REVIEW II

ZOROASTRIANISM Based on the teachings of Zarathustra Proclaimed that visions revealed to him by

the supreme god, whom he called Ahura Mazda (“wise lord”)

Influence of Zoroastrian religion can be found in Judaism and Christianity, for example, the concept of good and evil

Once the religion of the Persian Empire A force of light and goodness and force of

evil Cosmic struggle between good and evil People must choose Heaven and Hell Avesta sacred text

CONFUCIUS Lived in China during the Warring states

period and sought to restore order to China Students recorded his teachings in the

Analects Believed in five constant relationships

ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and older friend and younger friend

The superior in the relationship had to set a good example while the inferior had to obey

CONFUCIANISM Does not address philosophical or religious

questions Wanted to end the Warring States period The best way to promote good government

is to hire people who were well educated and conscientious – focused on the formation of Junzi (“superior individuals)”

Ren courteousness, respectfulness, loyalty

Li a sense of propriety, appropriate behavior

Xiao filial piety, respect by children for parents and other elders

Moral integrity and fair judgment

DAOISM An alternative solution to end the Warring

States period – contrary to Confucian beliefs Central concept Dao or “the way” or “the

way of nature” Humans should stop trying to achieve

personal goals and live very simply in order to achieve harmony with nature

Wuwei important moral trait whereby people remove themselves from worldly affairs

Ideal societal structure self-sufficient communities

Yin Yang how seemingly contrary forces are interconnected

LEGALISM One of the major philosophies that

emerged from the Hundred Schools of Thought during the Warring States period

Based on the goal of expanding and strengthening the state at all costs

Described as ruthless and efficient Strict laws with harsh punishments

lessen number and severity of crimes Notable people: Shang Yang and Han

Feizi Used by the Qin dynasty, led by Shi

Huangdi, to end Warring States period

QIN DYNASTY Used Legalist philosophy to restore

order and stability to China and end the Warring States period

Centralized bureaucracy ruled the state

Qin expanded their empire Unified China Standardized weights and

measures Standardized script Short-lived because of strict laws

and harsh punishments

SHIH HUANGDI Self-proclaimed “first emperor” of China –

reigned fourteen years, established centralized rule through large-scale political organization

Central bureaucracy Built roads to enhance and expedite

communication and movement of armies; standardized laws, currencies, weights and measures, and Chinese script; and built defensive walls, including linking sections of the Great Wall

Executed anyone who criticized his regime – burned 460 Confucian scholars alive for their critical comments

EARLY HAN DYNASTY Claiming the “mandate of

heaven,” Liu Bang centralized rule started the longest lasting Chinese dynasty the Han (206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E.)

Demand for Chinese silk in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire led to development of trade routes (the silk roads)

Building of roads and canals to increase trade and communication

Established examination system to select candidates for government service

EMPEROR WUDI Han emperor who had a problem recruiting

qualified people for government posts because there was no uniform system of public education

Established an imperial university to educate government officials in 124 B.C.E.

Although the government was based on Legalist principles, the university focused its instruction on Confucianism out of necessity – it was the only Chinese belief system developed enough to establish a curriculum

Policy of imperial expansion led to invasions of northern Vietnam and Korea (had to pay tribute)

LATER HAN DYNASTY Ignoring the problem of inequitable land

distribution led to increased banditry and rebellions led by disgruntled peasants

The Yellow Turban uprising (rebels wore yellow headgear)

Government used the military to suppress rebellions but the collective efforts of peasants weakened the Han

Factions developed in courts that effected the central government

This internal weakness led to the downfall of the empire, which was divided into several large kingdoms

FALL OF HAN DYNASTY Collapsed – divisions within the ruling elite

limited the effectiveness of the government

Issues land distribution, private armies, unrest, economic decline

Rise in epidemics late second, early third centuries led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion (rebels’ yellow turbans represented their peasant status and their ties to the earth)

Dynasty in 220 C.E. formally ended

MAURYAN DYNASTY A classical Indian dynasty that developed out of

a political void created by the failed invasions of Persian emperor Darius – then controlled by the kingdom of Magadha for two centuries

Flourished during the late 320s B.C.E., when Chandragupta Maurya took over and laid the foundations for a centralized, unified government

Ashoka (ruled 268-232 B.C.E.) conquered the kingdom of Kalinga through bloody battles but changed as a result

Ashoka built irrigation systems, constructed roads, supported Buddhism, and encouraged religious tolerance

