review psycho

8/13/2019 Review Psycho

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The review of Medical psychology

1. Experimental method and correlation

a) Identify independent variable and dependent variable.

Independent Variable (IV) the variable that is manipulated by the

experimenter (input variable).

Dependent Variable (DV) the outcome variable (results of the experiment).

b) Understand the difference beteen experiments and correlations

An experimentisolates and manipulates the independent variable to observe

its effect on the dependent variable! and controls the environment in order that

extraneous variables may be eliminated. Experiments establish cause and

effect.

A correlationidentifies variables and loo"s for a relationshipbeteen them.

#. $perant conditionin%

a) Understand the reinforcer and punisher

Reinforcer:is a conse&uence that causes a behavior to occur ith %reaterfre&uency

Punisher: is a conse&uence that causes a behavior to occur ith less

fre&uency

b) Understand the relationship beteen positive reinforcement and

ne%ative reinforcement

Positive reinforcementoccurs hen an event or stimulus is presented as a

conse&uence of a behavior and the behavior increases.

Negative reinforcement occurs hen the rate of a behavior increases

because an aversive event or stimulus is removed or prevented from

happenin%'. In 1*! +ilhelm +undt founded the first laboratory that mar"s the start of

psycholo%y as a scientific enterprise and independent field of study! comin%

out of ,hilosophy .

- he centerpiece of the co%nitive perspective is human thou%ht and all the

processes of "noin%//attendin%! thin"in%! rememberin% and understandin%.

0rom the co%nitive perspective! some of the most si%nificant behavior emer%es

from totally novel ays of thin"in%.

. 2tructuralism attempted to understand the mind as the sum of varyin%

underlyin% parts.3. In experimental settin%s! the stimulus condition hose values are free to vary

independently of any other variable in the situation is "non as independent

variable.he processes can be best understood by a three sta%e process4

2ensation! perceptual or%ani5ation! identification and reco%nition.

6. 2ensation7 ,erceptual or%ani5ation7 Identification8 reco%nition

Sensation-a process by hich stimulation of sensory receptors//the

structures in our eyes! ears! and so on//produce neural impulses that

represent experiences inside or outside the body

. Perceptual organiation- he processes that put sensory informationto%ether to %ive the perception of a coherent scene over the hole visual field

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. !dentification and recognition- 9efers to the processes of assi%nin%

meanin% to percepts :Involves hi%her level co%nitive processes

*. Perception-he processes that or%ani5e information in the sensory ima%e

and interpret it as havin% been produced by properties of ob;ects or events in

the external! three-dimensional orld.

1ust ?oticeable Difference

(>?D)

@A"solute Threshold- Ainimum intensity of stimulation needed to detect a

particular stimulus 3?D than odor or taste differences

are. our bevera%e company ould need a relatively lar%e amount of extrasu%ar to a noticeably cola

1#.he Festalt principles of %roupin% include four types4 similarity! proximity!

2timulus Dimension +eberCs Gonstant

2ound fre&uency


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continuity! and closure. he definition of each type.

$Similarity-It refers to our tendency to %roup thin%s to%ether based upon ho

similar to each other they are.

@Proximity-he lines are %rouped to%ether because of ho close they are to

each other! or their proximity to one another.

$,ontinuity- It refers to our tendency to see patterns and therefore perceive

thin%s as belon%in% to%ether if they form some type of continuous pattern.

$,losure-In this fi%ure! e demonstrate closure!or our tendency to complete

familiar ob;ects that have %aps in them. Even at first %lance! e perceive

a circle and a s&uare.

1'.,erceptual Gharacteristics4 ,erceptual selectivity! ,erceptual 2et and

,erceptual Gonstancy.

$Perceptual selectivity-2electin% ob;ects that can be perceived from oneCsinterests! expectations! biases etc.

$Perceptual Set-a mental predisposition to perceive one thin% and not another

$Perceptual ,onstancy-perceivin% ob;ects as unchan%in% even as illumination

and retinal ima%e chan%e :shape:color:si5e

1. Memory-the capacity to store and retrieve information. as a type of

information processin%. similar to a computer

13.Information processin%4 Encodin%! 2tora%e! 9etrieval

$ncoding-the initial processin% of information that leads to a representation in

memory

$ Storage-the retention over time of encoded information

$ Retrieval-the recovery at a later time of the stored information

16. Sensory Memory- the immediate! initial recordin% of sensory information

in the memory system

Iconic Aemory-a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli7 a photo%raphicor picture ima%e memory lastin% about half a second7 allos very lar%e amounts

of information to be stored for very brief durations

Echoic Aemory- momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli7 Hast for aslon% as 3 to 1< seconds

1. Short-Term Memory &STM'

: activated memory that holds a fe items briefly

1.The memory span of STM is ./0 chun1s(

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Jma%icalK number 4 L # chun"s :Feor%e miller (1*36) su%%ested that L #as the Jma%ic numberK that characteri5ed peopleCs memory performance on

random lists of letters! ords! numbers! or almost any "ind of meanin%ful!

familiar item.

