Revolution and

Nationalism, 1900–1939

In March 1917, a revolt by Russian workers toppled the czarist

government. Later that year, Bolshevik revolutionaries rose up

and seized power. As the map at the right shows, however, by

mid-1919 the Bolsheviks still controlled only a portion of Russia.

Use the map to help you answer the following questions.

1. What portion of Russia was under Bolshevik control in mid-1919?

2. What cities had Bolshevik uprisings but remained outside ofBolshevik control?

3. Why do you think those cities did not fall to the Bolsheviks?

4. Why would the rail line shown on the map have been important?

Connect History and Geography

1912 ChineseNationalists oust the

last Qing emperor.

1905Russian workers protest,asking for better conditions.

For more information about revolution . . .

CLASSZONE.COM

In January 1905, about 200,000 workersand their families marched to the czar’sroyal palace in St. Petersburg. Themarchers demanded reforms. Soldiersfired on the unarmed crowd. Aneyewitness described the slaughter,known as “Bloody Sunday”: “Withshouts and cries, the processionscattered, and the dead and woundedlay upon the snow.”

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completed

1916

completed 1904

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Petrograd(Leningrad, St. Petersburg)

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0 1000 Kilometers500Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

Bolshevik Territory, mid-1919

Bolshevik Uprisings

Trans-Siberian Railway

Russia, 1917–1919

1920 Gandhi leadsIndian campaign ofcivil disobedience.

1923 Turkey becomesa republic underMustafa Kemal.

1929 Stalin exiles Trotsky fromSoviet Union.

1934 MaoZedong headsLong March.

1935India gains self-rule.

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Interact with History

768 Chapter 30

In 1920, Mohandas K. Gandhibecame the leader of theindependence movement tofree India of British rule.

In the late 1920s, Communistleader Mao Zedong believedrevolution would solveChina’s problems.

How do you resistoppressive rule—

with violent or nonviolent

action?

“A revolution is not a dinner party. . . A revolution is an insurrec-

tion, an act of violence by whichone class overthrows another.”

“[Nonviolent] resistance . . . is superior to the force of arms . . .One who is free from hatredrequires no sword.”

You are living in a country in which thegovernment benefits a small, wealthy class

and ignores the demands of the vast majority.Thousands of poor peasants and workers have few rights. The government has failed to tackleeconomic, social, and political problems. Various

revolutionary groups are all clamoring for change.Some groups call for a violent overthrow of thegovernment. Others believe in battling injusticeand achieving change through nonviolentmethods, such as peaceful strikes and protests.

EXAMINING the ISSUES

• What situations might provokesome people to take violent stepsto achieve change?

• What strengths would a personneed to remain nonviolent in theface of violent attacks?

• How might armed and powerfulopponents respond to groupscommitted to nonviolent action?

• Which strategy—violence ornonviolence—would prove moresuccessful and bring more long-lasting consequences? Why?

As a class, discuss these questions. In your discussion, consider what youhave learned about the strategiesrevolutionaries used to accomplishchange in other countries, such asFrance, the United States, Brazil,Mexico, Haiti, and so on.

As you read about the revolutions inRussia and China and the independencemovement in India, see which strategywas used and rate its effectiveness forachieving change.

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Revolution and Nationalism 769

SETTING THE STAGE The Russian Revolution was like a firecracker with a very longfuse. The explosion came in 1917. Yet the fuse had been burning for nearly a century.The cruel, oppressive rule of most 19th-century czars caused widespread social unrestfor decades. Anger over social inequalities and the ruthless treatment of peasantsgrew. The czars’ unfair governing sparked many violent reactions. Army officersrevolted in 1825. Hundreds of peasants rioted. Secret revolutionary groups formedand plotted to overthrow the government. In 1881, student revolutionaries were angryover the slow pace of political change. They assassinated the reform-minded czar,Alexander II. Russia was heading toward a full-scale revolution.

Alexander III Upholds the AutocracyIn 1881, Alexander III succeeded his father, Alexander II, to the throne andhalted all reforms in Russia. Like his grandfather, Nicholas I, Alexander IIIclung to the principles of autocracy, a government in which he had totalpower. Alexander III was determined to strengthen “autocracy, orthodoxy,and nationality.” Anyone who questioned the absolute authority of theczar, worshiped outside the Russian Orthodox Church, or spoke a lan-guage other than Russian was tagged as dangerous.

To wipe out revolutionaries, Alexander III used harsh measures.He imposed strict censorship codes on published materials and writ-ten documents, including private letters. His secret police carefullywatched both secondary schools and universities. Teachers had tosend detailed reports on every student. Political prisoners were exiledto Siberia, a region of eastern and central Russia.

To establish a uniform Russian culture, Alexander III oppressedother national groups within Russia. He made Russian the official lan-guage of the empire and forbade the use of minority languages, such asPolish, in schools. Alexander made Jews the target of persecution. He sub-jected them to new laws that encouraged prejudice. Jews could not buy landor live among other Russians. Universities set strict quotas for Jewish students.A wave of pogroms—organized violence against Jews—broke out in many parts ofRussia. Police and soldiers stood by and watched Russian citizens loot and destroyJewish homes, stores, and synagogues.

Nicholas II Resists ChangeWhen Nicholas II became czar in 1894, he announced, “The principle of autocracywill be maintained by me as firmly and unswervingly as by my lamented father[Alexander III].” Nicholas stubbornly refused to surrender any of his power. His trustin the tradition of Russian autocracy blinded him to the changing conditions of histimes. Yet the sweeping forces of change would override his pledge to preserve theczarist rule of Russia’s past.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. SummarizingWhat methods didAlexander III use tomaintain his authorityover the Russianpeople?A. PossibleAnswers Censorship,secret police, reli-gious persecution,discrimination againstminorities

Revolutions in Russia1TERMS & NAMES

• pogrom• Trans-Siberian

Railway• Bolsheviks• V. I. Lenin• Duma• Rasputin• provisional

government• soviet

MAIN IDEA

Long-term social unrest in Russiaerupted in revolution, ushering in the first Communist government.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

The Communist Party controlled theSoviet Union until the country’sbreakup in 1991.

Alexander III turnedRussia into a policestate, teeming withspies andinformers.

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Economic Growth and Its Impact The number of factoriesmore than doubled between 1863 and 1900. In spite of this, at thebeginning of Nicholas II’s reign, Russia lagged behind the indus-trial nations of western Europe. In the 1890s, Sergey Witte(VYEET•tyih), the czar’s most capable minister, launched a pro-gram to move the country forward. Through higher taxes and for-eign investments, Witte helped finance the buildup of Russianindustries. Witte’s steps also boosted the growth of heavy industry,particularly steel. By around 1900, Russia had become the world’sfourth-ranking producer of steel. Only the United States,Germany, and Great Britain produced more steel.

Witte also pushed for the building of the great Trans-SiberianRailway—the world’s longest continuous rail line. With the help of British and French investors, work began in 1891. The Trans-Siberian Railway was completed in 1904. It connected EuropeanRussia in the west with Russian ports on the Pacific Ocean in the east.

The Revolutionary Movement Grows Rapid industrializationalso stirred discontent among the people of Russia. The growth offactories brought new problems. Among these problems were gruel-ing working conditions, miserably low wages, and child labor. Tradeunions were outlawed. Still, exploited laborers who worked in facto-ries and built the railway lines organized strikes. Workers wereunhappy with their low standard of living and lack of political power.The gap between rich and poor was enormous.

Amid the widespread unrest of workers and other members ofRussian society, various revolutionary movements began to grow. Theyalso competed for power. The group that would eventually succeed inestablishing a new government in Russia followed the views of KarlMarx. These revolutionaries believed that the industrial class of workers

would overthrow the czar. The industrial class would then form “a dictatorship of theproletariat.” In such a state, the workers would rule.

In 1903, Russian Marxists split into two groups over revolutionary tactics. TheMensheviks (MEHN•shuh•vihks) wanted a broad base of popular support for the revolu-tion. The Bolsheviks (BOHL•shuh•vihks) supported a small number of committed revo-lutionaries willing to sacrifice everything for radical change.The major leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (ool•YAH•nuhf). He

adopted the name of Lenin. He had an engaging personality and was an excel-lent organizer. He was also ruthless. These traits would ultimately help him

gain command of the Bolsheviks. In the early 1900s, Lenin fled to westernEurope to avoid arrest by the czarist regime. He maintained contact with

other Bolsheviks. Lenin then waited until he could safely return to Russia.

Crises at Home and AbroadThe revolutionaries would not have to wait long to realize their visions. Between 1904and 1917, Russia faced a series of crises. These events showed the czar’s weakness andpaved the way for revolution.

The Russo-Japanese War In the late 1800s, Russia and Japan were imperialistpowers. They both competed for control of Korea and Manchuria. The two nationssigned a series of agreements over the territories, but Russia broke them. In retalia-tion, Japan attacked the Russians at Port Arthur, Manchuria, in February 1904.

Though Russian soldiers and sailors went confidently to war, the Japanese defeatedthem. News of repeated losses sparked unrest at home and led to revolt in the midstof the war.

B. Possible AnswerExploitation of factoryworkers and the hugegap between the richand poor caused dis-content.THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingCauses Why didindustrialization inRussia lead to unrest?

Vocabularyminister: person in charge of an areaof government, suchas finance.

BackgroundKarl Marx, a 19th-century Germanphilosopher, arguedthat the workers ofthe world would oneday overthrow the rul-ing class and shareequally in society’swealth.

770 Chapter 30

The Trans-Siberian Railway

The Trans-Siberian Railway ranabout 5,800 miles across the vastarea of Siberia, from Moscow to the city of Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan. Like the transcontinentalrailroad in the United States (builtfrom 1863 to 1869), the Trans-Siberian Railway was constructedover difficult terrain and completedin sections.