Ashoka’s death led to decline of empire

GUPTA DYNASTY Chandra Gupta laid foundations for empire by

making alliances with powerful families in the Ganges; he conquered many; others chose to form tributary alliances with Guptas

Government, both policy and administration, was left to the locals; Gupta did not impose uniform law; brought stability and prosperity

Golden age of Hindu culture concept of zero, infinity, and decimal system developed great art and literature in Sanskrit (ancient Indian language)

Decline caused by invasions by the White Huns nomadic people from central Asia – dynasty continued in name only

HINDUISM – PART I The basic beliefs and concepts of classical

Hinduism were all in place by at least 200s B.C.E. Central belief all time and space is the World

Soul, or the Brahman (“Ultimate Reality”) All things that exist are reflections of Brahman’s

perfection Every living creature has its own individual soul,

known as atman However, the material world is an illusion (maya) This illusion causes suffering and prevents the

individual soul from perceiving or being connected with the world Soul

The goal of existence is to rejoin one’s atman with Brahman

HINDUISM – PART II A cycle of life, death and rebirth called the

wheel of life (samsara) According to the laws of deeds (karma), a

person’s actions in one life will have consequences in a future life

Good actions and spiritual discipline will reduce an atman’s (individual soul’s) karmic debt, leading one to a greater understanding of moral duty (dharma)

When a person has eliminated his or her karmic debt and achieved a sufficient understanding of his dharma, his or her atman gains release (moksha) from samsara the atman is free to join with the Brahman

HINDUISM – PART III In addition to the Brahman, Hinduism recognizes

literally hundreds of gods and goddesses this makes it a polytheistic religion

However, Hindus consider all deities to be avatars, or incarnations of the Brahman

One of the best known features of Hindu belief involves the caste system (origins date back to Aryan migration to India)

Priests (brahmins), warriors and political rulers (kshatriyas), commoners (vaishyas), and servants and members of lower class (shudras)

As time went on, category of untouchables (most degrading tasks)

Birth determined caste Many subdivisions over time men superior to women

JAINISM Indian belief system popularized by

Vardhamana Mahavira (“the great hero”) Disciples referred to Mahavira as Jina (“the

conqueror”) and called themselves Jains Practiced ahimsa – nonviolence to living

things or their souls Extremists swept ground as they walked to

avoid harming insects (souls) Not practical, but attractive – because if all

creatures possessed a soul, there should not be rigid social classes (especially popular among lower classes)

BUDDHISM – SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA Originating in India Founder, Siddhartha

Gautama (563-483 B.C.E.) Spread China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Tibet, Korea, etc. Two major schools Theravada (Hinayana) and

Mahayana (with its concept of the Bodhisattva) When ventured outside palace, Siddhartha was

appalled by the pain and poverty he saw renounced wealth

After six years of self-deprivation, decided that neither extreme fasting and asceticism or its opposite led to insight

While following middle way, achieved enlightenment (became Buddha or enlightened one)

BUDDHIST BELIEFS Four Noble Truths human existence is

inseparable from suffering, the cause of suffering is desire, suffering is extinguished by extinguishing desire, desire may be extinguished by following the Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path know the truth, resist evil, do nothing to hurt others, respect all forms of life, work for the well-being of others before that of yourself, free your mind of evil, control your thoughts, practice meditation

Five Moral Rules do not kill, do not take what is not given, do not speak falsely, do not drink intoxicants, do not be unchaste

Nirvana means “to extinguish”, liberation from samsara (the wheel of life, death, reincarnation)

THERAVADA AND MAHAYANA After the Buddha’s death in 483 B.C.E., the tradition

he founded not only spread throughout Asia but split into various denominations

The older movement is Theravada (“Way of the Elders”) Buddhism, also referred to as Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”) Buddhism prominent in south and southeast Asia remains closer in spirit to Buddha’s actual teachings simplicity, meditation, nirvana as renunciation of self and human consciousness Buddha not a deity

Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”)Japan, Korea, Tibet, and parts of China more elaborate forms and ritual developed pantheons of deities bodhisattvas(souls achieved enlightenment but remained in earthly realm to help others) nirvana came to resemble a kind of heaven as opposed to suppression of self

MYCENAEANS Located on the Greek mainland 1450-1150 B.C.E. Trading society Wealthy through conquest (they are best known

for fighting the Trojan War, ca. 1250 B.C.E.) Around 1200 B.C.E., a series of Greek-speaking

tribes invaded the southeastern tip of Europe, as well as nearby islands

Over time, these tribes joined together into a single culture, the Greeks (or, as they called themselves, Hellenes

These years of gradual cultural union are known as the Greek Dark Ages (1150-800 B.C.E.)