23(+ong-Term Memory &+TM'

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system4 allthe experiences! events! information! emotions! s"ills! ords! cate%ories! rules!

and ;ud%ments that have been ac&uired from sensory and short-term

memories. HA constitutes each personCs total "noled%e of the orld andof the self.

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Review0rom time to time! revie hat is remembered. = ay ofconsolidatin% your memory.

Application=pply hat you have learned. ,ractice that hich you have%rasped. ,ut your theoretical "noled%e to practical use.

Associationassociate ne "noled%e ith the old "noled%e that is alreadystored in our minds

!maginationGreate an ima%e map mentally or visuali5e the hole thin%mentally as if you are seein% a film or a picture.

he more stron%ly you ima%ine and visuali5e a situation! the more effectively itill stic" in your mind for later recall.

09(Psychodynamic&psychoanalysis' personality theories

a. Mno the "asic assumption of psychodynamic theory- ,oerful

inner forces shape personality and motivate behavior.

"( Master 5reud*s structure of personality in terms of the id ego

and superego

$The ego is aare of the needs of both the id and the physical orld! and its

ma;or ;ob is to coordinate the to. he e%o is %overned by the reality principle.

$The superegois the aspect of personality that represents the internali5ation of

societyNs values! standards! and morals.

@The idis the drivin% force of the personality. It contains all instincts such as

hun%er! thirst! and sex. he id is entirely unconscious and is %overned by the

pleasure principle.c. Identify different defense mechanisms

-9epression is the psycholo%ical process that protects the individual from

experiencin% extreme anxiety or %uilt about impulses! ideas! or memories

that are unacceptable andOor dan%erous to express. E%oCs most basic

defense a%ainst bein% overhelmed by id and supere%o.

-E%o defense mechanisms are mental strate%ies used by the e%o to defend

itself in the daily conflict beteen id impulses that see" expression! and the

supere%oCs demand to deny them.

0.(;umanistic theory

a. Mno the main idea of humanistic theory

@Goncern for the inte%rity of an individualNs personal and conscious experience

and %roth potential.

@Self-actualiation:= constant strivin% to reali5e oneNs inherent potential--to

fully develop oneNs capacities and talents.

@A"raham Maslow: Pierarchy of needs4 ,hysiolo%ical-Q2afety-

QHoveObelon%in%s-QEsteem-Q2elf-actauli5ation

@Maslow posited that the individualCs basic motives formed = Pierarchy $f?eeds! ith needs at each level re&uirin% satisfaction before achievin% the next

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level

#.Understand the physiological response to stress

a( 5ight-or-flight response

= se&uence of internal processes that prepares the or%anism for stru%%le or

escape

-acceleration of heart and lun% action

-palin% or flushin%! or alternatin% beteen both

-inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point here

di%estion slos don or stops

-%eneral effect on the sphincters of the body

-constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body

-liberation of nutrients (particularly fat and %lucose) for muscular action

-dilation of blood vessels for muscles

-inhibition of the lacrimal %land and salivation

-dilation of pupil (mydriasis)-relaxation of bladder

-inhibition of erection

-auditory exclusion (loss of hearin%)

-tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)

-disinhibition of spinal reflexes

-sha"in%

"( Tend-and-"efriend response

2tress response model proposin% that females are biolo%ically predisposed to

respond the stress by nurturin% and protectin% offsprin% and see"in% social

support

#*.Understand the


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ustress/ItCs positive because it motivates the hole body to achieve

the ener%y or stren%th necessary to carry out a tas".

#istress/ItCs ne%ative! and ma"es you feel uncomfortable in your mind

and affects your body.

Acute stress/ItCs the most common form of stress! short term and

exhaustin%.

,hronic stress>ItCs the type of stress that seems never-endin%! lon%-term!

and inescapable.

'#.he study of psychology has five "asic goals(

2( #escri"e he first %oal is to observe behavior and describe! often

in minute detail! hat as observed as ob;ectively as possible.

