rfp gene = red fluorescent protein gfp gene = green fluorescent protein
TRANSCRIPT
RFP gene = Red Fluorescent Protein
GFP gene = Green Fluorescent Protein
Let’s Back UpLet’s talk about the architecture of organic molecules……• Isomer = the same molecular formula but different
structures SO different properties.
Isomers1. Structural isomers –differ in the covalent
arrangement of their atoms.
Formula C4H10
Isomers2. Geometric Isomers –differ in their spatial arrangement but have the SAME
covalent bonds. Double bond makes them more inflexible-cannot rotate freely like in single bond! (variation in arrangement around a double bond)
Isomers3. Enantiomers –variation in spatial arrangement around asymmetric carbon. Result: molecules
that are mirror images of each other (Left and Right Handed). Usually one is active and the other inactive in the body. (arrangement of the four spots around asymmetric carbon)
Important for pharmaceutical companies?
Enantiomer
IsomersEnantiomers –Important for pharmaceutical companies? Why?Example: 1960- Thalidomide-ease pregnancy discomfort• Drug mixture of 2 enantiomers• 1 enantiomers-sedative• Other- side effects – birth defects
LIPIDS
• diverse group of organic compounds: grouped together because
HYDROPHOBIC• insoluble in water• will dissolve in nonpolar solvents• not a true polymer; still a
macromolecule (C and H)• include:
1. Fats2. Phospholipids3. Steroids
Lipids1. Fats (Triglycerides)
– Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids– Saturated = No Double Bonds (solid)– Unsaturated = Double Bonds (liquid)
Organic Compounds: Lipids: Fats
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
Ester Bonds
1. FATS
• Composed of:– glycerol (3-carbon alcohol; each with a Hydroxyl
group)– fatty acid (contains carboxyl group; long
hydrocarbon chain or “tail”)• the nonpolar C-H bonds make the chain hydrophobic
and insoluble in water
• Fatty acids may vary in # of carbon atoms (usually even #)
• Each of glycerol’s 3 hydroxyl groups can bond to a fatty acid by an ester linkage producing a fat. (resulting in triacylglycerol, or a triglyceride)
Lipids2. Phospholipids
– Glycerol with Phosphate Head + 2 Fatty Acid Chains
– Amphiphilic (“Both” “lover”)• Hydrophilic head• Hydrophobic tail
– Forms 2 layers in water– Makes up cell membranes
Organic Compounds: Lipids: Phospholipids
Phosphate
Glycerol
Fatty Acids
• clusters in water in patterns (e.g. micelle, bilayer)
• shows ambivalent behavior towards water (tails are hydrophobic and heads are hydrophilic)
Organic Compounds: Lipids: Steroids
Lipids
OH
O
Testosterone
HO
O
Estrogen
3. Steroids– Lipids whose Carbon Skeleton consists of 4 fused
rings– Includes:
• Hormones• Cholesterol
– Makes up cell membranes
HOOH
O
O
OH
Biotechnology• To extract DNA and other
organelles from a cell, the phospholipid bilayer must be dissolved. This is achieved by the use of detergents which disrupts the hydrocarbon tails.
I. Monosaccharides =
single/simple sugars • major nutrients for cells
• glucose is most common (C6H12O6)
• store energy in their chemical bonds which is harvested by cellular respiration
*examples: glucose, ribose, galactose
Classification of MonosaccharidesCatorized depending on:
1. Location of carbonyl group either Aldose (Aldehyde sugar) or Ketose (Ketone sugar)2. Size of carbon skeleton ~3-7 carbons long (most form rings in solution)3. Isomers – spatial arrangement around asymmetrical carbon***Shape = function /interaction in body!
Classification of Monosaccharides
Aldose Structural Isomer of glucose=Ketose
II. Polysaccharides = hundreds or thousands of
monosaccharides • formed by linking monomers
dehydration synthesis (condensation) reactions
• Monomers held together by covalent bonds called glycosidic linkages
Condensation or Hydrolysis?
Glycosidic Linkage
Condensation or Hydrolysis?
Disaccharide
A. Examples of energy storage polysaccharides:
• Starch = glucose polymers in plants (amylose/amylopectin)
• Glycogen = glucose polymer in animals
LE 5-6
Chloroplast Starch MitochondriaGlycogen granules
0.5 µm
1 µm
Amylose
Starch: a plant polysaccharide
AmylopectinGlycogen
Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide
IN PLANTS
Digestion = Hydrolysis
Difference in most carbohydrates is how the glucose monomers are connected!
Gycogen in liver cells: stained red
B. Examples of structural support polysaccharides: • cellulose = major structural
component of plant cell walls that cannot be digested by most organisms because of missing digestive enzyme
• chitin = forms exoskeletons of arthropods
B. Examples of structural support polysaccharides:
• chitin =
Know the difference between the 5-carbon sugars!!!
Biotechnology• Use glucose as food source for cell cultures.
Biotechnology• Carbs also affect DNA purifications in plant cells because they are too sticky