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RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
byby
Chandra P. Rijal, PhDChandra P. Rijal, PhD
Managing DirectorManaging Director
Edify International Pvt. Ltd.Edify International Pvt. Ltd.
1Doc5
Research MeansResearch Means
Systematic and objective investigation of a Systematic and objective investigation of a
subjectsubject or a or a problemproblem in order to discover in order to discover
relevant information.relevant information.
Investigation on a subject refers to … Establishing a conceptual, or theoretical
understanding about something to be promoted as part of disciplinary studies.
For example, development of a theory in public health.
Investigation on a problem refers to … Assessing, diagnosing, exploring, or evaluating
various facets pertaining to a management problem. For example, what percentage of first time
Bhatbhateni Superstores visitors come back again to this place for shopping?
Discovery of a relevant information refers to …
Establishing theoretical grounds for a disciplinary
study, or
Deducting problem solution under a defined
situation.
So, what does it mean by research in you opinion?
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Why is a research conducted?
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Types of Research
Basically, there are only two types of research
a.Fundamental Research
b.Applied Research
Fundamental Research
Known as basic or pure research; seeks to expand
the boundaries of knowledge in the given area.
For example, development of research methods,
propagation of new theories, conduction of
academic research studies.
Applied Research
Known as a decisional research Attempts to use existing knowledge for resolving
the current problem.
For example? What are the customer needs, expectations, and
problems associated to our offerings? How did the general public like the prevailing
governance system?
Lets repeat it again…
¤ A research may be considered as a systematic and objective investigation that involves systematic design, collection, preparation, interpretation and repor ting of information needed to solve specif ic problems or promote a domain of learning.
1.1. AssessmentAssessment
2.2. ExplorationExploration
3.3. EvaluationEvaluation
4.4. ExaminationExamination
5.5. Comparison Comparison
6.6. EstimationEstimation
7.7. PropagationPropagation
Levels
Nature of objective
Objective description
1. AssessmentAssessment To observe the situation and infer results
2. ExplorationExploration To uncover the reality facing a problem
3. EvaluationEvaluation To measure the level of existence
4. ExaminationExamination To test the existence
5. Comparison Comparison To compare and contrast between given variables
6. EstimationEstimation To project probable level of happening
7. PropagationPropagation To declare a concept, theory, system or model
Step 1Define the problem andresearch objectives
Step 2Design theresearch with plan for collecting data
Step 3Implementthe research - collect, prepare and analyze the data
Step 4Produce results, interpret , deduce inferences and report the findings
Specification of methods and procedures for obtaining the information needed
A plan or organizing framework for conducting the study and collecting data
Serves as the blueprint of the detailed procedures and rationales of a research project
An essential part of research methodology
What is the study all about? Why is the study being carried out? Where will the study be carried out? What tools and techniques of data collection will
be used? How will the issue of validity and reliability be
addressed? What type of data are required? How much time will the study require? What will be the sample design? What techniques of data collection will be used ? How will the data be analyzed and interpreted?
Serves as a foundation to formulate and guide the research study
Supports in better planning & execution of the research methodology
Useful in the estimation of probable research errors and handling strategies
Maintains necessary control over the contents of the study
Makes the study more systematic, and effective [email protected]
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Determine the exploratory, descriptive, or causal phases of the research
Determine the information needed Specify the measurement and scaling procedures Construct and pretest appropriate forms of data
collection Specify sampling process and sample size Develop a plan of data analysis and presentation Develop a monitoring and control mechanism to
facilitate the overall research function
On the basis of the study techniques undertaken, research designs can primarily be categorized into TWO forms:
1. Exploratory Research Designs1. Exploratory Research Designs
2. Conclusive Research Designs2. Conclusive Research Designs
a. Descriptive Research Designsb. Causal Research Designs
Observational ResearchGathering data by observing people, actions and situations(Exploratory)
Experimental ResearchUsing groups of people to determine cause and effectrelationships(Causal)
Survey ResearchAsking individuals about attitudes, preferences or behaviors (Descriptive)
Three Research Approaches
ExploratoryResearch
ExploratoryResearch
DescriptiveResearch
DescriptiveResearch
CausalResearch
CausalResearch
Test hypotheses about cause and effectrelationshipsX causes Y
Test hypotheses about cause and effectrelationshipsX causes Y
Gathers preliminary information to define the problem and suggest hypotheses Literature search, expert interviews, focus groups, case studies, company audits, qualitative research
Gathers preliminary information to define the problem and suggest hypotheses Literature search, expert interviews, focus groups, case studies, company audits, qualitative research
Describes things as the market potential of a product, consumer demographics and attitudesSecondary data analysis, surveys, observations,panels, simulations
Describes things as the market potential of a product, consumer demographics and attitudesSecondary data analysis, surveys, observations,panels, simulations
Step 1: Define the Research ProblemStep 2: Estimate the value of the information to be
provided by the researchStep 3: Select the Data Collection MethodStep 4: Select the Measurement TechniquesStep 5: Select the SampleStep 6: Select the Analytical ApproachStep 7: Evaluate the Ethics of the ResearchStep 8: Specify the Time and Financial CostStep 9: Prepare the Research Proposal
1. Problem Definition2. Study Approach and Designs3. Population and Sampling Strategies4. Sources of Data5. Instrumentation6. Mechanism for Research Administration7. Mechanism for Data Processing and Analysis 8. Confirmation of the Expertise Involved9. Timeframe of the Study10. Cost of the Study
MeaningMeaning� Known as a proper ty of proposition being Known as a proper ty of proposition being
studiedstudied� Also known as the constructs of a Also known as the constructs of a
propositionproposition
� A symbol to which we assign numerals or A symbol to which we assign numerals or
valuesvalues
� Numerical value assigned to a variable is Numerical value assigned to a variable is
based on its proper tiesbased on its proper [email protected]
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Three General Examples of VariablesThree General Examples of Variables
1. Dichotomous Variables1. Dichotomous Variables� These variables are so called because they have These variables are so called because they have
TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a
property.property.