Common language and religion but low level political and social development

SPARTA Rugged, mountainous terrain and the fact

that so many of the Greeks lived on islands prevented them from creating a single nation

Instead formed dozens of independent city-states

It is from the Greek word city-state, polis, that the word “politic” comes

Sparta a key Greek city-state Sparta a rigid, slave-holding dictatorship

that created the Greek world’s most effective and most feared army

Slavery was common in all Greek city-states, but most prevalent in militaristic Sparta with is helots or Spartan slaves

ATHENS Athens was a significant Greek polis or city-state Athens became a culturally and politically

advanced city that gained wealth through trade and power thanks to its naval strength

Ancient Greece’s most significant political innovation came from the city of Athens

This was democracy, or rule by the people Democratic government began in Athens in 508

B.C.E. It reached its peak under the leadership of the statesman Pericles (ca. 461-429 B.C.E.)

But women and slaves were excluded from Athenian political life, and did not have the right to vote

Yet most representative government in ancient world

WARS AND THE GREEKS During the Greeks’ classical period (ca.

500-338 B.C.E.), the Greeks fought two major wars with the Persians, in 492 to 490 B.C.E. and 480 to 479 B.C.E.

In both cases, the Persians attempted to invade Greece, only to be driven back, thanks mainly to Spartan and Athenian leadership

Afterward, competition between Sparta and Athens for dominance over the Greek world led to a long and devastating civil conflict known as the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E)

Although Sparta and its allies won the war, the conflict left all of Greece’s city-states weakened

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE Macedonia was a region to the north of Greece

whose people were related to the Greeks, but not as politically or socially advanced

It was this Greek-Macedonian kingdom that the ancient world’s most skilled general, Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.E.), launched one of the most successful military campaigns of all time

In less than a decade, Alexander crossed into Asia, took over the Persian Empire, and conquered territory all the way to the borderlands of India

Before dying at the age of thirty-three – of exhaustion, alcoholism, and fever – he had led an army of 30,000 to 50,000 troops more than 20,000 miles

Alexander spread Greek culture

HELLENISTIC CULTURE The Greeks’ general cultural outlook is known as

Hellenism (after the Greeks’ own name for Greece, Hellas)

Although the Greeks worshipped a number of gods, Hellenism tended to be more worldly and rational than other ancient cultural traditions

Science was important The celebration of life and the experience of being

human was a hallmark of Hellenic culture Western thought rests on the intellectual

foundation established by the philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

Aristotle’s writings on logic, observation, and experimentation set into place a mode of scientific inquiry

Greek architecture columns

ROMAN REPUBLIC The city of Rome, traditionally considered to

have been founded in 753 B.C.E. From their homeland on the Italian peninsula,

the Romans gradually spread outward For several centuries, Rome was governed by

a monarchy, foreign overlords (Etruscans), but in 509 B.C.E., the Romans rebelled and formed a new government called a republic (509-31 B.C.E.)

During the republican period, tensions existed between plebeian (lower classes) and patricians (upper) classes

Through compromise and negotiation, plebeians gained rights

But only patricians elected senators

FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE Civil wars from 91 to 30 B.C.E. power

began to fall into the hands of a single ruler most famous was Julius Caesar assassinated in 44 B.C.E. by 31 B.C.E. first emperor Octavian renamed Caesar Augustus

Empire for approximately five centuries 31 B.C.E. to 476 C.E.

Huge territory from Spain in west to Asia Minor in east, from northern Africa in south to British Isles in north

But overextension of military and political strength made it difficult to govern

Asiatic and Germanic barbarians attacked

ROME’S LEGACY To begin with, the Romans who were great

admirers of Greek culture, preserved for generations to come the Hellenic philosophy, literature, and scientific learning of ancient Greece

The Romans were master builders and engineers The ideal of Roman imperial unity was a political

concept that kings and emperors in a very disunified Europe would attempt to live up to during the medieval period

Roman law remains one of the keystones of Western legal (innocent until proven guilty, etc.)

By making Christianity legal (313 C.E.), then making it the official faith of empire (380 C.E.), Romans ensured that the new religion would be a major force for centuries to come