role theory, volunteering

Role Theory in Organizational Volunteering 1

RUNNING HEAD: Role Theory in Organizational Volunteering

Utilizing Role Theory to assess Goodness of Fit

Between Volunteers and the Organization OSF St. Joseph Medical Center

Julie Boyd Illinois State University

September 29, 2009


Introduction

This paper will illustrate the utility of Role Theory (Rommetveit, 1954) and its usefulness

in assessing goodness of fit between the volunteer and the organization. To begin, an explanation

of the theory and its many unique components will be discussed. Additionally, an assessment of

goodness of fit will also be presented in accordance with the implications of Role Theory. Next,

a brief summary of what kind of organization OSF St. Joseph Medical Center is and how they

utilize the role of the volunteer will be addressed. Finally, recommendations will be established

to provide OSF St. Joseph Medical Center the ability to assess goodness of fit between the

volunteer and the organization.

Explanation of Theory

Role Theory (Rommetveit, 1954) developed and emerged into the field of

communication via implications from both the fields of psychology and sociology. However,

Role Theory today is not in fact one solid theory. Rather, it is a set of similar concepts and

interrelated theories that are arguably at the foundation of social science in general, and the study

of individual behavior in particular. Roles are the building blocks of social organizations and

social structures. In fact, Role Theory posits that human behavior is guided by expectations held

both by the individual and by other people. In short, individuals generally have and manage

many roles. Roles specify what goals should be pursued, what tasks must be accomplished, and

what performances are required in a given scenario or situation. Role Theory is, in fact,

predictive. It implies that if one has information about the role expectations for a specified

position (e.g., administrator, co-worker, volunteer), a significant portion of the behavior of the

person occupying that position can be predicted (Lopata, 1991).


Theoretical Components

According to the modern sociologist Bruce Biddle (1986), after his adaption and

alterations to the original theory in 1986, the five major models of role theory include:

Functional Role Theory, which examines role development as shared social norms for a

given social position

Symbolic Interactionist Role Theory, which examines role development as the outcome of

individual interpretation of responses to behavior

Structural Role Theory, which emphasizes the influence of society rather than the

individual in roles and utilizes mathematical models

Organizational Role Theory, which examines role development in individual

organizational settings

Cognitive Role Theory, which predicts the relationship between expectations and

behaviors

For the purposes and intents of this paper however, the only model that will be focused on relates

to the Organizational Role Theory model. The additional models will not be addressed.

Consequently, since the implications of Role Theory are so vast and excessive, only the

components directly related to the Organizational Role Theory model will be acknowledged and

analyzed.

Organizational Role Theory Model

From the organizational perspective, roles are the culturally defined norms—rights,

duties, expectations, and standards for behavior—associated with a given social position (Linton,

1945). In other words, one's social position is seen as influencing one's behaviors. In addition,

statuses such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and social class also shape roles in the


organizational setting (Lopata, 1991). Indeed, there is pressure to conform successfully to roles.

The social pressure to conform to roles can be negative for individuals in some cases. Role

captivity refers to the unwanted participation in a particular role (Pearlin, 1983). Despite

sanctions, roles do not remain static, but change and evolve over time. Similarly, as roles change

and evolve over time, the organization also changes. Thus, organizations manage the change to

keep the organizational balance; this is called dynamic homeostasis (Long, 2003).

Stages of Roles. Individuals accumulate different roles at any given stage within the life

course. Throughout life, individuals transfer into and out of different roles, keeping some,

leaving others behind, and beginning new roles (Burr, 1972). These role transitions accompany

transitions through organizational stages and can be easy or difficult, depending on the timing

and social context (Rodgers & White, 1993). In addition, the transition into one role can affect

the transition into another.

Consequences of Roles. Multiple roles can be associated with both positive and negative

consequences. Role overload and role conflict are two of the most well-known role theory

concepts. Role overload refers to the experience of lacking the resources, including time and

energy, needed to meet the demands of all roles. Role conflict describes an incongruity between

the expectations of one role and those of another. Role overload and conflict often lead to

difficulties with meeting role expectations, known as role strain (Goode, 1960). Various

negative psychological and physical problems can follow from role strain and ultimately have

negative implications to the bottom line of an organization.

Multiple Role Implications. With regard to the above consequences of having too many

roles, there are positive implications as well. In the theory of role balance, Stephen Marks and

Shelley MacDermid (1996) found that people who are able to fully participate in and perform a


number of different roles experience not only less role strain but also lower rates of depression

and higher self-esteem and innovation. Thus, multiple roles are important for the development of

personality and intellect. Role sharing is likely a means through which the positive aspects of

multiple roles can outweigh potential negative consequences. Individuals with different social

statuses and social positions, or even across social institutions, can share the same role.