To celebrate the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway, Czar Nicholas II had the jewelryfirm of Fabergé create a goldenEaster egg (shown below) forCzarina Alexandra. The inscriptionon the silver band encircling theegg reads, “Great Siberian

Railway, 1900.” Hiddeninside the egg is awonderful surprise—aminiature replica of a

train studdedwith preciousgems. The tinyengine is actually a wind-up toy that canpull the carsattached to it.

SPOTLIGHTON

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Revolution and Nationalism 771

Bloody Sunday: The Revolution of 1905 On January 22, 1905, about 200,000workers and their families approached the czar’s Winter Palace in St. Petersburg.They carried a petition asking for better working conditions, more personal freedom,and an elected national legislature. Nicholas II was not at the palace. His generals andpolice chiefs were. They ordered the soldiers to fire on the crowd. Between 500 and1,000 unarmed people were killed. Russians quickly named the event “BloodySunday.” Lenin called the incident a “dress rehearsal” for the later revolution thatwould usher in a Communist regime.

Bloody Sunday provoked a wave of strikes and violence thatspread across the country. Though Nicholas still opposed reform, inOctober 1905 he reluctantly promised more freedom. He approvedthe creation of the Duma (DOO•muh)—Russia’s first parliament. The first Duma met in May 1906. Its leaders were moderates whowanted Russia to become a constitutional monarchy similar toBritain. Hesitant to share his power, the czar dissolved the Dumaafter ten weeks. Other Dumas would meet later. Yet none wouldhave real power to make sweeping reforms.

World War I: The Final Blow In 1914, Nicholas II made the fate-ful decision to drag Russia into World War I. Russia, though, wasunprepared to handle the military and economic costs. Russia’s weak generals and poorly equipped troops were no match for theGerman army. Before a year had passed, more than 4 millionRussian soldiers had been killed, wounded, or taken prisoner.German machine guns mowed down advancing Russians by thethousands. Defeat followed defeat. As in the Russo-Japanese War,Russia’s involvement in World War I revealed the weaknesses ofczarist rule and military leadership.

In 1915, Nicholas moved his headquarters to the war front. Fromthere, he hoped to rally his discouraged troops to victory. His wife,Czarina Alexandra, ran the government while he was away. Sheignored the czar’s chief advisers. Instead, she continued to fall underthe influence of the mysterious Rasputin (ras•PYOO•tihn)—a self-described “holy man.” He claimed to have magical healing powers.

Alexis, Nicholas and Alexandra’s son, suffered from hemophilia, alife-threatening disease. Rasputin seemed to ease the boy’s symp-toms. To show her gratitude, Alexandra allowed Rasputin to makekey political decisions. He opposed reform measures and obtainedpowerful positions for his friends. He spread corruption throughoutthe royal court. In 1916, a group of nobles murdered Rasputin. Theyfeared his increasing role in government affairs.

Meanwhile, the war was destroying the morale of Russian troops.Soldiers mutinied, deserted, or ignored orders. On the homefront,food and fuel supplies were dwindling. Prices were wildly inflated.People from all classes were clamoring for change and an end to thewar. Neither Nicholas nor Alexandra proved capable of tacklingthese enormous problems.

The March RevolutionIn March 1917, women textile workers in Petrograd led a citywide strike. Soon after-ward, riots flared up over shortages of bread and fuel. Nearly 200,000 workers swarmedthe streets. At first the soldiers obeyed orders to shoot the rioters but later sided withthem. The soldiers fired at their commanding officers and joined the rebellion. Largecrowds gathered, shouting “Down with the autocracy!” and “Down with the war!”

Vocabularyconstitutionalmonarchy: a form ofgovernment in whicha single ruler headsthe state and sharesauthority with electedlawmakers.

BackgroundHemophilia is a rareblood disease inwhich blood fails toclot. A deep cut maycause uncontrollablebleeding.

BackgroundSt. Petersburg wasrenamed Petrograd in 1914 because theoriginal name seemedtoo German. In 1924,the name waschanged to Leningrad.In 1991, the name St. Petersburg wasrestored.

Rasputin

1872–1916

Born a peasant in Siberia, Rasputinbecame a religious teacher,although he was never ordained asa priest. The sinister monk seemedto cast a hypnotic spell on people,especially Czarina Alexandra andher ailing son. Rasputin’s reputationfor having mysterious powersfollowed him to his grave.

In December 1916, a small groupof young aristocrats plotted hisassassination because he wasreportedly taking control of thegovernment. They lured him to amansion and fed him poisonedcakes. The poison apparently had noeffect on Rasputin’s extraordinarystrength. The conspirators then shothim several times. Assuming he wasfinally dead, they threw him in theNeva River. When his body wasdiscovered three days later, doctorsconfirmed the cause of his death—drowning.

Rasputin’s death threw theczarina into shock. His predictionhaunted her: “If I die or you desertme, in six months you will lose yourson and your throne.”

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• Civil war (1918–1920)

• Czar and his family killed—endof czarist rule

• Peace with Germany underTreaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

• Bolshevik control of government

• Russian economy in ruins

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences Why didKerensky’s decision tocontinue fighting thewar cost him the sup-port of the Russianpeople?C. Possible AnswerRussians lost theirfaith in the provisionalgovernment and feltno better off thanwhen they were underthe czar.

The Czar Steps Down The local protest exploded into a generaluprising—the March Revolution. It forced Czar Nicholas II to abdi-cate his throne. A year later revolutionaries executed Nicholas andhis family. The czarist rule of the Romanovs, which spanned overthree centuries, had finally collapsed. The March Revolution suc-ceeded in bringing down the czar. Yet it failed to set up a stronggovernment to replace his regime.

Leaders of the Duma established a provisional government, ortemporary government. It was eventually headed by AlexanderKerensky. His decision to continue fighting the war cost him the sup-port of both soldiers and civilians. As the war dragged on, conditionsinside Russia worsened. Angry peasants demanded land. City work-ers grew more radical. Social revolutionaries, competing for power,formed soviets. Soviets were local councils consisting of workers,peasants, and soldiers. In many cities, especially Petrograd, the sovi-ets had more influence than the provisional government.

Lenin Returns to Russia The Germans launched their own“secret weapon” that would erode the provisional government’sauthority. They arranged Lenin’s return to Russia after many years ofexile. The Germans believed that Lenin and his Bolshevik supporterswould stir unrest in Russia and hurt the Russian war effort. Travelingin a sealed railway boxcar, Lenin reached Petrograd in April 1917.

The Bolshevik RevolutionLenin and the Bolsheviks recognized their opportunity to seizepower. They soon gained control of the Petrograd soviet, as well asthe soviets in other major Russian cities. By the fall of 1917, peoplein the cities were rallying to the call, “All power to the soviets.”Lenin’s slogan—“Peace, Land, and Bread”—was gaining widespreadappeal. Lenin decided to take action.

The Provisional Government Topples In November 1917, withoutwarning, Bolshevik Red Guards made up of armed factory workers

stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd. They took over government offices and arrestedthe leaders of the provisional government. The Bolshevik Revolution was over in a mat-ter of hours. Kerensky and his colleagues disappeared almost as quickly as the czaristregime they had replaced.

DNA Solves the Mystery of Anastasia

For about 65 years after the execu-tion of Czar Nicholas II and his family,a woman named Anna Andersonclaimed that she was the GrandDuchess Anastasia, the czar’s solesurviving daughter (circled above).According to Anna, she managed to escape her assassins.

Anna’s regal manners anddetailed knowledge about theRomanov family convinced many thatshe was telling the truth. Othersbelieved she was a fraud seekingpersonal gain. Anna held fast to herstory until her death in 1984.

In 1993, scientists finally solvedthe 75-year-old mystery. Prince Philipof Britain is a living descendant ofCzarina Alexandra. Scientistscompared his DNA to AnnaAnderson’s. The DNA proved thatAnna was not a blood relative of theRomanovs. Instead, she carried theDNA of Polish peasants.

CONNECT to TODAY

Causes and Effects of Two Russian Revolutions

• Abdication of Czar Nicholas

• Failure of provisionalgovernment

• Growing power of soviets

• Lenin’s return to Russia

• Bolshevik takeover under Lenin

• Widespread discontent among allclasses of Russian society

• Agitation from revolutionaries

• Weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II

• Defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1905)

• Bloody Sunday (1905)

• Losses in World War I

• Strikes and riots

Russian Revolutions of 1917Causes Effects

SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Charts1. Based on the chart, form a generalization about why the Russian Revolutions occurred.2. What similarities exist between the causes of the Revolution and the effects?

772 Chapter 30

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Revolution and Nationalism 773

Bolsheviks in Power Lenin’s next step was tacklingthe problems he inherited from czarist rule. Withindays after the Bolshevik takeover, Lenin orderedthat all farmland be distributed among the peasants.Lenin and the Bolsheviks gave control of factories tothe workers. The Bolshevik government also signeda truce with Germany to stop all fighting on the east-ern war front and began peace talks.

In March 1918, Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The priceof peace was costly. Russia surrendered a large chunk of its territory to Germany andits allies. The humiliating terms of this treaty triggered widespread anger among manyRussians. They objected to the Bolsheviks and their policies.

Civil War Rages in Russia Still recovering from their painful losses of land toGermany, the Bolsheviks now faced a new challenge—stamping out their enemies athome. Their opponents formed the White Army. The revolutionary leader Leon Trotsky,who helped negotiate the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, expertly commanded the BolshevikRed Army. From 1918 to 1920, civil war raged in Russia. Several Western nations, in-cluding the United States, sent military aid and forces to Russia to help the White Army.

