Problems with Nouns

1. Use the correct Singular or Plural NounSingular Nouns Keywords : each, every, single, one, ae.g.: Every receipt must be removed from the cashier’s drawer and tallied. Plural Nouns Keywords : both, two, many, various, severale.g.: The woman found it difficult to believe that both of the pieces of jewelry had

disappeared.2. Distinguish countable and uncountable noun

Countable Noun : Many, number, few, fewere.g.: I buy many apples.Uncountable Noun : much, amount, little, lesse.g.: I buy much fruit.

3. Recognize irregular plural of nounsIrregular Plurals : Man/Men, Foot/ feet, Mouse/mice, Child/children, Ox/Oxen, diagnosis/diagnoses, crisis/crises, Curriculum/curricula, datum/data, alumnus/alumni, Stimulus/Stimuli

4. Distinguish the person from the thingExample : Ralph Nader is an authorization in the field of consumer affairs.There are many job opportunities in accountant

Problems with adverbs and adjectives

1. Use basic adjectives and adverbs correctlyThe function of adjective : To describe nouns or pronounse.g.: She is beautiful woman.The function of adverbs : To describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbse.g.: She sings beautifully.

2. Position adjectives and adverbs correctlyAdjective must come before nouns or pronouns it describes;Adjective must not come directly after nouns or pronouns it describes;e.g.: The information important is on the first page. (false)

The important information is on the first page. (true)Adverbs may be used in many positions;Adverbs may not be used between a verb and its object.e.g.: He has taken recently an English course. (false)

He has recently taken an English course. (true)3. Use adjectives after linking verbsLinking verbs terdiri dari: verb of sensation (feel, look, smell, sound, taste) dan verb of being (act, appear, be, become, continue, grow, prove, remain, seem, dan turn).Linking verb adalah kata kerja yang menghubungkan subject dengan informasi atau deskripsi tentang subject tersebut (subject complement— berupa noun, adjective, atau adverb). Berbeda dengan main verb yang dapat menunjukkan aksi/tindakan, kata ini

hanya sebagai penghubung. Dengan demikian kata kerja ini selalu intransitive karena tidak ada direct object yang menerima aksi. Setelah linking verb diikuti adjective.e.g.: She looks nice.4. Recognize –ly adjectivesCostly likely daily quarterly northerlyEarly lively hourly weekly easterlyFriendly lonely monthly yearly southerlyKindly manly nightly lovely westernly5. Use predicate adjectives correctly

Certain adjectives appear only in the predicate of the sentence; that is, they appear after a linking verb such as be, and they cannot appear directly in front of the nouns that they describe.

Predicate AdjectivesPredicate Adjectives Forms Used In Front Of A NounAlikeAliveAloneAfraidasleep

Like, similarLive, livingLoneFrightenedsleeping

e.g.: The frog on the rock was alive.The live frog was lying on the rock.

6. Use –ed and –in adjectives correctly-ed and -ing Adjectives

Type Meaning Use Example-ing active It does the action of

the verb... The happily playing children ... (the children play)

-ed passive It receives the action of the verb

... The frequently played record ... (someone plays the record)

e.g.: The teacher gave a quiz on the just completed lesson.They thought that it had been a very satisfying dinner.

Comparative, superlative

As…As ComparisonAs ... as is used to say that the two parts of a comparison are equal or the same in some way.a. as + objective +as (e.g.: Tina is as old as Sam)b. as + adverb + as (e.g.: Mike came as quickly as he could)

Negative form: not as ... as. Quite and nearly are often used with the negative.d. not quite as ... as = a small difference (e.g.: Ted is not quite as old as Tina; Ted is 20

and Tina is 21)e. not nearly as ... as = a big difference (e.g.: Amy is not nearly as old as Tina; Amy is 5

and Tina is 21.)Common modifiers of as .... as are just (meaning “exactly) and nearly/almost.f. Sam is just old as Tinag. Ted is nearly/almost as old as Tina

Comparative and superlativeThe comparative compares “this/these” to “that/those”. Form: -er or more. A comparative followed by than.e.g.: A is older than B.

Ed is more generous than his brother.The superlative compares one part of a whole group to all the rest of the group. Form: -est or most. A superlative begins with the.e.g.: A woman in Turkey claims to be the oldest person in the world.

Ed is the most generous person in his family. Comparison with less..than and not as..asThe opposite of -er/more is expressed by less or not as ... as. They have the same meaning. Less (not as ... as) is used with adjectives and adverbs of more than one syllable.e.g.: A pen is less expensive than a book.

A pen is not as expensive as a book.Only not as ... as (not less) is used with one-syllable adjectives or adverbs.e.g.: A pen is not as large as a book.Repeating and double comparativesRepeating a comparative gives the idea that something becomes progressively greater, i.e., it increases in intensity, quality, or quantity.e.g.: Because he was afraid, he walked faster and faster.