Propositions of Role Theory. Many role theorists see Role Theory as one of the most

compelling theories bridging individual behavior and the social structure of an organization.

Roles, which are in part dictated by social structure and in part by social interactions, guide the

behavior of the individual. The individual, in turn, influences the norms, expectations, and

behaviors associated with roles within the organization. The understanding is reciprocal and

didactic. Therefore, Role Theory includes the following propositions:

People spend much of their lives participating as members of groups and organizations.

Within these groups, people occupy distinct positions.

Each of these positions entails a role, which is a set of functions performed by the person

for the group.

Groups often formalize role expectations as norms or even codified rules, which include

what rewards will result when roles are successfully performed and what punishments

will result when roles are not successfully performed.

Individuals usually carry out their roles and perform in accordance with prevailing

norms; in other words, role theory assumes that people are primarily conformists who try

to live up to the norms that accompany their roles.


Group members check each individual's performance to determine whether it conforms

with the norms; the anticipation that others will apply sanctions ensures role

performance.

Goodness of Fit within an Organization

Similarly, goodness of fit goes hand in hand with the notion of Role Theory and is

applicable and essential in understanding the role of the volunteer in an organization. On the

basic level, an organization’s culture will imitate goals and values that characterize the society in

which it functions (Long, 2003). Organizational culture is however, separate from the societal

culture (see appendix A). But, there is a consensus among these two cultures that can encourage

modifications in both beliefs and values. Similarly, volunteers with different psychological

characteristics may be members of overlapping groups, called micro-cultures. For example, a

volunteer may volunteer their time and talents at OSF St. Joseph Medical Center, but they also

might attend the same Catholic Church down the street as some of their co-volunteers. These

micro-cultures can be comprised of almost any characteristics such as status, age, profession,

educational status, religious preference, wealth, etc. (Long, 2003).

According to Long (2003), an assessment of goodness of fit begins with the recognition

of the culture, both social and organizational. The social and organizational requirements define

roles while personal needs and characteristics influence how the roles are therefore enacted.

When a match exists between organizational roles and personal roles, the fit between the

volunteer and the role is good. When there is incompatibility, the fit is poor (see appendix B).

Quite obviously, it is most desirable for the volunteer to fall in the direction of “good” between

the role and the individual. If the goodness of fit isn’t perfect, the role can be changed by either

changing the role itself or by changing the individual to fit the role (Long, 2003).


Role Characteristics. When accessing the goodness of it between a volunteer and the

organizational role, there are five role components that can be used (see appendix C). These are:

appropriateness, breadth, compatibility, abstractness level, and codification (Long, 2003).

Appropriateness, is concerned with the necessity of the role in order for the organization

to accomplish its mission

Breadth, is concerned with the scope of activities contained in a role

Compatibility, simply refers to the volunteer and how compatible they are to the position

and/or role

Abstractness, refers to the notion that roles should be described as concretely as possible,

so as to determine a good fit between the role and the volunteer

Codification, is concerned with the extent to which a role description is written and a part

of standard operation procedures

Volunteer Characteristics. On the opposite side, there are also five conceptual volunteer

characteristics that may help to determine and compare whether a volunteer is a good fit for the

role they currently hold (see Appendix D). These characteristics are: versatility, involvement,

comfort, skill and time (Long, 2003).

Versatility, is an assessment of the number of different activities a person can perform or

the number of different roles an individual can enact

Involvement, is the intensity with which an individual enacts a role

Comfort, is an index of the level of apprehension or anxiety associated with behaviors

Skill, is an assessment of both cognitive and behavior components

Time, determines if a volunteer is using 100% of their available time to perform the role

effectively.


After evaluating both role characteristics and volunteer characteristics, goodness of fit can be

determined and accessed effectively (Long, 2003).

OSF St. Joseph Medical Center

OSF St. Joseph Medical Center is a small not-for-profit hospital in Bloomington, Illinois.

As the smaller of the two hospitals in town, it is a challenge for the medical center to operate

effectively while in competition with BroMenn, a for-profit hospital in Normal, Illinois. As a

not-for-profit, OSF faces many challenges daily. However, like most not-for-profits

organizations, it struggles with achieving financial stability. Thus, the survival of OSF St. Joseph

Medical Center relies heavily on its volunteer force. OSF currently holds over 250 volunteers

who donate their time and talents to the medical center, with no expectation for financial

compensation. A nonprofit organization cannot succeed without a strong core of volunteers.