Russia’s civil war proved far more deadly than the earlier revolutions. Around 15million Russians died in the three-year struggle and in the famine that followed. Thedestruction and loss of life from fighting, hunger, and a worldwide flu epidemic leftRussia in chaos.

In the end the Red Army triumphed and finally crushed all opposition to Bolshevikrule. The victory showed that the Bolsheviks were able both to seize power and tomaintain it. Yet in the aftermath of the civil war, Lenin and the Bolsheviks faced over-whelming problems.

During theBolshevikRevolution of 1917,these Petrogradworkers seized anarmored car fromthe provisionalgovernment’sforces.

D. Possible AnswerRussia’s involvementin World War I, socialunrest, political oppo-nents, civil war,famineTHINK THROUGH HISTORYD. IdentifyingProblems Whatproblems did Leninand the Bolsheviksface after therevolution?

Black Sea AralSea

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FINLAND

ESTONIA

LATVIALITHUANIA

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Petrograd

Archangel

Murmansk

Kazan

PermYekaterinburg

Samara

Novosibirsk

Tashkent

Irkutsk

Rostov

KievBrest-Litovsk

Tsaritsyn

Vladivostok

Trans-Siberian Railway

Omsk

Western boundaries of Russia, 1905–1917

Bolshevik territory, Oct. 1919Territories lost (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918)

Bolshevik uprisings, 1917–1918

White Russian andAllied attacks, 1918–1920

Bolshevik counterattacks, 1918–1920Major civil war battle areas, 1918–1920Boundaries of Russia, 1922

0 500 Miles

0 1,000 Kilometers

Russian Revolution and Civil War, 1905–1922

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Region What was the extent (north to south, east to west) of the Bolshevik

territory in 1919?2. Region What European countries were no longer within Russian boundaries

by 1922 because of the Brest-Litovsk treaty?

Ukraine lost in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; regainedin 1922

Romanov familyexecuted, 1918

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Lenin Restores OrderWar and revolution destroyed the Russian economy. Trade was at a standstill. Industrialproduction dropped and many skilled workers fled to other countries. Lenin, whohelped mastermind the Bolshevik Revolution, shifted his role. He turned to reviving

the economy and restructuring the government.

New Economic Policy In March 1921, Lenin launched the NewEconomic Policy (NEP) by temporarily putting aside his plan for a state-controlled economy. Instead, he resorted to a small-scale version of capitalism. The reforms under the NEP allowed peasantsto sell their surplus crops instead of turning them over to the government. Individuals could buy and sell goods for profit. The government kept control of major industries, banks, and means of communication, but it let some small factories, businesses, and farms operate under private ownership. Lenin also tried to encour-age foreign investment.

Political Reforms The many different nationalities within Russiahad always posed an obstacle to national unity. Communist leadersalso saw nationalism as a threat to unity and party loyalty. To keepnationalism in check, Lenin organized Russia into several self-gov-erning republics under the central government. In 1922, the countrywas named the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), in honorof the councils that helped launch the Bolshevik Revolution. Eachrepublic was controlled from the new capital—Moscow.

The Bolsheviks also renamed their party the Communist Party.The name came from the writings of Karl Marx. He had used theword communism to describe the classless society that would existafter workers had seized power. In 1924, the Communists created aconstitution based on socialist and democratic principles. In reality,the Communist Party held all the power. Lenin had established adictatorship of the Communist Party, not “a dictatorship of theproletariat,” as Marx had promoted.

Thanks partly to the new policies and to the peace that followed thecivil war, the USSR slowly recovered. By 1928, the country’s farms andfactories were producing as much as they had before World War I.

Lenin did not live to see this recovery. He had several strokes andspent the last 18 months of his life as a semi-invalid. His death in1924 opened a power struggle for control of the party and the coun-try. You will learn about the outcome of this struggle in Section 2.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYE. MakingInferences Whatsteps did theCommunist govern-ment take to preventnationalism fromthreatening the newstate created by theRussian Revolution?E. Possible AnswerThe Communists organized Russiaunder a central government, renamedthe country after theBolshevik councils,and made Moscowthe only capital city.

774 Chapter 30

V. I. Lenin

1870–1924

A brilliant student, Lenin enrolled inlaw school as a young man but wasexpelled for taking part in a studentprotest meeting. In 1887, when hewas 17, his brother, Alexander, washanged for plotting to kill the czar.Legend has it that this event turnedLenin into a revolutionary.

Though Alexander’s executioninfluenced Lenin, Lenin alreadyharbored feelings against thegovernment. By the early 1900s, he planned to overthrow the czar.After 1917, Russians revered him as the “Father of the Revolution.”

Following Lenin’s death in 1924, the government placed histomb in Red Square in Moscow. His preserved body, encased in abulletproof, glass-topped coffin, isstill on display. Many Russians,though, favor moving Lenin’s corpseaway from public view.

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2. TAKING NOTES

Create a time line like the onebelow to show significant eventsduring the last phases of czaristrule and the beginning ofCommunist rule.

Write a paragraph explaining oneof these events in more detail.

3. EVALUATING DECISIONS

What do you think were CzarNicholas II’s worst errors injudgment during his rule? Why?

THINK ABOUT• the czar’s military decisions• the political outcome of “Bloody

Sunday”

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution Why was Lenin’sleadership crucial to the successof the Russian Revolution?

THINK ABOUT• Lenin’s personal traits• his slogan—“Peace, Land, and

Bread”• his role in organizing the

Bolsheviks• his role after the Revolution

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• pogrom• Trans-Siberian Railway• Bolsheviks• V. I. Lenin• Duma• Rasputin• provisional

government• soviet

Section Assessment1

1891

1894

1917 1922

1921

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SETTING THE STAGE Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin were among Lenin’s revolu-tionary supporters. They both helped create the Soviet state. After Lenin died, thesetwo men became bitter rivals for control of the Communist Party. The outcome of thisstruggle would determine the future course of the Soviet Union. Stalin, Lenin’s suc-cessor, would aim at dramatically transforming the government and controlling everyaspect of citizens’ lives.

Stalin Becomes DictatorJoseph Stalin was a quiet man who rarely received much publicnotice. During his early days as a Bolshevik, he changed his namefrom Dzhugashivili (joo•guhsh•VEEL •yih) to Stalin, which means“man of steel” in Russian. The name fit well. Stalin was cold, hard,and impersonal. Lenin, unsure of his successor, began to distrustStalin. Lenin believed that Stalin was a dangerous man. Shortlybefore Lenin died, he wrote, “Comrade Stalin has concentratedenormous power in his hands, and I am not sure that he alwaysknows how to use that power with sufficient caution.”

From 1922 to 1927, Stalin began his ruthless climb to the head of the government. In 1922, as general secretary of the CommunistParty, he worked behind the scenes. He shrewdly moved his follow-ers into strategic government offices. By 1924, he had placed manyof his supporters in key positions. By 1928, Stalin was in total com-mand of the Communist Party. Trotsky, forced into exile in 1929, was no longer a threat. Stalin now stood poised to wield absolutepower as a dictator.

Stalin Builds a Totalitarian StateLenin and Trotsky promoted a worldwide Communist revolution.Stalin, however, focused on Russian development. He coined thephrase “socialism in one country” to describe his aims of perfecting a Communist state in Russia. To realize his vision, Stalin wouldtransform the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state.

The term totalitarianism describes a government that takes total,centralized state control over every aspect of public and private life.Totalitarian leaders, such as Stalin, appear to provide a sense of secu-rity and to give a direction for the future.

Totalitarianism challenges the highest values prized by Westerndemocracies—reason, freedom, human dignity, and the worth of theindividual. As the chart on the next page shows, all totalitarian statesshare basic characteristics.

BackgroundWhile in exile, Trotskypublished articles and books criticizingStalin’s regime. In1940, Stalin’s agentsmurdered Trotsky in Mexico.

Joseph Stalin

1879–1953

Stalin was born in bitter poverty in Georgia, a region in southernRussia. Unlike the well-educatedand cultured Lenin, Stalin wasrough and crude.

Despite having millions ofRussians killed, Stalin tried tocreate a myth that he was thecountry’s father and savior. Stalinglorified himself as the symbol ofthe nation. He encouraged peopleto think of him as “The GreatestGenius of All Times and Peoples.”

Many towns, factories, andstreets in the Soviet Union werenamed for Stalin. A new metal was called Stalinite. An orchid was named Stalinchid. Childrenstanding before their desks everymorning said, “Thank ComradeStalin for this happy life.”

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TotalitarianismCASE STUDY: Stalinist Russia

2TERMS & NAMES• Joseph Stalin• totalitarianism• command

economy• collective farm• kulak• Great Purge • socialist realismMAIN IDEA

After Lenin died, Stalin seized powerand transformed the Soviet Union into atotalitarian state.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

More recent dictators have usedStalin’s tactics for seizing total controlover individuals and the state.

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Other totalitarian governments besides the Soviet Union emerged in the twentiethcentury. In the 1920s and 1930s, two other European dictators—Hitler in Germanyand Mussolini in Italy—were shaping their visions of a totalitarian state. AfterCommunists formed the People’s Republic of China in 1949, Mao Zedong used tactics similar to Stalin’s to establish totalitarian control. The North Korean dictatorKim Il Sung ruled over a totalitarian Communist state from 1948 to 1994.

By 1928 Stalin began taking great strides to build a totalitarian state. He hadachieved personal power and was ready to begin overhauling the economy.

Stalin Seizes Control of the EconomyWhile Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP) was a mixture of free enterprise and statecontrol, Stalin’s economic policies involved total state control. His plans called for acommand economy—a system in which the government made all economic deci-sions. Under this system, political leaders identify the country’s economic needs anddetermine how to fulfill them. To modernize the Soviet state, Stalin ushered in revo-lutions in industry and agriculture.