Life in the modern world is becoming more and more complex.A double comparative has two parts, both parts begin with the. The second part of the comparison is the result of the first part. e.g.: The harder you study, the more you will learn.

The older he got, the quieter he became.The more, the merrier, and the sooner, the better are two common expressions.e.g.: Should we ask Jenny and Jim to the party too? Yes. The more, the merrier.

When should we leave? The sooner, the better.SuperlativeTypical completions when a superlative is used: Superlative + in a place (the world, this class, my family, etc) (e.g. Tokyo is one of the largest cities in the world) Superlative + adjective clause (e.g. David is the most generous person I have ever known)Superlative + of all (e.g. I have three books, these two are quite good, but this one is the best of all)The least has opposite meaning of the most. (e.g. I took four final exams, the final in accounting was the least difficult of all)Notice the pattern with one of: one of + plural noun (+ singular verb)e.g.: One of the best students in this class is Ali.Using the same, similar, different, like, alike

The same, similar, and different are used as adjectives. “The” always precedes “same”.e.g.: John and Mary have similar/the same/different books.

The same is followed by as (e.g. This book is the same as that one)Similar is followed by to (e.g. This book is similar to that one)Different is followed by from (e.g. This book is different from that one)

A noun may come between the same and as (e.g. She is the same age as my mother)Notice: Noun + be like + noun (e.g. My pen is like your pen)

Noun and noun + be alike (e.g. My pen and your pen are alike)In addition to following be, like also follows certain verbs, primarily those dealing with the senses (looks, sounds, feels, smells, tastes, acting, seems). (e.g. It looks like rain)Alike may follow a few verbs other than be (look, think, act, talk, are + V2). (e.g. The twins look alike; The little boys are dressed alike)

Present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect

Present The simple present expresses daily habits or usual activities. (e.g. Ann takes a shower

every day) The simple present expresses general statements of fact. (e.g. The earth revolves

around the sun) In sum, the simple present is used for events or situations that exist always, usually,

or habitually in the past, present, and future. The present progressive expresses an activity that is in progress (is occurring, is

happening) right now. The event is in progress at the time the speaker is saying the sentence. The event began in the past, is in progress now, and will probably continue into the future. (Form: am, is, are + -ing)

Static verbs: Know own SupposeHave hear rememberRealize love

smellSound appear wantBelieve belong tasteHate

forget wishNeed see preferMean like understand

Past The simple past is used to talk about activities or situations that began and ended in

the past. (e.g., yesterday, last night, two days ago, in 1990) (e.g. Mary walked downtown yesterday)

Most simple past verbs are formed by adding -ed to a verb. (e.g. Bob stayed home yesterday morning)

Some verbs have irregular past forms. (e.g. I ate breakfast this morning; Sue took a taxi to the airport)

The past progressive expresses an activity that was in progress (was occurring, was happening) at a point of time in the past (e.g., when Tom came). Form: was, were + -ing. (e.g. I sat down at the dinner table at 6:00 P.M. yesterday. Tom came to my house at 6:10 P.M. I was eating dinner when Tom came.)

When = at that time (e.g. When the phone rang, I was sleeping) While = during that time (e.g. The phone rang while I was sleeping) When two actions are in progress at the same time, the past progressive can be used

in both parts of the sentence (e.g. While I was doing my homework, my roommate was watching TV)

Used to expresses a past situation or habit that no longer exist at present. Form: used to + the simple form of a verb. (e.g. I used to live with my parents. Now I live in my own apartment)

Question form: did + subject + used/use to (e.g. Did you used/use to live in Paris?) Negative form: did not use to/never used to (e.g. I did not use to drink coffee at

breakfast; I never used to drink coffee at breakfast, but now I always have coffee in the morning)

Past perfect. Form: had + V3/been + C/O. Additional verb: for (duration), since (starting time), ever, just, already, yet, before, after.

For and since all followed by past time Past perfect progressive, is used to show that something started in the past and

continued up until another time in the past. Form: had + been + being + C/O.

Future Be going to and will are used to express future time. Be going to is used to

expressing about exact time, will is used to expressing about plan. (e.g. I am going to leave at nine tomorrow morning; Marie will be at the meeting tonight)

The present progressive can be used to express future time. The present progressive describes definite plans for the future, plans that were made before the moment of speaking. A future meaning for the present progressive is indicated either by future time words (e.g. tomorrow) or by the situation. (e.g. Ann is flying to Chicago next week)

The present progressive is not used for predictions about the future. The simple present can express future time when events are on a definite schedule or

timetable. Only a few verbs are used in the simple present to express future time. The most common are arrive, leave, start, begin, end, finish, open, close, be. (e.g. My plane arrives at 7:35 tomorrow evening)

Most verbs cannot be used in the simple present to express future time. For example, the verb wear does not express an event on a schedule or timetable. It cannot be used in the simple present to express future time.

