rhetoric and/as strategic manoeuvring

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Rhetoric and/as Strategic Rhetoric and/as Strategic ManoeuvringManoeuvring

STRATEGIC MANOEUVRING STRATEGIC MANOEUVRING IN ARGUMENTATIVE IN ARGUMENTATIVE CONFRONTATIONS,CONFRONTATIONS,

Panel convened by Frans van Eemeren & Peter Panel convened by Frans van Eemeren & Peter Houtlosser.Houtlosser.

Discussant: Igor Z. Zagar, Educational Research Discussant: Igor Z. Zagar, Educational Research Institute & University of PrimorskaInstitute & University of Primorska

E-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]: www.igorzagar.netWWW: www.igorzagar.net

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- “- “In pragma-dialectics dialectic is defined In pragma-dialectics dialectic is defined pragmatically as a method for dealing pragmatically as a method for dealing systematically with critical exchanges in systematically with critical exchanges in verbal communication and interaction ‘that verbal communication and interaction ‘that amounts to the pragmatic application of amounts to the pragmatic application of logic, a collaborative method of putting logic, a collaborative method of putting logic into use so as to move from logic into use so as to move from conjecture and opinion to more secure conjecture and opinion to more secure belief’belief’”” (van Eemeren et al., 1996: 214). (van Eemeren et al., 1996: 214).

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““As far as it is pertinent to pragma-As far as it is pertinent to pragma-dialectics, rhetoric is the theoretical study dialectics, rhetoric is the theoretical study of the potential effectiveness of of the potential effectiveness of argumentative discourse in convincing or argumentative discourse in convincing or persuading an audience in actual persuading an audience in actual argumentative practice.argumentative practice.” (Van Eemeren & ” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)Houtlosser, 2007)

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““......the gap between dialectic and rhetoric can be the gap between dialectic and rhetoric can be bridged by introducing the theoretical concept of bridged by introducing the theoretical concept of ‘strategic manoeuvring’ (van Eemeren & ‘strategic manoeuvring’ (van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2002). Houtlosser, 2002). Strategic manoeuvring Strategic manoeuvring refers to the efforts arguers make in refers to the efforts arguers make in argumentative discourse to reconcile aiming argumentative discourse to reconcile aiming for rhetorical effectiveness with maintaining for rhetorical effectiveness with maintaining dialectical standards of reasonableness.dialectical standards of reasonableness.”” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007) (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)

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- SM and (some) historical background:SM and (some) historical background:

Plato and Aristotle or Plato vs. AristotlePlato and Aristotle or Plato vs. Aristotle- Plato: search for Plato: search for truthtruth- two kinds of rhetoric:two kinds of rhetoric:

sophistical rhetoric (sophistical rhetoric (logographia)logographia) > > rhetoric of probability/illusion (rhetoric of probability/illusion (GorgiasGorgias) )

philosophical rhetoric (philosophical rhetoric (psukhagogiapsukhagogia) > ) > dialectics (dialectics (PhaidrosPhaidros) )

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- dialectic (as education of souls) = dialectic (as education of souls) = eroticized rhetoriceroticized rhetoric

- eroticized rhetoric – the gist of the Socratic eroticized rhetoric – the gist of the Socratic methodmethod

- principles of Socratic method?principles of Socratic method?

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- Aristotle: search for Aristotle: search for knowledgeknowledge

- the inventory of (almost) everything (»map - the inventory of (almost) everything (»map of learning«)of learning«)

- Logic: universal and necessary- Logic: universal and necessary

- Dialectic: general and possible- Dialectic: general and possible

- Rhetoric: particular and probable- Rhetoric: particular and probable

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- BUT: there is no gap between rhetoric and BUT: there is no gap between rhetoric and dialectic, or between dialectic and logic.dialectic, or between dialectic and logic.

- RATHER: RATHER: - dialectic is necessary to consolidate dialectic is necessary to consolidate

(among other things) the first principles of (among other things) the first principles of logic/science;logic/science;

- while rhetoric (in a way) gives - while rhetoric (in a way) gives groundsgrounds for for dialectical enterprise.dialectical enterprise.