An Industrial Revolution In 1928, Stalin outlined the first of several Five-YearPlans for the development of the Soviet Union’s economy. The government would takedrastic steps to promote rapid industrial growth and to strengthen national defense.Stalin announced, “We are fifty or a hundred years behind theadvanced countries. We must make good this distance in tenyears. Either we do it or we shall be crushed.”

The Five-Year Plans set impossibly high quotas, ornumerical goals, to increase the output of steel, coal, oil,and electricity. To reach these targets, the governmentlimited production of consumer goods. As a result, peo-ple faced severe shortages of housing, food, clothing, and othernecessary goods.

CASE STUDY: Stalinist Russia

PATTERNS OF CHANGE: Totalitarianism

SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Charts1. Based on the chart, how are individuals in a totalitarian state molded into obedient citizens?2. How would your life change if you lived in a totalitarian state?

• Exercises absolute authority • Dominates the government

• Helps unite people toward meeting shared goals or realizing a common vision• Encourages people to devote their unconditional loyalty and uncritical support to the regime• Becomes a symbol of the government

• Justifies government actions• Glorifies the aims of the state

• business • labor • housing • education• family life • youth groups • religion • the arts

• Demands total obedience to authority and personal sacrifice for the good of the state• Denies basic liberties

• Relies on mass communication, such as radios, newsreels, and loudspeakers, to spread propaganda

• Builds up advanced military weapons

• Uses force, such as police terror, to crush all opposition• Targets certain groups, such as national minorities and political opponents, as enemies

Key Traits Description

The number oftractors in theSoviet Unionincreased from25,000 in 1927 to483,000 in 1938.

Dictatorship and One-Party Rule

Dynamic Leader

Ideology (set of beliefs)

State Control Over AllSectors of Society

State Control Over theIndividual

Dependence onModern Technology

Organized Violence

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Under Stalin’s totalitarian regime, the government controlledevery aspect of the worker’s life. Officials chose the workers,assigned them jobs, and determined their working hours. Workersneeded the police’s permission to move. The secret police wereready to imprison or execute those who did not contribute to theSoviet economy. These forceful means of making the Soviet Uniona modern industrial nation took a great toll on people’s personallives. Many families and marriages broke up.

Stalin’s grim methods, however, also produced fantastic eco-nomic results. Although most of the targets of the first Five-YearPlan fell short, the Soviets made impressive gains. A second plan,launched in 1933, proved equally successful. From 1928 to 1937,industrial production increased more than 25 percent.

An Agricultural Revolution Stalin’s agricultural revolution wasalso successful—and far more brutal—than his industrial revolution.In 1928, the government began to seize over 25 million privatelyowned farms in the USSR. It combined them into large, govern-ment-owned farms, called collective farms. Hundreds of families worked on these farms, producing food for the state. The govern-ment expected that the modern machinery on the collective farmswould boost food production and reduce the number of workers.

Peasants resisted fiercely. Many killed livestock and destroyedcrops in protest. Stalin used terror and violence to force peasantsto work on collective farms. Soviet secret police herded them ontocollective farms at the point of a bayonet. Between 5 million and10 million peasants died as a direct result of Stalin’s agriculturalrevolution. Millions more were shipped to Siberia.

Resistance was especially strong among kulaks, a class ofwealthy peasants. The Soviet government decided to eliminatethem. Thousands were executed or sent to work camps.

By 1938, more than 90 percent of all peasants lived on collec-tive farms. Agricultural production was on the upswing. That yearthe country produced almost twice the wheat than it had in 1928before collective farming.

Weapons of TotalitarianismTo dominate an entire nation, Stalin, like other totalitarian lead-ers, devised methods of control and persuasion.

Police Terror Dictators of totalitarian states use terror and vio-lence to force obedience and to crush opposition. Stalin beganbuilding his totalitarian state by destroying his enemies—realand imagined. Stalin’s secret police used tanks and armored carsto stop riots. They monitored telephone lines, read mail, andplanted informers everywhere. Even children told authoritiesabout disloyal remarks they heard at home. The secret policearrested and executed millions of so-called traitors.

In 1934, Stalin turned against members of the Communist Party. He launched theGreat Purge—a campaign of terror. It was directed at eliminating anyone whothreatened his power. Thousands of old Bolsheviks who helped stage the Revolutionin 1917 stood trial. They were executed for “crimes against the Soviet state.”

The state had the authority to punish even the most minor acts. The police arrestedthe director of the Moscow Zoo because his monkeys got tuberculosis. The police

BackgroundMany peasants hadonly recently wontheir own land. Forcenturies, they hadstruggled against thenobles. Now theywere forced to submitto yet another land-lord—the Soviet government.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. SummarizingWhat methods didStalin use to bringagriculture understate control?A. Possible AnswerEstablishment of collective farms; use of terror and violence; destructionof the kulaks

Vocabularypurge: a systematiceffort to eliminate a targeted group of people.

The Buildup of the Soviet Economy

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SKILLBU ILDER :Interpreting Graphs1. How many more metric tons of

coal were produced in 1938than in 1928?

2. What do the graphs showabout the contrast between theprogress of industry and live-stock production under Stalin’sfirst Five-Year Plan?

PATTERNS OF CHANGE 777

Source: European Historical Statistics

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themselves were not above suspicion, especially if they did not arresttheir quotas of “criminals.” Every family came to fear the knock on thedoor in the early morning hours, which usually meant the arrest of afamily member.

When the Great Purge ended in 1939, Stalin had gained total con-trol of the Soviet government and the Communist Party. Historiansestimate that he was responsible for 8 million to 13 million deaths.

Indoctrination and Propaganda Totalitarian states rely onindoctrination—instruction in the government’s beliefs—to moldpeople’s minds. Party leaders in the Soviet Union lectured workersand peasants on the ideals of communism. They also stressed theimportance of sacrifice and hard work to build the Communiststate. State-supported youth groups trained future party members.

Totalitarian states also spread propaganda—biased or incompleteinformation used to sway people to accept certain beliefs or actions.

Soviet newspapers and radio broadcasts glorified the achieve-ments of communism, Stalin, and his economic programs.

Under Stalin, art also was used for propaganda. In 1930, an editorial in the Communist Party newspaper Pravda explained the purpose of art: “Literature, the cinema, the arts are levers inthe hands of the proletariat which must be used to show themasses positive models of initiative and heroic labor.” Socialistrealism was an artistic style that praised Soviet life and Communistvalues. Yevgeny Yevtushenko, a Russian poet, described this form ofartistic expression:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TBlankly smiling workers and collective farmers looked out from the covers of books. Almost every novel and short story had a happyending. Painters more and more often took as their subjects statebanquets, weddings, solemn public meetings, and parades. YEVGENY YEVTUSHENKO, A Precocious Autobiography

Censorship Many Soviet writers, composers, and other artists also fell victim to offi-cial censorship. Stalin would not tolerate individual creativity that threatened the con-formity and obedience required of citizens in a totalitarian state. The government alsocontrolled all newspapers, motion pictures, radio, and other sources of information.

Religious Persecution Communists aimed to replace religious teachings with theideals of communism. Under Stalin, the government and the League of the MilitantGodless, an officially sponsored group of atheists, spread propaganda attacking reli-gion. “Museums of atheism” displayed exhibits to show that religious beliefs weremere superstitions. Yet many people in the Soviet Union still clung to their faiths.

The Russian Orthodox Church was the main target of persecution. Other religiousgroups also suffered greatly. The police destroyed magnificent churches and syna-gogues; and many religious leaders were killed or sent to labor camps.

Comparing Revolutions In its immediate and long-term effects, the RussianRevolution was more like the French Revolution than the American Revolution. The American Revolution expanded English political ideas into a constitutional government that built on many existing structures. In contrast, both the French andRussian revolutions attempted to destroy existing social and political structures.Revolutionaries in France and Russia used violence and terror to control people.France eventually became a constitutional monarchy, but the Russian Revolutionestablished a totalitarian state that lasted for decades.

1984

George Orwell wrote the chillingnovel 1984 in response to the threatof two totalitarian regimes. Theywere Communist Russia underStalin and Nazi Germany underAdolf Hitler. The novel depicts afrightening world in which personalfreedom and privacy have vanished.The sinister slogan “Big Brother IsWatching You” appears every-where. Even citizens’ homes havetelevision cameras that constantlysurvey their behavior.

Orwell intended his novel,published in 1949, as awarning, not as aprophecy. Hesounded an alarmabout a world that atotalitarian statecould create throughmodern technology.For millions ofpeople in the SovietUnion and NaziGermany, the worldof totalitarianismwas not fiction. Itwas terrifying fact.

SPOTLIGHTON

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences Whatforms of art did Stalinencourage?C. Possible AnswerLiterature, films, andfine art that served apolitical purpose—glorifying the goals ofthe Communist state

Vocabularyatheists: people who do not thinkthere is a god.

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THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. Evaluating Whatwas one of the mostextreme methodsStalin used in theGreat Purge?B. Possible AnswerIt kept people in aconstant state of fearthrough the use ofmass arrests andmass executions.Millions died becauseof Stalin’s desire forabsolute control.

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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Posters

Revolution and Nationalism 779

The slogan on the aboveposter reads, “DayLaborers and YoungCommunists—Join theTractor Shock Brigadesfor Spring Sowing.”

This profile of Stalin isimposed on a shadowyimage of Lenin. Miniatureportraits of otherCommunist leaders trailoff in the background.

Propaganda Through ArtLow-cost printing techniques made socialist realism

posters an important form of propaganda in the SovietUnion. People might not listen to the radio or go topropaganda films. However, if they left their houses, theycould not avoid viewing the posters plastered on buildingsand walls in every town.