Present perfect The present perfect expresses activities or situations that occurred (or did not occur)

“before now”, at some unspecified time in the past. (e.g. Jim has already eaten lunch) The present perfect expresses activities that were repeated several or many times in

the past. The exact time are unspecified. (e.g. Pete has eaten at that restaurant many times)

The simple past expresses an activity that occurred at a specific time (or times) in the past (e.g. I finished my work two hours ago)

The present perfect expresses an activity that occurred at an unspecified time (or times) in the past (e.g. I have already finished my work)

The present perfect progressive expresses the duration (the length of time) an activity is in progress. Time expressions with since and for are used with the present perfect progressive. (e.g. I have been sitting in class for 45 minutes/since 9 o’clock)

Non-action verbs (e.g., know, like, own, belong) are not used in any progressive tenses.

The present perfect is used to express repeated actions in the past. The present perfect progressive is used to express the duration of an activity that is in progress.

With some verbs duration can be expressed by either the present perfect or the present perfect progressive. They have essentially the same meaning.

Often either tense can be used with verbs that express the duration of usual or habitual activities/situations (things that happen daily or regularly). e.g. Live, work, teach.

Passive voice

I eat bakso -> Bakso is eaten by me.After I had eaten soto, I eat noodle -> After soto had been eaten by me, noodle was eaten by me.Some sentences can not be changed into passive form (e.g. When I was sleeping, students slept => intransitive sentences)

Reading comprehension

Major types of question1. Main idea

Refers to the passage as a whole, not to some segment or part. Typically found in the first paragraph (sentence 1-3)

2. Supporting ideas3. Drawing inference

Ask about ideas that are explicitly stated in the passage.4. Specific details

Asked about specific facts/details the author has stated explicitly in the passage.5. Applying information from the passage to other situations6. Determining the meaning of words from the contextShortcut to answer reading comprehension question1. Answer passages with familiar subject matter first2. Read the question first, then the passage3. Read all the answer alternatives4. Learn to identify the major question types

5. Pray and hardwork

Question Tag

Rules: Positive statement, negative tag?E.g.: Snow is white, isn’t it? Negative statement, positive tag?E.g.: You don’t want to lose me, do you?

Note: Never, seldom, rarely, hardly, nothing, nobody, none, neither, few/little are

talking negative meaning, therefore the tag must be positive Nothing, something, everything, anything are considered singular, therefore the

substituting pronouns must be it. No one, some, nobody, everybody, everyone, anyone are all considered plural,

therefore the substituting pronouns must be they.

Causative

S + have/has/had, Let/lets, Make/makes/made, Get/gets/got + object + V1(active)/V3(passive)

Note: All verbs are in basic form, no prefixes nor suffixes Verb 1 is used for active Verb 3 is used for passive Exception: “get” -> active -> to + verb 1

Examples: I have my brother apply for that prestigious scholarship Yesterday, maria made her old laptop repaired at the gadget store Mr. Kusmanadji let the students prepare their final paper in English The teacher get the students to finish their paper at home Last night, irma get the report taken by her staff

Conditional Sentences

1. Form 1 : If + Simple present, I + will + V1Possiblity: E.g.: if I study harder for the final, I will get A for English class

2. Form 2 : If + Simple past, I + would + V1Possibility: E.g: if I found the key, I would go to Bintaro Plaza

3. Form 3 : If + Past perfect, I + would + have + V3Possibility: OE.g.: if Mr. Joko had not been a president, I would have been happier

Indirect Speech/Statement

There are some important things to be taken into account in forming an indirect speech/statement. The things include the reporting verbs, the tenses changes, the pronoun changes, and the adverb changes. Reporting verbs are crucial since they determine whether the subordinate clause will be change. In general, if the reporting verbs are in the present form, it is not necessary to alter the tenses of the subordinate clause. However, if the reporting verbs are in the past form then there will be changes in the subordinate clause.

Form: reporting verb (that) + tenses, pronoun, adverb changes

Tenses changes in reported speechDIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Simple present Simple pastPresent progressive Past progressive

Past progressive Past perfect progressivePresent perfect Past perfect

Present perfect progressive Past perfect progressivePast perfect Past perfect

Past perfect progressive Past perfect progressiveFuture (will) Conditional (would)

Future progressive Past future progressive

Pronoun changes in reported speechDIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

I, my, me He/she, his/her, him/herYou, your I, my/our, me/usYou, your They, their, them

We, our, us They, their, them

Adverb changes in reported speechDIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Now ThenLast (year, month, week, ...) The (year, month, week, ...) before

The previous (year, month, week, ...)Yerterday The day before

The previous dayTomorrow The next day

The following day

Next (year, month, week, ...) The (week, month, year, ...) after The following (year, week, month, ...)

