Research Methodology

Dr. Chowdhury Saleh Ahmed

1. Meaning of Research2. Objectives of Research3. Motivation of Research4. Types of Research5. Research Approaches6. Significance of Research7. Research Methods and Research

Methodology8. Criteria of good Research9. Problems of research in countries

like Bangladesh

Lecture 1

Meaning of Research

Research means an objective and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.

Example of Research:

• Carbon di oxide emission due to traffic jam• Causes of crimes by slum dwellers etc• Effectiveness of Educational incentive system for

controlling drop-outs

Cont.. • Research has to be an original contribution to the existing

stock of knowledge.

Thus Research involves:

• Enunciating the problem• Formulating the hypothesis• Collecting data/ facts/information• Analyzing the data/ facts/ information• Reaching at conclusions

Meaning of Research: Example

• Problem: CO2- Traffic Jam is a health hazard-

• Hypothesis – within tolerable limit• Collecting CO2 data through a sampling• procedure• Analyzing data whether within tolerable

limit • Making Conclusion

Objectives of Research

• To achieve new insights into a phenomenon

• To know about the existing phenomenon

• To know extent of a cause or effect variables

• To establish relationship between variables

Motivation of Research: What makes people undertake research

• Desiring solution to the problem/ hazard

• Desire to do a social / national / organizational service

• Inner satisfaction of a creative job

Types of ResearchDescriptive versus Analytical :

Descriptive research means describing state of affairs – Mostly involves primary data – ex-post research

Analytical research means carrying out analysis on a phenomenon – Mostly involves secondary data – ex-ante research- before contemplated change

Cont.

• Applied versus Fundamental Research

• Applied research aims to find a solution to an immediate problem facing a country/ society/ organization etc.

• Fundamental research is a basic research mainly concerned with generalizations

Cont.

• Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

```Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount

```Example CO2 emission````Qualitative research is concerned with subjective

attitude/ quality/ attributes / desires / feelings/ etc```Example : Feeling about Dhaka city air pollution

( intolerable / Mildly intolerable / tolerable

Cont..

Conceptual versus Empirical

Conceptual research is about abstract ideas or theory

Attack from ghosts,

Empirical Research is data-based and subject to verification

Research Approaches

• According to types of research discussed:

• There can be two approaches to research:

• Quantitative approach:

• Qualitative approach

Cont….Research Approaches

• Quantitative approach can be further divided into 3 groups:

• Inferential approach – infer characteristics of a phenomenon through collection of data –example CO2 emission.

• Experimental approach – Researcher deliberately changes some variables to know the causal effect- example – effect of temperature rise on plant growth under open sky

Cont… Research Approaches

• Simulation approach – Researcher artificially construct an environment and collects data

• A greenhouse is constructed and impact of temperature rise on plant growth is measured

Significance of Research

“ Doubt is often better than overconfidence as doubt leads to enquiry and enquiry leads to invention”

“ Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking that promotes development of logical thinking”

Cont… Research Approaches

• Research provides the basis of all government / international policies

• Research is used for solving various problems of Businesses, NGOs, Societies etc.

Research Methods and Research Methodology

Research methods refer to use of instruments for a research technique

Example:

Type of Research

Quantitative Field Research

Methods of Research

Questionnaire

Focussed Group Discussion

Technique of Research

Researcher uses open and close ended questions

Researcher selects a particular group for the detailed discussion

Cont… Research Methodology.

• Research methodology is a way to systemically solve the research problem

• Research methodology has a broader dimension than research methods

Cont.. Research Methodology

• Elements of Research Methodology are: Defining objective

• Reviewing Literature• Formulating Hypothesis• Designing sample• Collecting data• Analyzing of data• Arriving at conclusions

Criteria of good Research

• The objective of the research clearly defined• The research methodology used should be

described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement

• The sampling design should be such as to yield least error

• The writing should be done with complete frankness – nothing which has bearing on the result should be hidden

Cont. Criteria of good Research.

• The validity and reliability of data as a well as calculations should be re-checked to avoid mistakes

• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by data and analysis

• Researcher should be a person of integrity

Problems encountered in countries like Bangladesh

• Insufficient interaction between Academics and Practitioners

• Lack of training on the part of researchers

• Fear that information provided to researchers may be used against them

• Secondary sources of data are not timely available

Way forward to overcome research problems in Bangladesh• Greater interaction between academic institutions

and practicing organizations/ government/ NGOs etc.