Images of energetic laborers, such as the special groupscalled “shock brigades,” urged Soviets to work harder.Portraits glorifying Stalin were also popular subjects ofSoviet posters.

Analyzing Issues What mes-sages do you think these posterscommunicate?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R12

Comparing How do the Sovietposters resemble the billboards ofmodern-day advertisers? Supportyour answer with examples.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

The slogan on this poster reads,“Young Communists[are] the ShockBrigade of the Five-Year Plan.”

CLASSZONE .COMNET ACTIVITY

For an Internet activity on Propaganda inArt . . .

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Daily Life Under StalinStalin’s totalitarian rule revolutionized Soviet society. Women’s roles greatly expanded.People became better educated and mastered new technical skills. The dramaticchanges in people’s lives had a downside, though. As servants of a totalitarian state,they would make great sacrifices in exchange for progress.

Soviet Women With the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, women won equal rights. After Stalinbecame dictator, women helped the state-controlledeconomy prosper. Under his Five-Year Plans, theyhad no choice but to join the labor force in increas-ing numbers. Young women performed the samejobs as men. Millions of women worked in factoriesand built dams and roads.

Given new educational opportunities, womenprepared for careers in engineering and science.Medicine, in particular, attracted many women. By1950, they made up 75 percent of Soviet doctors.

Soviet women paid a heavy price for their risingstatus in society. Besides their full-time jobs, they

were responsible for housework and child care. Motherhood was also considered apatriotic duty in totalitarian regimes. Soviet women were expected to provide the statewith future generations of loyal, obedient citizens.

Education Under Stalin, the government controlled all education—from nurseryschools through the universities. Schoolchildren learned the virtues of the CommunistParty. College professors and students who questioned the Communist Party’s inter-pretations of history or science risked losing their jobs or faced imprisonment.

Education was not merely indoctrination. Stalin’s economic plans created a highdemand for many skilled workers. University and technical training became the key to a better life. As one young man explained, “If a person does not want to become acollective farmer or just a cleaning woman, the only means you have to get somethingis through education.”

By the mid-1930s, Stalin had forcibly transformed the Soviet Union into a totalitar-ian regime and an industrial and political power. He stood unopposed as dictator andmaintained his authority over the Communist Party. He also ushered in a period oftotal social control and rule by terror, rather than constitutional government. His network of laws and regulations guided every aspect of individual behavior.

Like Russia, China would fall under the influence of Karl Marx’s theories andCommunist beliefs. The dynamic leader Mao Zedong would pave the way for trans-forming China into a totalitarian Communist state, as you will read in Section 3.

This Soviet womanworked in a textilefactory duringStalin’s regime.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. Evaluating Whatwere the pros andcons of women’s newroles in Soviet societyunder Stalin?D. Possible AnswerPros—more job andeducational opportuni-ties. Cons—mother-hood considered apatriotic duty; limitedfreedom as a worker.

2. TAKING NOTES

Which method do you think wasmost influential in maintainingStalin’s totalitarian rule? Why?

3. CONTRASTING

How do totalitarian states andconstitutional governments differ?

THINK ABOUT• the chart explaining the key

traits of totalitarianism• what you have learned about

constitutional government in theUnited States

• what you learned about theSoviet Constitution on page 774

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Economics Role-play anindustrial worker in a steel mill, apeasant on a collective farm, or astudent at a technical school.Write a secret journal entrydescribing what your life is likeunder Stalin’s economic plans.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Joseph Stalin• totalitarianism• command economy• collective farm• kulak• Great Purge• socialist realism

Section Assessment2

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Weapons ExamplesPolice TerrorPropagandaCensorshipReligious Persecution

Create a chart like the one belowlisting the weapons of total-itarianism. Cite examples from Sta-linist Russia for each method shown.

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SETTING THE STAGE In the early 1900s, China was ripe for revolution. China hadfaced years of humiliation at the hands of outsiders. Foreign countries controlledChina’s trade and economic resources. Many Chinese believed thatmodernization and nationalism held the country’s keys for survival.They wanted to build up the army and navy, to construct modernfactories, and to reform education. Yet others feared change. Theybelieved that China’s greatness lay in its traditional ways.

Nationalists Overthrow Qing DynastyAmong the groups pushing for modernization and nationalizationwas the Kuomintang (KWOH•mihn•TANG), or the Nationalist Party.Its first great leader, Sun Yixian (soon yee•shyahn), was a physicianwho had spent many years in the United States. In 1912, Sun’sRevolutionary Alliance, a forerunner of the Kuomintang, succeededin overthrowing the last emperor of the Qing dynasty. The Qing hadruled China since 1644.

Shaky Start for the New Republic In 1912, Sun became presi-dent of the new Republic of China. He held the post for just sixweeks. Sun hoped to establish a modern government based on the“Three Principles of the People”: (1) nationalism—an end to foreigncontrol, (2) people’s rights—democracy, and (3) people’s livelihood—economic security for all Chinese. Sun Yixian considered nationalismvital. He said, “The Chinese people . . . do not have national spirit.Therefore even though we have four hundred million people gatheredtogether in one China, in reality, they are just a heap of loose sand.”Despite his lasting influence as a revolutionary leader, Sun lacked theauthority and the military support to secure national unity.

Sun turned over the presidency to Yuan Shikai (yoo•ahn shee•ky), apowerful general. Yuan quickly betrayed the democratic ideals of therevolution. By 1913, he was ruling as a military dictator. His actionssparked local revolts. Even Yuan’s own generals refused to fight therebels. After Yuan died in 1916, chaos reigned. China remaineddivided and Sun’s Kuomintang powerless. Civil war broke out as onerival group battled another. Sun tried to reorganize his Kuomintang.Real authority, though, fell into the hands of provincial warlords. Theyruled territories as large as their armies could conquer.

As always during times of unrest, the Chinese peasants sufferedmost. Warlord armies terrorized the countryside. They pillaged andlooted everywhere. Roads and bridges fell into disrepair, and cropswere destroyed. Famine took the lives of millions. This was the situa-tion in China as World War I was being waged in Europe.

Vocabularywarlord: powerfulmilitary leader.

Collapse of ChineseImperial Rule

3TERMS & NAMES

• Kuomintang• Sun Yixian• Mao Zedong• May Fourth

Movement• Long March

MAIN IDEA

After the fall of the Qing dynasty,nationalist and Communist movementsstruggled for power.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

The seeds of China’s late-20th-centurypolitical thought, communism, wereplanted at this time.

Sun Yixian

1866–1925

A traditional Chinese proverb saysthat knowing what to do is easierthan doing it. Sun Yixian disagreed.“Knowledge is difficult,” he said.“Action is easy.”

Sun led an action-filled life. Hetraveled, organized, and plottedtirelessly to bring down the Qingdynasty. Aware of Sun’s activityand influence, Qing officialstracked him down in London. Theykidnapped him and held himprisoner. They planned to ship himback to China, where he facedprobable execution.

Sun would meet his death, hesaid, by “first having my anklescrushed in a vise and broken by a hammer, my eyelids cut off, andfinally being chopped up into smallfragments so that none couldclaim my mortal remains.” Sun’sBritish friends helped him escapehis captors. The episode made himworld-famous as a leader of therevolution in China. Sun Yixian is still known as the “father ofmodern China.”

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World War I Spells More Problems In 1917, the government in Beijing, hopingfor an Allied victory, declared war against Germany. For China’s participation, someleaders mistakenly believed that the thankful Allies would return control of China tothe Chinese. Under the Treaty of Versailles, however, the Allied leaders gave Japanthe territories and privileges that had previously belonged to Germany.

The May Fourth Movement When news of the Treaty of Versailles reachedChina, outrage swept the country. On May 4, 1919, over 3,000 angry studentsgathered in the center of Beijing. “Down with the European imperialists!” theyshouted. “Boycott Japan!” Mao Zedong (MOW dzuh•dahng), a young schoolteacherwho had studied at Beijing University, supported the student protesters. He would later become China’s greatest revolutionary leader, sometimes called “TheGreat Helmsman.”

The demonstrations spread to othercities and exploded into a nationalmovement. It was called the MayFourth Movement. Workers, manu-facturers, shopkeepers, and profession-als joined the cause. Though notofficially a revolution, these demonstra-tions showed the Chinese people’scommitment to the goal of establishinga strong, modern nation. Sun Yixianand members of the Kuomintang alsoshared the aims of the movement. Butthey could not strengthen central ruleon their own. Many young Chineseintellectuals turned against Sun Yixian’sbeliefs in Western democracy in favorof Lenin’s brand of Soviet communism.

The Communist Party in ChinaIn 1920, small groups of young intellectuals were meeting in Shanghai and BeijingUniversity to discuss Marx’s revolutionary beliefs. They viewed the Soviet Unionunder Lenin as a model for political and economic change. In 1921, a group metin Shanghai to organize the Chinese Communist Party. Mao Zedong was amongits founders.

Lenin Befriends China While the Communist Party was forming, Sun Yixianand his Nationalist Party set up a government in south China. Like the Communists,

Sun became disillusioned with the Western democracies that refused to support his struggling government. Sun decided to ally the Kuomintang with the

newly formed Communist Party. Sun used Lenin’s blueprint for organizinghis party along Bolshevik lines. Sun hoped to unite all the revolutionarygroups for common action.

After Western governments failed to aid Sun, he accepted an offer fromthe Soviets. Lenin preached worldwide revolution. He seized the opportunity to

help China’s Nationalist government. In 1923, Lenin began sending military advisersand equipment to the Nationalists in return for allowing the Chinese Communists tojoin the Kuomintang. Several Chinese Nationalist leaders traveled to Moscow formilitary training.