0( xplain +hile descriptions come from observable data!

psycholo%ists must %o beyond hat is obvious and explain their

observations. In other ords! hy did the sub;ect do hat he or she didR

4( Predict $nce e "no hat happens! and hy it happens! e canbe%in to speculate hat ill happen in the future. hereCs an old sayin%!

hich very often holds true4 Sthe best predictor of future behavior is past

behavior.S

?( ,ontrol Controlling behavior is the central, most powerful goal

of many psychologists.

Gontrollin% behavior means causin% a behavior to happen or not to

happen and influencin% the nature of the behavior as it is bein%

performed.

6( !mprove Improvin% the &uality of life is the result of the first four

%oals of psycholo%y. =ll therapeutic pro%rams and interventions! such asthose desi%ned to help individuals stop smo"in%! stop doin% dru%s! or

lose ei%ht! are attempts to use psycholo%ical principles to control

behavior. ,sycholo%ical principles can be used not only to help

individuals live more successfully! but also to improve the functionin% of

%roups of people and societies.

''.he sta%es of the Feneral =daptation 2yndromeR

Hoo" at number #*

'.2tandardi5ation! Validity! norms! 9eliability! IT! distribution of IT scoresStandardiation:the uniform proceudures used to administer and

score a test! and consistency of conditions and procedures

$b;ectivity 4 scorin% must be free of bias

representative normativeOnormin% samples

2tandardi5ation %roup

@alidity:

Aost crucial aspect4 does test measure hat it

intends(desi%ned) to measure! or ability to appropriately dra

conclusions or %enerali5e from results

Gontent Validity(face validity) Griterion Validity (relationship ith other "nons)

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,redictive

Goncurrent

Gonstruct Validity

Discriminative validity

Validity Fenerali5ationO2ituational 2pecificity

Norms:

est norms provide a comparison! provide information about

here a score on a test ran"s in relation to other scores on that test

Relia"ility:

Gonsistency of a measurement and assessement results

Different ays to assess reliability ( Gorrelation coefficient )

est-retest

E&uivalent (=lternate) forms

2plit-half

internal consistency(items han% to%ether)

!:is a score derived from one of several standardi5ed testsdesi%ned to

assess intelli%ence

#istri"ution of !:

'3.Standardied tests: any test in hich the same test is %iven in a same

manner to all test ta"ers is standardi5ed test.

49(ProBective Tests

Rorschach !n1"lot Test

Developed by Permann 9orschach Gonsists of 3 blac" and hite symmetrical in"blots! # red and

%rey in"blots! and ' multicolored in"blots

Examinees are presented each card and as"ed to express and

describe everythin% they see in the ima%es they are shon

9esponses are coded and compared ith dia%nostic patterns

(e.%.! emotionality! movement! anxiety! etc.) for clinical sub%roups

Thematic Apperception Test

Developed by Penry Aurray- '1 = cards depictin% people in a variety of

ambi%uous situations (one blan" card)

- Examinees are presented a series of picture cards

(usually depictin% human action andOor interaction) and are

as"ed to tell a brief story about each card

- 9esponses are coded alon% dimensions measurin%

constructs such as needs! emotions! conflicts! attitudes! etc.

- ,sychometric properties4 little to no data exist

supportin% the reliability or validity of this measure

4.(TAT &Thematic Apperception Test'

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Developed by Penry Aurray

- '1 = cards depictin% people in a variety of

ambi%uous situations (one blan" card)

- Examinees are presented a series of picture cards

(usually depictin% human action andOor interaction) and are

as"ed to tell a brief story about each card

-9esponses are coded alon% dimensions measurin%

constructs such as needs! emotions! conflicts! attitudes! etc.

- ,sychometric properties4 little to no data exist

supportin% the reliability or validity of this measure

4C(MMP!

i. he ori%inal AA,I inventory as published in 1*3'

by 2tar"e Pathaay and >.G. AcMinley

ii. Desi%ned to assess and dia%nose mental disorders

in University of Ainnesota Pospitals - became one of themost idely distributed and used measure of

psychopatholo%y both domestically and internationally

Gontains 1< scales yieldin% complex profile analyses that inte%rate the

folloin% clinical dimension of patholo%y and personality4 Pypochondriasis!

Depression! Pysteria! ,sychopathic Deviate! Aasculinity-0emininity!