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- The two Zenos:The two Zenos:

- Zeno the Stoicist (after Plato and Aristotle)Zeno the Stoicist (after Plato and Aristotle)

rhetoric = an open hand (palm)rhetoric = an open hand (palm)

dialectic = a fistdialectic = a fist

- difference of method, - difference of method, because the addressees because the addressees are differentare different, while the goal is the same: , while the goal is the same: to to persuadepersuade (about what?) (about what?)

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- Zeno of EleaZeno of Elea

credited by Aristotle as the “inventor” of credited by Aristotle as the “inventor” of dialectical argumentsdialectical arguments

- Dialectical arguments vs. dialectical method/artDialectical arguments vs. dialectical method/art- Dialectic (according to Aristotle): a Dialectic (according to Aristotle): a

technique/method of arguing from a special technique/method of arguing from a special class of premises called class of premises called endoxaendoxa (“common (“common beliefs”).beliefs”).

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- A rather famous quote about dialectical method (from A rather famous quote about dialectical method (from Eudemian Eudemian EthicsEthics):):

“ “We must try, by argument, to reach a convincing conclusion (We must try, by argument, to reach a convincing conclusion (zetein zetein ten pistinten pistin) on all these questions, using, as testimony and by way of ) on all these questions, using, as testimony and by way of example, what appears to be the case. For it would be best if example, what appears to be the case. For it would be best if everyone should turn out to agree with (everyone should turn out to agree with (phainesthai phainesthai sunomologountassunomologountas) what we are going to say; if not that, that they ) what we are going to say; if not that, that they should all agree in a way and should all agree in a way and willwill agree after a change of mind agree after a change of mind ((hoper metabibazomenoi poiesousinhoper metabibazomenoi poiesousin); for each man has something ); for each man has something of his own to contribute to the finding of the truth (of his own to contribute to the finding of the truth (echei gar echei gar hekastos oikeion ti pros ten aletheianhekastos oikeion ti pros ten aletheian); and it is from such <starting-); and it is from such <starting-points> that we must demonstrate: points> that we must demonstrate: beginning with things that are beginning with things that are correctly said, but not clearly, as we proceed we shall come to correctly said, but not clearly, as we proceed we shall come to express them clearly, with what is more perspicuous at each express them clearly, with what is more perspicuous at each stage superseding what is customarily expressed in a stage superseding what is customarily expressed in a confused fashion.”confused fashion.” (1216b26-35) (1216b26-35)

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- From the From the TopicsTopics:: “ “Sometimes, even if a falsehood has been supposed, it Sometimes, even if a falsehood has been supposed, it

should be refuted by means of falsehoods. For nothing should be refuted by means of falsehoods. For nothing prevents things which are not so seeming more so to prevents things which are not so seeming more so to some individual than what is true, so that if the argument some individual than what is true, so that if the argument arises from what seems so to that person, he will be arises from what seems so to that person, he will be more effectively persuaded or benefited. And whoever more effectively persuaded or benefited. And whoever changes minds (changes minds (metabibazontametabibazonta) well must change them ) well must change them dialectically, not contentiously (just as the geometer dialectically, not contentiously (just as the geometer must do so geometrically), must do so geometrically), no matter whether the no matter whether the conclusion drawn is false or true.conclusion drawn is false or true.” (161a30-36)” (161a30-36)

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- The point of the passage: dialectical arguments The point of the passage: dialectical arguments are always directed at someone and rely on that are always directed at someone and rely on that person's opinions. If my goal is to persuade you, person's opinions. If my goal is to persuade you, it will do me no good to use true premises which it will do me no good to use true premises which you do not believe.you do not believe.

- Which is to say: To 'change minds' is to lead Which is to say: To 'change minds' is to lead people to have different beliefs, and that can people to have different beliefs, and that can only be accomplished rationally by beginning only be accomplished rationally by beginning with beliefs they actually do have.with beliefs they actually do have.

- Rhetorical strategy Rhetorical strategy par excellencepar excellence: not : not discoveringdiscovering the truth but the truth but persuadingpersuading others to others to believe (it). believe (it).