Nationalists and Communists Clash After Sun Yixian died in 1925, Jiang Jieshi(Jee•ahng jee•shee), formerly called Chiang Kai-shek, headed the Kuomintang. Jiangwas the son of a middle-class merchant. Many of Jiang’s followers were bankers and

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This portrait of MaoZedong was takenaround 1919, whenhe was a youngrevolutionary.

Student protestersgathered atTiananmen Squarein summer 1919.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. IdentifyingProblems What problems did the new Republic of China face?A. Possible AnswerWeak leadership, civilwar, terror of warlordarmies, famine, out-come of World War I,nationwide protests

Vocabularyhelmsman: person who steers a ship.

BackgroundJiang was Sun’sbrother-in-law andmilitary assistant.

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businesspeople. Like Jiang, they feared the Communists’ goal of creating a socialisteconomy modeled after the Soviet Union’s.

At first, Jiang put aside his differences with the Communists. Together Jiang’sNationalist forces and the Communists successfully fought the warlords. Soon after-ward, though, he turned against the Communists.

In April 1927, Nationalist troops and armed gangs moved into Shanghai. Theykilled many Communist leaders and trade union members in the city streets. Similarkillings took place in other cities. The Nationalists nearly wiped out the ChineseCommunist Party. Its few survivors went into hiding.

In 1928, Jiang became president of the Nationalist Republic of China. GreatBritain and the United States both formally recognized the new government. TheSoviet Union, as a result of the Shanghai massacre, did not. Jiang’s treachery also hadlong-term effects. The Communists’ deep-seated rage over the massacre erupted in acivil war that would last until 1949.

Peasants Align Themselves with the Communists Jiang had promised democ-racy and political rights to all Chinese. Yet his government became steadily lessdemocratic and more corrupt. It launched programs to modernize and develop thecities. However, Jiang did nothing to improve the life of China’s rural peasants. As aresult, many peasants threw their support to the Chinese Communist Party. To enlistthe support of the peasants, Mao divided land that the Communists won among thelocal farmers.

Communist leader Mao Zedong had survived Jiang’s bloody rampage by fleeing tothe countryside. He had already begun to develop his own brand of communism.Lenin had shown that a Marxist revolution could take place in a largely rural country,but he had based his organization in Russia’s cities. Mao envisioned a different setting.He believed he could bring revolution to a rural country where the peasants could bethe true revolutionaries. He argued his point passionately in 1927:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe force of the peasantry is like that of the raging winds and driving rain. It is rapidlyincreasing in violence. No force can stand in its way. The peasantry will tear apart all netswhich bind it and hasten along the road to liberation. They will bury beneath them allforces of imperialism, militarism, corrupt officialdom, village bosses and evil gentry. MAO ZEDONG, quoted in A History of World Societies

Civil War Rages in ChinaBy 1930, Nationalists and Communists were fighting a bloody civilwar. Mao and other Communist leaders establishedthemselves in the hills of south-central China.Mao referred to this tactic of taking his revolution to the countryside as “swimming in the peasant sea.” Herecruited the peasants to join his Red Army. He then trained them in guerrilla warfare. Nationalists attacked the Communists repeatedly but failed to drive them out.

The Long March In 1933, Jianggathered an army of at least700,000 men. Jiang’s army thensurrounded the Communists’mountain stronghold. Outnum-bered nearly six to one,

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. Contrasting Howdid Mao’s vision ofrevolution differ from Lenin’s?B. Possible AnswerMao believed thatpeasants could stagea revolution in a ruralcountry. Lenin’s sup-porters were basedin cities.

Along with the RedArmy, Mao (ridingon horseback) andhis wife He Zizhan(wearing a roundhat) made thegrueling LongMarch to safety inwestern China.

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Communist Party leaders realized thatthey faced defeat. In 1934, theCommunist forces fled. They began ahazardous, 6,000-mile-long journeycalled the Long March. Over the nextyear, the Communists kept only a stepahead of Jiang’s forces.

Mao’s Red Army crossed manyrivers and climbed over mountainranges. They fought several major bat-tles and faced minor skirmishes almostevery day. They also crossed miles ofswampland. They had to sleep sittingup, leaning back-to-back in pairs, tokeep from sinking into the mud anddrowning.

The chase lasted more than a year.About 100,000 people began themarch. From 10,000 to 30,000 reachedsafety in northwestern China, beyondthe reach of Jiang’s forces.

Mao and the other Communist sur-vivors settled in caves in northwesternChina. Despite the discouraging turnof events, they quickly gained new followers. Meanwhile, as civil warbetween Nationalists and Communistsraged, Japan invaded China.

Japan’s Invasion Suspends the Civil War In 1931, as Chinese fought Chinese, theJapanese watched the power struggles with rising interest. Japanese forces took advan-tage of China’s weakening situation. They invaded Manchuria, an industrialized provincein the northeast part of China. This attack signaled the onset of World War II in Asia.

In 1937, the Japanese launched an all-out invasion of China. Massive bombings ofvillages and cities killed thousands of Chinese. The destruction of farms caused manymore to die of starvation. By 1938, Japan held control of a large part of China.

The Japanese threat forced an uneasy truce between Jiang’s and Mao’s forces. Thecivil war gradually ground to a halt as Nationalists and Communists temporarilyunited to fight the Japanese. Jiang further agreed to promote changes outlined in SunYixian’s “Three Principles of the People”—nationalism, democracy, and people’s liveli-hood. As you will learn in Section 4, similar principles were also serving as a guidingforce in India and Southwest Asia.

BackgroundThe truce betweenCommunists andNationalists lastedthroughout World War II.

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2. TAKING NOTES

Make a chart like the one belowto compare and contrast JiangJieshi and Mao Zedong.

3. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS

What influence did foreign nationshave on China from 1912 to 1938?Support your answer with detailsfrom the text.

THINK ABOUT• the outcome of the Treaty of

Versailles • the role of the Soviet Union• the temporary truce during the

Chinese civil war

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution What caused theCommunist revolutionarymovement in China to gainstrength?

THINK ABOUT• Jiang’s government and policies • the Soviet Union’s influence• the conditions of rural peasants• Mao’s role and achievements

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Kuomintang• Sun Yixian• Mao Zedong• May Fourth Movement• Long March

Section Assessment3

PACIF ICOCEAN

YellowSea

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Japanese attacksJapanese territory, 1928Japanese territory, 1933Japanese territory, 1938

Communist bases

China, 1927–1938

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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Movement What was the course of the Long March, in terms of

direction, beginning in Riujan and ending near Yan’an?2. Region What geographic barriers did Mao’s forces face during

the Long March?

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. RecognizingEffects What were the results of the Long March?C. Possible AnswerAlthough at least two-thirds of the originalmarchers did not com-plete the journey,more Chinese peoplejoined theCommunists.

Jiang MaoPartyKey SupportersReformsMilitary Actions

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Revolution and Nationalism 785

SETTING THE STAGE The end of World War I stirred nationalist activity in India,Turkey, and some Southwest Asian countries. The British Empire, which controlledIndia, began to show signs of cracking.

Indian Nationalism GrowsIndian nationalism had been growing since the mid-1800s. Many upper-class Indianswho attended British schools learned European views of nationalism and democracy.They began to apply these political ideas to their own country. Well-educated Indiansbegan to resent the two centuries of British rule.

Two groups formed to rid India of foreign rule: the Indian National Congress, orCongress Party, in 1885, and the Muslim League in 1906. Though deep divisionsexisted between Hindus and Muslims, they found common ground. They shared theheritage of British rule and an understanding of democratic ideals. These two groupsboth worked toward the goal of national independence.

World War I Heightens Nationalist Activity Until WorldWar I, the vast majority of Indians had little interest in nation-alism. The situation changed as over a million Indians enlistedin the British army. In return for their service, the Britishgovernment promised reforms that would eventually lead toself-government. Indian leaders bided their time. Theyexpected to make gains once the war was over.

Later in the war, Indian demands led to the declaration in Parliament favoring the “increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual devel-opment of self-governing institutions.” To many Indians,these political reforms signaled that Indians would gain agreater voice in government and ultimately achieve their goal of self-rule.

In 1918, Indian troops returned home from the war. They expected Britain to fulfill its promise. Instead, theyfound themselves once again treated as second-class citizens.Radical nationalists carried out acts of violence to show theirhatred of British rule. To curb dissent, in 1919 the Britishpassed the Rowlatt Act. This law allowed the government to jail protesters without trial for as long as two years. ToWestern-educated Indians, denial of a trial by jury violatedtheir individual rights. Violent protests against the act flared inthe Punjab, the Indian province with the greatest number ofWorld War I veterans.

BackgroundUnlike Europeans,Asians, includingIndians, viewed World War I as a civil war among the feuding nations of Europe.

Vocabularydissent: difference of opinion.

Nationalism in Indiaand Southwest Asia

4TERMS & NAMES

• Mohandas K.Gandhi

• civildisobedience

• Mustafa Kemal

MAIN IDEA

Nationalism triggered indepen-dence movements to overthrowcolonial power.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

These independent nations—India,Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia—arekey players on the world stage today.

This Indian soldierfought for theBritish in WorldWar I.

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Amritsar Massacre To protest the Rowlatt Act, around 10,000 Hindus and Muslimsflocked to Amritsar, the capital city of the Punjab, in the spring of 1919. At a huge fes-tival, they intended to fast and pray and to listen to political speeches. A small groupof nationalists were also on the scene. The demonstration, especially the alliance ofHindus and Muslims, alarmed the British.

Most people at the gathering were unaware that the British government hadbanned public meetings. However, General Reginald Dyer, the British commander at Amritsar, believed they were openly defying the ban. He ordered his troops to fireon the crowd without warning. The shooting lasted ten minutes. British troops killednearly 400 Indians and wounded about 1200.