This ThatThat That

These ThoseThose ThoseHere ThereThere there

Examples: Frank declared: “I am thinking about moving”

Frank declared that he was thinking about moving She said: “I have just seen an old friend of mine”

She said that she had just seen an old friend of hers He asked: “Paul, how long have you been studying English?”

He asked Paul how long he had been studying English Anna declared: “I will be announcing my engagement next month”

Anna declared that she would be announcing her engagement the following month He says the test is difficult She has said that she watches TV every day Jack will say that he comes to school every day

Indirect/reported command/order/request

Form: inperative reporting verb + object + to /not to + V1E.g.: He warned us to come early to the meetingThey instruct us to finish our paper soonProf. Schmit demanded us not to forget to keep working on our project

Indirect/reported question

Form: imperative reporting verb + noun/pronoun + if/whether (yes/no question) + subject + predicate

E.g.:He asked if I knew the name of the participants

Form: imperative reporting verb + noun/pronoun + what/when/why/where/who/how (wh- question) + subject + predicate

E.g.: She doesn’t know where the boss had gone for the past three days

Dependent Clause

Noun/nominal clauseA noun clause is an entire clause that takes the place of a noun in another clause or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb or the object of a preposition. Noun/nominal clauses may begin with interrogatives:WhoWhomeverWhom

WhateverWhatWhen

WhichWhereWhoever

HowWhy

Form:

Noun/nominal clause (subj + V/ to be + O/C) + Verb/to be + Obj/Comp

Or

Subject + Verb/to be + noun/nominal clause (subj + V/ to be + O/C)

Example:That george learned how to swim is a miracle Whether fred can get a better job is not certainWe didn’t know billy would jumpCan you tell me if fred is here?The truth is billy was not very smart

Adjective clauseAn adjective clause is a dependent clause which takes the place of an adjective in another clause or phrase. Like an adjective, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun. The words used in adjective clause include who, which, that, whose, whom, where, when.

Form:Subject + Adj. Clause + Verb/to be + Obj/CompSubject + Verb/to be + Adj. Clause + Obj/CompSubject + Verb/to be + Obj/Comp + Adj. Clause

Example:People who are living in glass houses should not throw stonesMary applied for a job that was advertised in the paperThe building where he works is newThe girl whose mother won the lottery is excitedYesterday I met Rina to whom I fell in love with two years ago

Adverb clause

An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as if, when, because, although) and includes a subject and predicate.There some subordinative conjunction often used in adverb clause. Those conjunction define time, place, cause and effect, contrast, and condition.

Time:After, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long asPlace:Where, in which, on whichCause and effect:Because, now that, as, as long as, in as much as, so (that), in order thatContrast:Although, even though, though, whereas, whileCondition:If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the event (that)

Form:Subject + Verb/To be + Obj/Comp + Adverb ClauseAdverb Clause + Subject + Verb/To be + Obj/Comp

Example:After he took lessons, george could swim wellBilly drowned because he couldn’t swimAlthough he isn’t interested in food, fred works as a cookYou must practice if you want to write wellAlthough jay has a master’s degree, he works as a store clerk.

Reduced adjective clauseAdjective clauses can be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause. The first one is by substituting the relative pronoun of the adjective clause with bare V-ing for the predicate (for active meaning sentence). The second option is by substituting the relative pronoun of the adjective clause with bare V3 for the predicate (for passive meaning sentence).

Illustration: Rita who works as a secretary at that multinational company is friendly girlActive : Rita working as a secretary at that multinational company is friendly girl Rita who is known as the best secretary at that company is friendly girlPassive: Rita known as the best secretary at that company is friendly girl

Other examples:Children playing in the streets may get run overStudents not practicing their English during class time today will be punished

The books lying on the floor are mine

Gerund and Infinitive

GerundGerund may function as subject and object. It may also follow adjective, preposition, and noun. Gerund is always singular and is followed by third person singular singular form of the verb when it is places as subject. It is also common to find gerund following go expression. Since gerund is a noun, it can also be placed as object of possesive adjective pronoun.

InfinitiveInfinitive (to+V1) can be used both as subject and object.there are some verbs that can be followed by an infinitive directly but there are also some other verbs which need an object before the infinitive. To form the negative infinitive, simply place “not” before the infinitive. However, the most important thing to remember is that the negative infinitive sentence may have a very different meaning from a sentence with a negative main verb.