� For exampleFor example: pass or fail, exists or does not exist, : pass or fail, exists or does not exist,
employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no. employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.
� The dichotomous variables can be assigned with a The dichotomous variables can be assigned with a
numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.
2. Discrete Variables2. Discrete Variables� These are categorical variables. These are categorical variables. � For example, the demographic variables race or For example, the demographic variables race or
religion are the examples of discrete variables. religion are the examples of discrete variables. � Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can
be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4
respectively.respectively.� The numerical values assigned to these variables The numerical values assigned to these variables
will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.
3. Continuous Variables3. Continuous Variables� These variables take on values with a given range These variables take on values with a given range
or, in some cases, an infinite set. or, in some cases, an infinite set.
� For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100, For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100,
age may be 2.5 years, present income of a age may be 2.5 years, present income of a
person could be Rs. 15000, you may disclose person could be Rs. 15000, you may disclose
your property worth more than Rs. 500,000,000. your property worth more than Rs. 500,000,000.
Sample vs. Population
Population = collection of ALL possible observations
Sample = subset of a population
Random Sample representative of a populationall observations have equal chance of
being selected
Cost Time Inaccessibility of the population Accuracy Destruction of the observations
Step 1: Define thePopulation of
Interest
Step 1: Define thePopulation of
Interest
Step 2: ChooseData Collection
Method
Step 2: ChooseData Collection
Method
Step 3: ChooseSampling FramesStep 3: Choose
Sampling Frames
Step 4: Select aSampling MethodStep 4: Select a
Sampling MethodStep 5: Determine
Sample SizeStep 5: Determine
Sample Size
Step 6: Develop andSpecify Operational
Plan
Step 6: Develop andSpecify Operational
Plan
Step 7: ExecuteOperational Sampling
Plan
Step 7: ExecuteOperational Sampling
Plan
Probability vs. Nonprobability Probability
members in the population have a known chance (probability) of being selected into the sample
Nonprobability the probability of selecting members from the
population is not known
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Define Population
Determine Sampling Frame
Determine Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling Simple Random SamplingSystematic Random SamplingStratified SamplingCluster Sampling
Non-Probability SamplingConvenienceJudgmentalQuotaSnow-ball
Determine Appropriate Sample Size
Execute Sampling Design
SamplingMethodsSamplingMethods
ProbabilitySamples
ProbabilitySamples
SimpleRandomSimple
RandomClusterCluster
SystematicSystematic StratifiedStratified
Non-probability
Non-probability
QuotaQuotaJudgmentJudgment
ConvenienceConvenience SnowballSnowball
MeaningData are the units, or, numbers, or facts that are generated through observation.
Data can be qualitative as well as quantitative.
Considered as the backbone for the evidence of every findings and decision alternatives in the research.
Data Objectives
Data objectives are derived from the research objectives and comprise of what we have observed to be lacking in the example.
Their determination mainly rests on the researcher, to translate what the decision maker wants into a specific description of the needed data.
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General Qualities Required
1.The measurement should be relevant and adequate to the problem faced to provide key guidance in decision making.
2.The data must be accurate in both --
i. Validity: Measure what they are supposed to, and
ii. Reliability: On repeating the same method, should
give the same results.
3. Data should be obtained quickly enough at an affordable cost.
Nature of Data
1. Facts: Include the measurements of anything that
actually exists or has existed. Facts, generally describe tangible things, they
also can be intangibles. They generally originate as the demographic,
sociological, psychographic, or behavioral types.
2. Knowledge: That is what people know. The information true or false, exists or does not exist,
etc.
Example
Consumers awareness about a product or a brand.
3. Opinion How people perceive something. What they believe about attitudes. The mental sets or predisposition to act in some manner.
Example
Consumer perception regarding good or bad.
4. Intentions: The acts that people have in mind to do. The expectations of their behavior
Example: Consumer interest upon a certain retailer.