News of the slaughter sparked an explosion of anger across India. Almost overnight,millions of Indians changed from loyal British subjects into revolutionaries and nation-alists. These Indians demanded independence.

Gandhi’s Principles of NonviolenceThe massacre at Amritsar set the stage for Mohandas K. Gandhi(GAHN•dee) to emerge as the leader of the independence move-ment. He began to form his social and political ideas during the mid-1880s before he attended law school in England. Gandhi’s new strategy for battling injustice evolved from his deeply religiousapproach to political activity. His teachings blended ideas from all of the major world religions, including Hinduism, Islam, andChristianity. The Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore described him as“this great soul in a beggar’s garb.” Gandhi attracted millions of fol-lowers. Soon they were calling him the Mahatma (muh•HAHT•muh),meaning “Great Soul.”

When the British failed to punish the officers responsible for the killings at the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi urged the IndianNational Congress to follow a policy of noncooperation with theBritish government:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThis is in essence the principle of nonviolent noncooperation. It fol-lows therefore that it must have its root in love. Its object should notbe to punish the opponent or to inflict injury upon him. Even whilenoncooperating with him, we must make him feel that in us he has afriend and we should try to reach his heart by rendering him human-itarian service wherever possible.MOHANDAS K. GANDHI, quoted in Gandhi the Man

Civil Disobedience Gandhi developed the principle of satyagraha(SUH•tyah•grah•ha), or “truth-force.” In English, satyagraha is calledpassive resistance or civil disobedience—the deliberate and publicrefusal to obey an unjust law. Gandhi wrote, “Complete civil dis-obedience is a rebellion without the element of violence . . . Oneperfect civil resister is enough to win the battle of Right andWrong.” In 1920, under Gandhi’s influence, the Congress Partyendorsed civil disobedience and nonviolence as the means toachieve independence.

Gandhi launched his campaign of civil disobedience to weakenthe British government’s authority and economic power. He calledon Indians to refuse to do the following: buy British goods, attendgovernment schools, pay British taxes, and vote in elections. Gandhistaged a successful boycott of British cloth, a source of wealth for the

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. RecognizingEffects Whatchanges resulted from the Amritsarmassacre?A. Possible AnswerSpirit of nationalismgrew more intense;Gandhi became leaderof the independencemovement.

Mohandas K. Gandhi

1869–1948

From 1893 to 1914, Gandhi workedas a lawyer in South Africa, where he fought racial prejudice againstIndians. Shortly after his arrival,Gandhi bought a first-class ticketand boarded a train. A whiteconductor ordered Gandhi to moveto the third-class coach, reservedfor Indians. But Gandhi refused. Theconductor forced Gandhi off thetrain at the next station.

To honor Gandhi’s act ofresistance, South African presidentNelson Mandela recognized himwith a special freedom award inApril 1997. Mandela declared,

Today we are righting acentury-old wrong. Thisstation, once one of theworld’s most notorioussymbols of discrimination,intolerance, and oppression,today proclaims a message ofdignity restored. . . . Gandhi’smagnificent example of per-sonal sacrifice and dedication in the face of oppression wasone of his many legacies toour country and the world.

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786 Chapter 30

Vocabularyboycott: a refusal to buy.

Background ThePunjab is located innorthwest India.

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Revolution and Nationalism 787

British. He urged all Indians to weave their own cloth. Gandhi himself devoted twohours each day to spinning his own yarn on a simple handwheel. He wore only home-spun cloth and encouraged Indians to follow his example. As a result of the boycott,the sale of British cloth in India dropped sharply.

Throughout 1920, the British arrested thousands of Indians who had participatedin strikes and demonstrations. Gandhi’s weapon of civil disobedience took an eco-nomic toll on the British. They struggled to keep trains running, factories operating,and overcrowded jails from bursting. Despite Gandhi’s pleas for nonviolence,protests often led to riots. In 1922, rioters attacked a police station and set severalofficers on fire.

The Slow March to Independence In 1930, Gandhi organized a demonstration todefy the hated Salt Acts. According to these British laws, Indians could buy salt fromno other source but the government. They also had to pay sales tax on salt. To showtheir opposition, Gandhi and his followers walked about 240 miles to the seacoast.There they began to maketheir own salt by collectingseawater and letting it evapo-rate. This peaceful protest wascalled the Salt March.

Soon afterward, somedemonstrators planned amarch to a site where theBritish government processedsalt. They intended to shutthis saltworks down. Policeofficers with steel-tipped clubsattacked the demonstrators.An American journalist was aneyewitness to the event. Hedescribed the “sickeningwhacks of clubs on unpro-tected skulls” and people“writhing in pain with frac-tured skulls or broken shoul-ders.” Still the people continued to march peacefully, refusing to defend themselvesagainst their attackers. Newspapers across the globe carried the journalist’s story,which won worldwide support for Gandhi’s independence movement.

More demonstrations took place throughout India. Eventually, about 60,000 people,including Gandhi, were arrested.

Great Britain Grants India Self-RuleGandhi and his followers gradually reaped the rewards of their civil disobedience cam-paigns and gained greater political power for the Indian people. In 1935, the BritishParliament passed the Government of India Act. It provided local self-government andlimited democratic elections.

With this act, India began moving toward full independence from Great Britain.However, the Government of India Act also fueled mounting tensions betweenMuslims and Hindus. These two groups had conflicting visions of India’s future as an independent nation. Indian Muslims, outnumbered by Hindus, feared that Hinduswould control India if it won independence. In Chapter 34, you will read about theoutcome of India’s bid for independence.

BackgroundThe spinning wheel is the symbol on theIndian flag.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences How didthe Salt March repre-sent Gandhi’s meth-ods for change?B. Possible AnswerThe protest againstBritish rule was basedon noncooperationand civil disobedience.

Gandhi (standing inthe center with hishead bowed) ledIndians in the SaltMarch. Thedemonstratorsprotested the Britishgovernment’scontrol of salt sales.

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Nationalism Spreads to Southwest AsiaJust as the people of India fought to have their own nation afterWorld War I, the people of Southwest Asia also launched indepen-dence movements during this time. Each group in Southwest Asiachose a different path toward nation building.

The breakup of the Ottoman Empire and growing Western inter-est in Southwest Asia spurred the rise of nationalism in this region.

Turkey Becomes a Republic By the end of World War I, Turkey was all that remained of the Ottoman Empire. It includedthe old Turkish homeland of Anatolia and a small strip of landaround Istanbul.

In 1919, Greek soldiers dealt a death blow to the OttomanEmpire. They invaded Turkey and threatened to conquer it. TheTurkish sultan, weak and corrupt, was powerless to stop them. In1922, a brilliant commander, Mustafa Kemal (keh•MAHL), ledTurkish nationalists in overthrowing the last Ottoman sultan. Ayoung woman who played a major role in the revolution describedher strong nationalistic feelings: “I suddenly ceased to exist as anindividual. I worked, wrote and lived as a unit of that magnificentnational madness.”

In 1923, Kemal became the president of the new Republic ofTurkey, the first republic in Southwest Asia. He ushered in manysweeping reforms to achieve his goal of transforming Turkey into amodern nation. Kemal separated the laws of Islam from the laws ofthe nation. He abolished religious courts and created a new legal sys-tem based on European law. Under Kemal, women gained morefreedom. He granted women the right to vote and to hold publicoffice. Kemal also launched government-funded programs to indus-trialize Turkey and to spur economic growth.

Persia Becomes Iran Before World War I, both Great Britain andRussia had established spheres of influence in the ancient country ofPersia. After the war, when Russia was still reeling from theBolshevik Revolution, the British tried to take over all of Persia. Thismaneuver triggered a nationalist revolt in Persia. In 1921, a Persianarmy officer seized power. In 1925 he deposed the ruling shah.

Persia’s new leader, Reza Shah Pahlavi (PAL•uh•vee), like Kemalin Turkey, set out to modernize his country. He established publicschools, built roads and railroads, promoted industrial growth, and

extended women’s rights. Unlike Kemal, Reza Shah kept all power in his own hands.In 1935, he changed the name of his country from Persia to Iran.

Saudi Arabia Keeps Islamic Traditions While Turkey broke with many Islamic tra-ditions, another new country held strictly to Islamic law. In 1902, Abd al-Aziz Ibn Saud(sah•OOD), a member of a once-powerful Arabian family, began a successful campaignto unify Arabia. In 1932, he renamed the new kingdom Saudi Arabia after his family.

Ibn Saud carried on Arab and Islamic traditions. Loyalty to the Saudi governmentwas based on custom, religion, and family ties. Alcoholic drinks were illegal. LikeKemal and Reza Shah, Ibn Saud brought some modern technology, such as telephonesand radios, to his country. However, modernization in Saudi Arabia was limited to reli-giously acceptable areas.

Oil Resources Spur Economic Development While nationalism steadily emergedas a major force in Southwest Asia, the region’s economy was also taking a new direc-tion. The rising demand for petroleum products in industrialized countries brought

BackgroundThe Ottoman Empire had ruled inSouthwest Asia forabout 500 years.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. Comparing Howwere Kemal’s leader-ship and Reza Shah’sleadership similar?C. Possible AnswerBoth established poli-cies and launchedprograms to modern-ize their countries.

788 Chapter 30

Mustafa Kemal

1881-1938

As president of Turkey, MustafaKemal campaigned vigorously tomold the new republic into amodern nation. His models were theUnited States and other Europeancountries.

To reach this goal, Kemal evenset rules for clothing:

A civilized, international dressis worthy and appropriate forour new nation, and we willwear it. Boots or shoes on ourfeet, trousers on our legs, shirtand tie, jacket and waistcoat—and, of course, to completethese, a . . . hat.