Thus volunteering in a not-for-for profit organization is often viewed as a cornerstone on which

the rest of the organization is built.

Importance of the Volunteer to OSF

The mission of OSF St. Joseph Medical Center is to “serve people with the greatest care

and love in a community that celebrates the gift of life.” In order to live up to its mission, OSF

provides healthcare to any individual, regardless of their ability to pay. With this altruistic

tradition, it provides a challenge to keep the medical center financ ially stable. Thus, the

importance of the volunteer is not only their symbolic and community presence, but their

performance of tasks without financial compensation. For example, in the past year at OSF,

volunteers have donated close to 40,000 hours of their time and skills. This is nearly equivalent

to 12 full time staff members. As the medical center employs approximately 400 individuals, this

is a small, but meaningful way of exemplifying the importance of the volunteer and the


contributions that they provide. Volunteers serve OSF St. Joseph Medical Center willingly,

preferring to donate their time and talents without expecting anything in return.

Application of Theory to OSF St. Joseph Medical Center

As indicated above, it is important to understand and apply the principles related to Role

Theory in an organizational setting. More specifically, it is important to assess individual

volunteer roles with individual volunteers to determine if the goodness of fit between the two is

appropriate. Role Theory appears to be an adequate choice in attempting to determine the

goodness of fit between the volunteer and the role they perform. This theory has grown in recent

years to predict a wide range of goodness of fit. For example, despite its usual implications

determining goodness of fit between employees and the role they perform, it is also useful in

determining if volunteers are comfortable and/or happy in the position they currently serve.

Using Role Theory to Assess Goodness of Fit

Role Theory can be used effectively to understand and assess the goodness of fit between

the organizational role and the individual volunteer. By examining each of the theoretical

components associated with the theory and comparing it to the various ways of assessing

goodness of fit, OSF St. Joseph Medical Center can determine if the volunteers they currently

have are a good match to the current volunteer positions they hold.

Stages of Roles. Throughout the career of a volunteer in a particular organization,

individuals transfer in and out of different roles, keeping some, leaving others behind, and

beginning new roles. These implications are an important factor to consider when assessing

goodness of fit. For example, some volunteers at OSF St. Joseph Medical Center have been in

the same position for over 30 years! In fact, some of the current volunteers are actual former

employees of the medical center. Thus, they have transformed their role of employee (i.e. nurse)


to a volunteer (i.e. receptionist). The transformation of roles is an important and key aspect to

consider when assessing goodness of fit. Additionally, it is important to recognize that volunteers

such as this have a wide variety of experience within the medical center and therefore have more

knowledge than some of the current employees. These volunteers play an important role in that

they may hold knowledge that impacts the bottom line.

Consequences of Roles. Multiple roles can be associated with both positive and negative

consequences. However, when assessing goodness of fit it is more important to focus on the

negative consequences involved in volunteer roles. Volunteers can experience role overload (the

experience of lacking the resources, including time and energy, needed to meet the demands of

all roles) and role conflict (an incongruity between the expectations of one role and those of

another). Role overload and role conflict can lead to role strain (difficulties with meeting role

expectations). As emphasized above, volunteers are an essential core to the not-for-profit

organization. If too many volunteers begin to experience role overload, role conflict, or role

strain, it may lead to volunteers exiting the organization. As such, the implications of many

volunteers leaving may be vast and will have an ominous impact on the overall organization.

Therefore, it is important to not only keep the volunteers happy in the roles they perform, but it is

also important to monitor their various roles and tasks to determine if they are a good fit for their

current role.

Multiple Role Implications. Multiple roles are important for the development of

personality and intellect. However, having multiple roles may have a large impact on the role of

the volunteer. Similar to the above scenario, if volunteers begin to suffer from role conflict,

overload, or strain, it is likely a consequence of having too many roles and responsibilities. For

example, many volunteers at OSF enjoy performing multiple roles on various days to keep their


routines at a consistent change of pace. However, if a volunteer becomes “stretched too thin” in

their role performance, it is likely to have a negative impact on the organization as a whole,

because, as suggested, a volunteer role is a dominant and necessary position in a not-for-profit

organization.