5. Motives: Internal forces that cause people to behave as
they do. Motives may be instrumental ideas for identifying
the subjects about which the people will speak freely.
Example: A certain consumer never liking wine.
Functions of Data
1. Causation
2. Pay of f
Here, ‘X’ is the causation and ‘Y’ is the pay of f.
3. Description: Determination of causal variables in the sample. E.g.: How many of them are ‘X’.
4. Identif ication: Identif ication of the par ticular source.
e.g.: The name of person who took an interview, or made an observation, name, address, and locations of subjects, etc.
Y = f(X)‘X’ Causes ‘Y’
1. Primary Vs. SecondaryPrimary Data That originate from primary sources and are based on observation or investigation or direct questioning.* Observation Method* Interview Method* Questionnaires* Projective Techniques* Content Analysis
1. Primary Vs. SecondarySecondary DataThat originate from secondary sources.Data already available, collected and analyzed by someone else.* Publications* Books* Journals* Magazines and Newspapers* Reports* Collateral Materials* PR Messages
2. Qualitative Vs. Quantitative
Qualitative Data: Psychological, perceptual, or conceptual
data that is not counted in numbers, rather coded as ‘good
or bad’, ‘interesting or boring’ etc.
Quantitative Data: Number based facts and figures.
Frequency of occurrence.
3. Personal Repor ting
Data based on individual observation and reporting.
Can be qualitative as well as quantitative.
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Can be primary/secondary
Always primary
1. InternalData developed or gathered, maintained, and preserved by the organization itself.
MIS is the best source for internal records.MIS comprises of FOUR major components; Management Research Systems (MRS), Internal Database Systems (IDS), Management Intelligence Systems (MIS), and Analytical Information Systems (AIS). Annual reports, collateral materials, press releases etc.
Primary
2. External
* Data generated from the published reports of various bureaus, and public surveys.
Example:
EDIFY International conducting a salt consumption behavior research study in Nepal, and the same report findings to be used in other related future researches.
Use of CBS - Nepal reports for various research purposes.
Secondary
1. Literature Reviews
* A secondary method of data collection.
* Facts gathered in the basis of reviews of various publications, articles, journals, books, collateral materials, reports, etc.
* Useful in providing the evidence to the results of the primary observation.
* Mostly used in understanding the theoretical phenomenon.
* Very essential in qualitative studies.
2. Census
* Census represents the study of universe.
* Mostly conducted by the governments in long
periodical basis.
* Each and every component of the population is
the subject of the study.
* Most costly approach of data collection.
3. Survey
* An alternative to census.
* Sample based study; study/observation through population representation.
* Mostly used by the researchers.
* A primary method of data collection.
4. Focus Group Observation
* A approach of group observation.
* A source for primary data collection.
* Useful in perceptual studies.
* The groups may comprise of 6 to 10 people.
* The issues are discussed by cross questioning
and sharing their views.
* Suitable in case of new product launch and
testing.
Can be direct orindirect, structured
or unstructured
5. Experiments
* A primary method of data collection.
* Can be field or lab experiment based.
* Mostly conducted by using the control groups.
* Most useful in new product testing.
* May be very costly incase of wrong selection of control groups.
* Sometimes conducted by the help of various physical tests; eye movements, pupil movements, skin stimuli etc.
6. Interviews
* A popular method of primary data collection.
* Data collected in the basis of personal interaction with the respondents.
* Can be well-structured or less-structured.
* Useful when small size of observation is enough for data collection.
* The individuals/subjects are the source of study.
Data Reduction and Analysis
Data Reduction Process
Step I: Establishing field controls
Step II: Editing of data
Step III: Coding the data
Step IV: Transcribing
Step V: Creating new variables
Step VI: Calculating and
summarizing statistics
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis
Bivariate analysis
Multivariate analysis
Presentation of a Repor t I . Prefatory Par t
Title PageSignatory PageCopy RightsAcknowledgementsExecutive SummaryTable of ContentsList of Tables and GraphsList of Abbreviations
I I . Main Body IntroductionReview of LiteratureResearch MethodologyData Reduction, Presentation, and AnalysisSummary of Key FindingsRecommendations and Conclusions
II I . Supplementary Par tBibliography or ReferencesAnnexturesAppendixes
Nature and Content of Ethical IssuesParticipant Treatment
Issues* Purpose shouldn't be to sell merchandise* Anonymity must be protected----------------------------Ultraviolet inkHidden tape recordersOne-way mirrorsFake long distance callsFake research firmRight to safetyRight to be informedRight to privacyRight to choice
Client TreatmentIssues
* Methods used and results should be accurately reported----------------------------
Confidentiality
Unqualified researcher
Proprietary information
Unnecessary research
Researcher Treatment Issues
* Should not disseminate conclusions that are inconsistent with data* Should not solicit designs and deliver to another for execution----------------------------Excessive requests
Reneging on promises
Availability of funds