, when there is a lot of television coverage of international cricket matches, there will probably be greater enthusiasm for this sport.

• Help them learn the rules of games

Now is the time to help children learn the rules of the various games. We need to give short, simple and clear instructions before the game begins. A step-by-step approach works best. It’s often a good idea to have a short practice session before the game gets under way and to give children a time frame so they know when and how the game is likely to finish.

Support themChildren will sometimes need help and support to improve their skills. The more practice and support they have, the more likely children are to develop competence and this will facilitate the development of positive self-esteem.


We need to remember that although many children are quite adept as they use their bodies, others will appear very awkward. This can be owing to individual differences and the unevenness of physical growth. For instance, some children will become skilled at using a bat and ball at a younger age but may experience difficulty in learning to swim. Children will need experiences that enable them to develop competence at their own rate, using a range of skills through a range of fun activities.

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How to support fine motor skill development in middle childhoodGuidelines for supporting fine motor skill development in middle childhood

Be encouraging Make positive comments about the children’s progress in making something. Display children’s creations.

Be involved Become involved in creative and craft activities yourself but don’t show up the children and become so focused on what you are making that you forget about the children in your care.

Encourage perseverance

Help children to understand that it takes time and practice when making something — encourage perseverance.

Let them try new things Provide variety in activities and crafts — children’s enthusiasm and interest is increased by opportunities to try new things.

Offer help Offer help when children need it, but don’t take over and complete the activity. Demonstrate skills as necessary.

Plan ahead Plan activities well ahead of time — ensure there is plenty of material for everyone and that all the required materials are there.

Provide appropriate equipment

Provide equipment that caters for the range of skill levels of both younger and older children and for differences in skill levels of children the same age, eg different types of scissors, different types of paper.

What are their interests?

Find out the children’s interests and provide activities based on those interests.


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Provide adequate nutrition that allows for normal growth and development, and foods of increasing texture over time to stimulate speech and jaw development

Chewing is an important skill for babies to learn because it is necessary for jaw development, which in turn is important for speech development. Babies will chew with their gums. Don't be put off giving food with lumps just because a baby has no teeth.

From six months on, nutrient requirements change. The iron and zinc stores present at birth have begun to decrease and need to be met by consuming a variety of foods. Delayed introduction of solids can slow down developmental progress.

Texture transition guideIt is important that infants get the right sort of food textures at the appropriate times so that their oral muscles are exercised appropriately, and that they get plenty of practice so that they can move on to the next type of texture.

There is a wealth of information on texture and its importance to children’s development which can be found in the publication ‘Introduction to solids’ issued by the Queensland Department of Health. This publication can be found at: http://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/saphs/hsil_introtosolids.pdf

Between 18 months and three years, children settle into a three-meals-a -day pattern, with snacks in the morning and afternoon. The food offered to the toddler must cover the major food groups including proteins, fibre, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. Drinks (preferably water) should be offered frequently to a young child, particularly during the summer months.

The type of food that a child eats and enjoys is very much influenced by the child’s cultural or religious background. For example:


http://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/saphs/hsil_introtosolids.pdf

• Most children in Australia eat pasta, bread, potatoes and rice; in Asia children eat mainly rice.

• Orthodox Jews do not eat pork—and other meat must be prepared in a special way called kosher; Orthodox Jews do not eat meat and milk at the same meal.

• Muslims do not eat pork or shellfish—and other types of meat must be prepared according to the ‘halal’ rules (strict religious laws).

• Hindus are mostly strict vegetarians—a lot of Indians are Hindus.• Sikhs (also from India) do not eat beef.

Mealtime should be a happy time for the carer and the child. This is not always easy when you understand that toddlers often can’t sit for long—even for a meal —there are just so many things a toddler wants to do in a day. We need to avoid mealtime becoming a battleground. Sometimes a little food often is a better way to help toddlers gain their nutritional needs.

Young children, just like you, develop likes and dislikes for different types of food. Children should not be forced to eat food they don’t like and should not be forced to eat food they don’t want.

To encourage a toddler to enjoy mealtimes, a caregiver should provide a calm, pleasant atmosphere, appropriately sized eating utensils and furniture and small portions of food (the toddler can always ask for more) which are attractively presented. It is beneficial if the caregiver sits with the toddler and eats a meal. This provides the toddler with a good example to follow.


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