,aranoia! ,sychasthenia! 2chi5ophrenia! Pypomania! and 2ocial

Introversion

43(29P5+armth 9easonin% Emotional 2tability Dominance Hiveliness 9ule-

Gonsciousness ,erfectionism ension 2ocial oldness 2ensitivity

Vi%ilance =bstractedness ,riveeness =pprehensiveness $penness

to Ghan%e 2elf-9eliance

?D(P

Eysenc" ,ersonality Tuestionnaire (E,T) is a &uestionnaire to assess the

personality traits of a person. It as devised by the psycholo%ists Pans >Wr%en

Eysenc" and his ife 2ybil . F. Eysenc"#imensions of P:

ExtraversionOIntroversion!

?euroticismO2tability!

,sychoticismO2ocialisation!

E,T has a fourth scale! the Hie (H) scale

1.he four criterion to determine hether exist the mental disorder is4 the

criterion of experience! the criterion of social adaptability! the criterion of

symptom and etiolo%y! the criterion of statistics and psychometrics

?0(The causes of mental disorders-Fenetic factors

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-,hysical factors

-2ocial! environmental factors

-,sycholo%ical factors

'.he disorders of perception! thin"in%! memory! emotion! consciousness

-#isorders of Perception:

Ghan%es in the &uality of sensations occur in schi5ophrenia! sensations

sometimes appearin% distorted.

IIIusion

Pallucination

-#isorders of Thin1ing

Disorders of thin"in% are usually reco%ni5ed throu%h speech and ritin%.

0li%ht of hou%ht

Hoosenin% of hin"in%

?eolo%ism

Delusion

$bsessions and Gompulsion

-#isorders of Memory

he process of normal memory can be divided into three components.

=mnesia

,aramnesia and Gonfabulation

-#isorders of motion

Elation

Depression

=nxiety

,hobia (fear that arouses a state of panic)

-#isorder of ,onsciousness

Gonsciousness is aareness of the self and environment. he level of

consciousness can vary beteen the extremes of alertness and coma.

Aany terms are used for the states of impaired consciousness.

44.Pho"ia- is usually defined as a persistent fear of an ob;ect or situation in

hich the sufferer commits to %reat len%ths in avoidin%! typically

disproportional to the actual dan%er posed! often bein% reco%ni5ed as

irrational. In the event the phobia cannot be avoided entirely! the sufferer

ill endure the situation or ob;ect ith mar"ed distressand si%nificantinterference in social or occupational activities.

?6(Types and symptoms of personality disorder

-Antisocial Personality #isorder:,eople ith an antisocial personality

disorder have a complete disre%ard for the thou%hts of others. hey are self-

centered! selfish and sometimes cruel! they are cold and affectionless

-Avoidant Personality #isorder

-Eorderline Personality #isorder:he "ey feature of borderline personality

disorder is instability! includin% instability of mood! instability of interpersonal

relationships! and instability of self-concept.

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-#ependent Personality #isorder:,eople ith dependent personality disorder

are anxious about interpersonal interactions! but their anxiety stems from a deep

need to be cared for by others! rather than a concern that they ill be critici5ed.

-;istrionic Personality #isorder &attention see1er':Pistrionic ,ersonality

Disorder shares features ith borderline personality disorder! includin% rapidly

shiftin% emotions and intense! unstable relationships.,eople ith histrionic

personality disorder are overdramatic in their behavior! overly seductive! and

emphasi5in% the positive &ualities of their physical appearance! in order to

pursue othersN attention.

-Multiple Personality #isorder

-Narcissistic Personality #isorder &self centered'

-F"sessive ,ompulsive Personality #isorder:,eople ith an obsessive

compulsive personality disorder are extremely ordered! meticulous and

pedantic. hey often find it difficult to express emotion or sho feelin%s toards

others! althou%h inardly they may ruminate and orry about social encounters.

-Paranoid Personality #isorder:he characteristics of a paranoid personalitydisorder include suspiciousness! mar"ed self-reference! feelin%s that other

people are hostile or involved in conspiracies behavior.

-Schioid Personality #isorder &social withdrawal and emotional

coldness':Individuals ith schi5oid personality disorder are aloof and isolative.

hey have little interest in others and prefer their on company.hey are

emotionally cold and may appear to be indifferent toard others. hey vie

relationships ith others as unreardin%! messy! and intrusive.

-Schiotypal Personality #isorder &discomfort with close relationships'

6.Individual counselin% and %roup counselin%.!ndividual counseling-Individual counselin% is one-on-one and provided in

a safe and confidential settin%. It %ives people the time to focus on their lives in

depth and come up ith %oals to help them feel better about themselves and

their relationships at home and at or"


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