Determining Goodness of Fit

Overall, Role Theory is an essential and useful tool in establishing and determining

goodness of fit between the role of the volunteer and the individual. As described above, it is

essential to the not-for-profit organization that volunteers are happy in their position, are not

experiencing any sort of role strain, conflict, or overload, and are overall in a “good fit” for the

current position they hold. By using Role Theory as a baseline in determining these factors, it is

relatively simple to determine if goodness of fit is indeed at work in a particular organization

such as OSF St. Joseph Medical Center. The following section will consist of basic

recommendations for assessing goodness of fit between the organizational role and the individual

volunteer.

Recommendations for assessing Goodness of Fit

1.) Implement an assessment of sorts to determine if the current volunteers at the medical

center are happy in their positions. Attempt to determine if any individual is

experiencing role strain, role conflict, or role overload. If any indication is made,

make all attempts to limit their experience, as this may be a potential indicator of a

volunteer leaving the organization, which in turn could have drastic implications to

the overall organization.

2.) Communicate to the volunteers how important and essential their involvement in the

medical center is. Explain the implications of serving in a not-for-profit medical


center and how their time and talents contribute to the bottom line and overall mission

of the hospital.

3.) Insure that volunteers are not experiencing role captivity (unwanted participation in a

particular role). If a volunteer is experiencing such a role, it is likely that their

individual goodness of fit is poor, ultimately leading to the volunteer exiting the

organization, or having a negative impact on the bottom line at OSF St. Joseph

Medical Center.

Limitations

Although Role Theory is an important asset to analyze when looking at the goodness of

fit between a volunteer and the organization, it also has its limitations. Role Theory is typically

utilized when looking at the goodness of fit between the employee and the role they hold at an

organization; therefore, utilizing this theory for volunteers may have different effects that have

yet to be determined or tested. Additionally, Role Theory is very abstract. What can be

applicable to one volunteer may not be applicable to another, therefore causing confusion among

the goodness of fit and a volunteer within an organization. Finally, Role Theory may have

specific limitations to OSF St. Joseph Medical Center. For example, because OSF is a not-for-

profit hospital, it may have different implications to volunteers in this setting versus a for-profit

hospital.


References

Biddle, B. (1986). Recent developments in role theory. Annual Review of Sociology 12, 67-92.

Burr, W. R. (1972). Role transitions: A reformulation of theory. Journal of Marriage and the

Family 34, 407-416.

Cottrell, L. S. (1942). The adjustment of the individual to his age and sex roles. American

Sociological Review 7, 617-620.

Goode, W. (1960). Theory of role strain. American Sociological Review 25, 483-496.

Linton, R. (1945). The cultural background of personality. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts.

Long. L. W. (2003). An integrative approach to management: Combing communication and

organizational theory.

Lopata, H. Z. (1991). Role theory. Social rules and social institutions. ed. Blau, J. and

Goodman, N. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Marks, S. & MacDermid, S. (1996). Multiple roles and the self: A theory of role balance.

Journal of Marriage and the Family 58, 417-432.

Nye, F. I. (1974). Emerging and declining family roles. Journal of Marriage and the Family 36,

238-245.

Pearlin, L. (1983). Role strain and personal stress. Psychosocial Stress. ed. Kaplan, H. B. New

York: Academic Press.

Rodgers, R. H. & White, J. H. (1993). Family development theory. Sourcebook of Family

Theories and Methods, ed. Boss, P., Doherty, W., LaRossa, R., Shumm, W., &

Steinmetz, S. New York: Plenum Press.

Rommetveit, R. (1954) Social norms and roles. Universitesforlaget: Oslo.


Appendix A (2003 Dr. Larry W. Long)

Society’s Culture

Cultural – Individual Interface

Organizational

Culture

Micro-Culture A

Micro-Culture B


Appendix B (2003 Dr. Larry W. Long)

“Goodness of Fit” Continuum

Role and Person

Incompatible

Poor fit

Role and Person

Compatible

Good fit

No Compatibility Moderate Compatibility

CoCompatibility

High Compatibility


Appendix C (2003 Dr. Larry W. Long)

ROLE

VARIABLE

Appropriateness

Breadth

Compatible

Abstractness

Codification

RANGE

Highly Inappropriate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Highly Appropriate

Very Narrow - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Very Broad

Highly Incompatible - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Highly Compatible

Highly Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Highly Concrete

Highly Uncodified - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Highly Codified

Role Assessment Variables


Appendix D (2003 Dr. Larry Long)

VOLUNTEER

CHARACTERISTIC

Versatility

Involvement

Comfort

Skill

Time

RANGE

Low Versatility - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -High Versatility

Low Involvement - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - High Involvement

Low Comfort - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - High Comfort

Low Skill - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -High Skill

0% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100%

Volunteer Characteristic Assessment Variables

role theory, volunteering

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