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- Another definition of dialectical method (Another definition of dialectical method (TopicsTopics, first , first sentence):sentence):

“ “...a method from which we will be able to ...a method from which we will be able to syllogize from syllogize from common beliefs (common beliefs (endoxaendoxa) about every topic ) about every topic proposed to usproposed to us, and will say nothing conflicting when , and will say nothing conflicting when we give an account ourselves.”we give an account ourselves.”

- One of the definitions of rhetoric (in - One of the definitions of rhetoric (in RhetoricRhetoric): rhetorical ): rhetorical art is a kind of hybrid of the dialectical art (art is a kind of hybrid of the dialectical art (dialektikedialektike) and ) and ethics: orations are directed at individuals, and we must ethics: orations are directed at individuals, and we must understand the opinions they have in order to persuade understand the opinions they have in order to persuade them. them.

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- But, what is persuasive?But, what is persuasive?- Rhetoric Rhetoric (1356b28-35): “For since what is persuasive is persuasive (1356b28-35): “For since what is persuasive is persuasive

to someone (and sometimes is directly persuasive and convincing to someone (and sometimes is directly persuasive and convincing through itself, sometimes because of appearing to be proved through itself, sometimes because of appearing to be proved through such things), but no art investigates the particular (e.g., through such things), but no art investigates the particular (e.g., medicine does not investigate what is healthful for Socrates or medicine does not investigate what is healthful for Socrates or Callias, but rather what is so for this type or these types of person-Callias, but rather what is so for this type or these types of person-for this is artful, but the individual is infinite (for this is artful, but the individual is infinite (apeironapeiron) and not ) and not knowable (knowable (epistetonepisteton)), then neither will rhetoric study what is )), then neither will rhetoric study what is individually acceptable (individually acceptable (to kath' hekaston endoxonto kath' hekaston endoxon), e.g., to ), e.g., to Socrates or to Hippias, but rather what is so <sc. Socrates or to Hippias, but rather what is so <sc. endoxonendoxon> to such-> to such-and-such people (and-such people (tois toioisditois toioisdi), ), just like dialecticjust like dialectic.” .”

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- What is the difference between demonstration, What is the difference between demonstration, dialectic, and rhetoric?dialectic, and rhetoric?

- Demonstration: starting from the “first principles”, Demonstration: starting from the “first principles”, conclusion entailed by its premises, no dialog conclusion entailed by its premises, no dialog (two parties) needed;(two parties) needed;

- Dialectic: discusses, not establishes, these first Dialectic: discusses, not establishes, these first principles (among other things);principles (among other things);

- Rhetoric: provides the tools and means for Rhetoric: provides the tools and means for any any kind of discussionkind of discussion (dialectical as well). (dialectical as well).

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- “- “Strategic manoeuvring manifests itself in Strategic manoeuvring manifests itself in argumentative discourse in the choices argumentative discourse in the choices that are made from the that are made from the ‘topical potential’‘topical potential’ available at a certain stage in the available at a certain stage in the discourse, in discourse, in ‘audience-directed framing’‘audience-directed framing’ of the argumentative moves, and in the of the argumentative moves, and in the purposive use of purposive use of ‘presentational ‘presentational devices.’devices.’” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, ” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007) 2007)

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- Five canons of rhetoric (Five canons of rhetoric (officia oratorisofficia oratoris):):

- INVENTIO (finding arguments)INVENTIO (finding arguments)- DISPOSITIO (arranging arguments)DISPOSITIO (arranging arguments)- ELOCUTIO (putting arguments into words)ELOCUTIO (putting arguments into words)

- MEMORIA (memorizing the speech)MEMORIA (memorizing the speech)- ACTIO (delivering the speech)ACTIO (delivering the speech)

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- INVENTIO (in three steps):INVENTIO (in three steps):

1.1. Stasis (status causae)Stasis (status causae)

2.2. Rhetorical analysisRhetorical analysis

3.3. Questions and topicsQuestions and topics

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Ad 1/1: Ad 1/1: StasisStasis