Kemal required governmentworkers to wear Western-stylebusiness suits and banned the fez, abrimless red felt hat that was partof traditional Turkish clothing.

Kemal died in 1938. From hisleadership, Turkey gained a newsense of its national identity. Hisinfluence was so strong that theTurkish people gave him the nameAtaturk—”father of the Turks.”

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new oil explorations to Southwest Asia. During the 1920s and 1930s, European andAmerican companies discovered huge oil deposits in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, andKuwait. Foreign businesses invested huge sums of money to develop these oil fields.Geologists later learned that the land around the Persian Gulf has nearly two-thirds ofthe world’s known supply of oil.

This important resource led to rapid and dramatic economic changes and develop-ment. Saudi Arabia, for example, would soon become a nation of wealthy oil exporters.Yet oil proved to be a mixed blessing for Southwest Asia. Though oil brought hugeprofits, it also encouraged Western nations to try to dominate this region. Meanwhile,Western nations were about to face a more immediate crisis as power-hungry leadersseized control in Italy and Germany.

0

0

500 Miles

1,000 KilometersBritish territoryFrench territoryOil-producing regions

Southwest Asia andNortheast Africa, 1922–1934

40°N

20°N

40°E

60°E

20°E

Tropic of Cancer

SAUDIARABIA

EGYPT

ANGLO-EGYPTIANSUDAN

YEMEN

FRENCHSOMALILAND

BRITISHSOMALILAND

ADENPROTECTORATE

MUSCATAND

OMAN

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

SYRIA

PALESTINE

LEBANON

SOVIETUNION

QATAR

TRUCIALSTATES

KUWAIT

NeutralZone

BAHRAINTRANS-

JORDAN

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Strait ofHormuz

Re d

Se a

Gulf of Aden

PersianGulf

Tigris

R .

Nile R.

Euphrates R.

CaspianSea

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Location Along what geographical feature are most of the oil-

producing regions located?2. Region Based on the graph and map, what country was the

leading producer of oil by 1938? Why?

2. TAKING NOTES

Create a web diagram like the onebelow. Show the different forms ofnationalism that developed in theAsian countries shown.

In which of these countries didWorld War I trigger nationalistmovements?

3. HYPOTHESIZING

What do you think a nation mightgain and lose by modernizing?

THINK ABOUT• what positive changes occurred

in Turkey and Iran• why modernization was limited

in Saudi Arabia• why Kemal set rules for clothing• why Gandhi wore only

homespun cloth

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Science and TechnologyWork in small groups to researchproducts and consumer goodsmade from petroleum. Create anillustrated list of items that were ingreat demand in industrializedcountries during the 1930s.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Mohandas K. Gandhi• civil disobedience• Mustafa Kemal

Section Assessment4

Persia was renamed Iran in 1935. Oil was discovered in the early 1900s andcontinues to be Iran’s most importantnatural resource.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabiawas established in 1932. Oilwas discovered near thecoastline of the Persian Gulfin 1938. Saudi Arabia’s oilindustry was not developeduntil after 1941.

Turkey became arepublic in 1923.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

195019451940193519301925192019151910

Oil

Prod

uctio

n (in

thou

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■ Iran ■ Saudi Arabia

■ Iraq

Oil Exports

Forms of Nationalism1900–1939

Turkey Saudi Arabia

India Persia

Revolution and Nationalism 789

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30Chapter Assessment

REVIEW QUESTIONS

SECTION 1 (pages 769–774)

Revolutions in Russia11. How did Rasputin gain political influence over the Romanov family and

Russian political affairs?

12. How did World War I lead to the downfall of Czar Nicholas II?

13. Explain the causes of Russia’s civil war and its outcome.

SECTION 2 (pages 775–780)

PATTERNS OF CHANGE: TotalitarianismCASE STUDY: Stalinist Russia

14. What are the key traits of totalitarianism?

15. How did Stalin’s Five-Year Plans differ from Lenin’s New EconomicPolicy?

16. What individual freedoms are denied in a totalitarian state?

SECTION 3 (pages 781–784)

Collapse of Chinese Imperial Rule17. Briefly describe the May Fourth Movement and its supporters.

18. How did the Japanese react to the civil war in China?

SECTION 4 (pages 785–789)

Nationalism in India and Southwest Asia19. Give examples of Gandhi’s campaign of civil disobedience against the

British government.

20. What steps did Kemal take to modernize Turkey?

TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of each of the followingin Russia, China, or India.

Interact with History

On page 768, you played the role of a citizenwhose country was brimming with revolution-ary activity. You evaluated two tactics forchange—violence and nonviolence. Now thatyou have read the chapter, how would youassess the pros and cons of Mao’s andGandhi’s strategies? What role did violenceplay in the Russian and Chinese revolutions?How successful were Gandhi’s nonviolentmethods in India? Discuss your opinions in asmall group.

1. Bolsheviks

2. V. I. Lenin

3. soviet

4. Joseph Stalin

5. totalitarianism

6. Great Purge

7. Mao Zedong

8. Long March

9. Mohandas K. Gandhi

10. civil disobedience

Visual Summary

790 Chapter 30

Lenin Stalin Sun Yixian Mao Zedong Gandhi KemalCountry

Political Career

Key Role

Popular Name

Goal

Revolutionary Leaders: 1900–1939

Russia

late 1890s–1924

Bolshevik revolution-ary and first ruler ofCommunist Russia

“Father of theRevolution”

To promote a world-wide Communist revolution led byworkers

Russia

early 1900s–1953

Dictator

“Man of Steel”

To perfect aCommunist state inRussia throughtotalitarian rule

China

late 1890s–1925

First president of thenew Republic ofChina

“Father of ModernChina”

To establish a moderngovernment based onnationalism, democ-racy, and economicsecurity

China

early 1900s–1976

Leader of the ChineseCommunist Party

“The GreatHelmsman”

To stage a Communistrevolution in Chinaled by peasants

India

late 1800s–1948

Leader of the Indianindependence move-ment

“Great Soul”

To achieve Indianself-rule throughcampaigns of civildisobedience

Turkey

early 1900s–1938

First president of thenew Republic ofTurkey

“Father of the Turks”

To transform Turkeyinto a modern nation

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Revolution and Nationalism 791

CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project

Your unit portfolio project focuses onshowing the impact of science and technology during the early 1900s. ForChapter 30, you might use one of these ideas.

• After reading more about the Trans-Siberian Railway, create a travel posterfor a tourist agency that features interesting facts about the train and itsroutes.

• Write a science fiction story about a totalitarian state that uses moderntechnology to spread propaganda and control people. Refer to the sectionon Stalinist Russia for ideas.

• Draw diagrams that show the technology and methods used to drill oil inSouthwest Asia during the 1920s and 1930s. Use encyclopedias or booksto research the topic.

2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning

You read about the various causes that led to theRussian Revolution of 1917. Work with a team to create a mythical countrythat is on the brink of revolution today. Write a profile of the conditions inthat country that are triggering widespread social unrest.

Use the Internet and other books to find out about more recentrevolutions that have occurred in countries around the world. Look

for common patterns that countries in political turmoil share. Use thefollowing questions to help you brainstorm ideas for writing a profile of yourmythical country.

• What type of government is currently in power?

• Who are the top political leaders, and what are they like?

• What grievances do the citizens have against the government?

• What is the gap between the rich and the poor?

• What revolutionary groups are forming? What are their goals andstrategies?

CRITICAL THINKING1. THE SHIFTING ROLES OF WOMEN

Compare and contrast how women’s roles changedunder Stalin in Russia and Kemal in Turkey.

2. THE SOVIET ECONOMY UNDER STALIN

Cite evidence that Stalin mighthave used to disprove this claim: Economic systemsthat allow private ownership and encouragecompetition are the most productive.

3. MASSACRES IN RUSSIA AND ASIA

Copy the following chart on your paper to analyze thesimilarities among the events shown. Fill in the chartand write a paragraph that compares the events.

4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

The following quotation from Mohandas K. Gandhi,written in 1922, describes his views ofindustrialization in India. Read the passage andanswer the questions below it.

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TIndia does not need to be industrialized inthe modern sense of the term. It has7,500,000 villages scattered over a vast area1,900 miles long, 1,500 broad. The people arerooted to the soil, and the vast majority areliving a hand-to-mouth existence. . . .Agriculture does not need revolutionarychanges. The Indian peasant requires a sup-plementary industry. The most natural is theintroduction of the spinning wheel.MOHANDAS K. GANDHI, Letter to Sir Daniel Hamilton

• What picture does Gandhi present of India and itspeople?

• Gandhi believed that the spinning wheel wouldmake Indians less dependent on the Britisheconomy. Based on what you have learned in thischapter, what was the economic impact of thewidespread use of the spinning wheel?

FOCUS ON TIME LINES

The time line below highlights key events discussed in this chapter thatfall roughly within the time span of World War I. As you study the timeline, note the relationships among events that occurred in Russia,China, and India.

• What two events occurred in 1917?

Connect to History

• Explain the role that the end of World War I played in the followingtwo events: the May Fourth Movement in China and the AmritsarMassacre in India. Support your answer with information from the text.

• How did the Russian Revolutions of 1917 trigger the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

THEME SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

THEME REVOLUTION

THEME ECONOMICS

Description Political Outcome

Bloody Sunday(Russia, 1905)

Amritsar Massacre(India, 1919)

Shanghai Massacre(China, 1927)

1912 1913 1914W.W. I Begins

1915 1916 1917 1918W.W. I Ends

1919Treaty of

Versailles

Entry into W.W. I

India

China

Russia

Chinese Revolution:End of Qing Dynasty Entry into W.W. I

RussianRevolutions

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

May FourthMovement

Gandhi’s Return to IndiaCLASSZONE .COM

TEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,pp. S1–S33

AmristarMassacre

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