1)1) Stasis of conjecture/factStasis of conjecture/fact

2)2) Stasis of definitionStasis of definition

3)3) Stasis of qualityStasis of quality

4)4) Stasis of placeStasis of place

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- Ad 1/2: Illustration from pseudo-Augustine (Ad 1/2: Illustration from pseudo-Augustine (RLMRLM 143.25 143.25 – 145.33 Halm):– 145.33 Halm):

P(rosecutor): The general is guilty of murder.P(rosecutor): The general is guilty of murder.D(efendant): The killing was lawful.D(efendant): The killing was lawful.J(ury): Was the killing lawful?J(ury): Was the killing lawful?P: He killed a soldier. P: He killed a soldier. D: I killed him because he swore he D: I killed him because he swore he would desert.would desert.J: Was it lawful for the general to kill the soldier J: Was it lawful for the general to kill the soldier he swore he would desert?he swore he would desert?

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- Ad 2: Rhetorical analysis (in three steps):Ad 2: Rhetorical analysis (in three steps):

1) 1) KairosKairos

2) The public2) The public

3) 3) DecorumDecorum

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- Ad 2/2: - Ad 2/2: decorumdecorum (four elements): (four elements):

1)1) CorrectnessCorrectness

2)2) ClarityClarity

3)3) VividnessVividness

4)4) Ornateness Ornateness

Categories of change?Categories of change?

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- Ad 2/3: Ad 2/3: CaveatCaveat in relation to SM: in relation to SM:

““... ... Among the modes of expression that can Among the modes of expression that can be used as presentational devices, be used as presentational devices, par par excellenceexcellence, are the various kinds of , are the various kinds of ‘figures’ known from classical rhetoric and ‘figures’ known from classical rhetoric and dialecticdialectic.” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, .” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)2007)

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- Ad 3: Topics:Ad 3: Topics:Common TopicsCommon Topics DefinitionDefinition

GenusGenus / / SpeciesSpeciesDivisionDivision WholeWhole / / PartsParts SubjectSubject / / AdjunctsAdjunctsComparisonComparison SimilaritySimilarity / / DifferenceDifference DegreeDegreeRelationshipRelationship CauseCause / / EffectEffect AntecedentAntecedent / / ConsequenceConsequence ContrariesContraries ContradictionsContradictionsCircumstancesCircumstances PossiblePossible / / ImpossibleImpossible Past Past FactFact / / FutureFuture FactFactTestimonyTestimony AuthoritiesAuthorities WitnessesWitnesses MaximsMaxims or or ProverbsProverbs RumorsRumors OathsOaths DocumentsDocuments LawLaw PrecedentPrecedent TheThe supernaturalsupernaturalNotationNotation and and ConjugatesConjugates

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- Ad 3/2: Topics:Ad 3/2: Topics:

JudicialJudicial justicejustice ( (rightright)) injusticeinjustice ( (wrongwrong))DeliberativeDeliberative thethe goodgood thethe unworthyunworthy the advantageous the advantageous the disadvantageous the disadvantageousCeremonialCeremonial virtue (the noble) virtue (the noble) vice (the base) vice (the base)

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Could be continued ...Could be continued ...

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- The point of all these comments?The point of all these comments?

1. Systematic integration of rhetorical 1. Systematic integration of rhetorical insight into pragma-dialectical framework insight into pragma-dialectical framework is (more than) necessary and welcome.is (more than) necessary and welcome.

BUTBUT

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2. There is much more in (classical) 2. There is much more in (classical) rhetoric that pragma-dialectic rhetoric that pragma-dialectic could take and profit from in order could take and profit from in order to become more flexible and, to become more flexible and, consequently, more applicable.consequently, more applicable.

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For this very occasion the references For this very occasion the references

are ommited...are ommited...

Many thanks!Many thanks!

[email protected]@guest.arnes.si

www.igorzagar.netwww.igorzagar.net

rhetoric and/as strategic manoeuvring

Documents

aristotle rhetoric

possible rhetoric

truthtwo kinds of rhetoric

necessary dialectic

pragmadialectics dialectic

dialectical methodartdialectic

collaborative method

secure belief van eemeren