• More education and training on research methodology

• National Policy on Research mentioning that research data can not be used against the person

• Timely publication of secondary data and enforcement of Act on “Right to Information”

The End

Defining the Research Problem

Defining the Research problem is the first step of Research Methodology or Research process:

Defining research problem

Formulating Hypothesis

Designing sampling technique

Collecting Data

Analyzing Data

Report Writing

Lecture 2

Research problem arises only when:

•There must be group/individuals facing the problem to be researched.

•There must be some objectives to be achieved from the solution of the problems

•There may be alternative means of obtaining the objectives

•Researcher must have some doubts about the relative efficacy of the alternatives

Points to be observed in selecting a Research Problem

•Subject on which research has been done should

not be chosen

•Controversial issues should be avoided

•Narrow or too wide issues should be avoided

•Research problem selected should be feasible

within means available

•Researcher should have some background

information on the research problems

Techniques of defining Research problem

1. Statement of the Problem in a general way2. Deep understanding the nature of the

problem3. Surveying the available Literature4. Developing the idea further through

discussion 5. Finally, Rephrasing the Research Problem

Techniques Involved in Defining a Research Problem

Statement of the Problem

First of all the problem should be stated in a general way

Understanding the nature of the problem

The researcher should be thoroughly knowlegible in the subject

The researcher should first discuss the problem with those who first raised the issue/ problem.

The researcher than should discuss the issue with the resource persons excelling in the subject

Surveying the available Literature

All available research concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before formulating the research problem.

This means, the researcher must be well conversant with available reports, records and literature.

Developing the idea through discussion

Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information.

People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of the proposal.

It helps sharpen the focus on specific aspects of the research.

Rephrasing the Research Problem

Finally the researcher must rephrase the research problem into a working proposition.

Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, literature has been reviewed, discussion over the problem has taken place, this rephrasing the research problem into analytical / operational terms become relatively easy.

Additional Points • Technical terms and phrases with special

meanings should be clearly defined for general readership.

• Basic assumptions relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.

• Aim or value of the research should be stated.• The suitability of the time period and the

source of data availability should be considered.

• The scope of investigation or the limits within which the problem will be studied need to be mentioned.

Example of a too broad /non-specific topic:

Why is labour productivity lower in Bangladesh compared to Vietnam • Vague in terms of which sector

• Vague in terms of time frame

• Non-analytical – labour productivity depends on certain factors -

Cont.• Rephrasing:

• Factors responsible for productivity differentials in Bangladesh and Vietnam’s RMG sectors between 2005-10.

The End

Research Design

• Research design is “decisions” regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means etc.

• It is management of conditions for collection of data, analysis of data and report preparation on the research problem.

Lecture 3

Meaning of Research design

1. What is the study about?2. Why the study is being undertaken?

3. Where will the study be carried out?4. Where can the required data be found?5. What will be the sample design 6. What period of time the study will include?

cont…

7. What type of data is required? 8. What techniques of data collection will be

used?

9. How many items will be observed? 10. How will the data be analyzed?

11. In what format, the report will be prepared within given time and budget?

Cont… Meaning of Research design

Components of Research Design

• From last two slides, it follows that Research Design has five components:

1. Problem formulation and objective

2. Sampling design: design which deals with method of selecting items to be observed in the given study. (3-6)

3. Observational design: design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made on the selected items. (7- 8)

4. Statistical design: design that deals with how many items will be observed and how information collected will be analyzed. (9 - 10)

Cont..Components of Research Design

• Operational design: design which deals with the techniques by which procedures specified in the sampling, observational and statistical designs can be carried out. Within given cost and time (11)

Research design must have:

1. Statement of the problem and objectives 2. Sources of information to be collected

(Sampling designs) 3. Types of information to be collected

(Observational designs)4. Approach to be used for collecting and

analyzing data (Statistical designs)5. Estimates of time and cost for the research

(Operational designs)

In Summary, Research design must have

• Clear Statement of the Research Problem and the objectives of research

• Sampling design

• Observational design

• Statistical design

• Operational design

Important Concepts Relating to Research Design

Important Concepts Relating to Research Design

• Dependent and Independent Variables

• Extraneous variable

• Control variable

• Research hypothesis

• Testing significance of the result on Research hypothesis

Dependent and Independent variable• Variable – A concept/ entity that can take different

quantitative values is called a variable• Continuous vs. discrete variable • Example:

• Individual’s earning depends on his/her knowledge and skill

• Here knowledge and skill is independent variable• Individual’s earning is dependent variable

Extraneous variable

• Variables not related to the study but affect the dependent variable.

• Example - Measuring Dependency of Rice yield to fertilizer doze in different districts.

• But soil types of different district would affect yield- Soil types are extraneous variables.

Control Variable

• Control variables are used to overcome the effects of extraneous variables.

• Example: BRRI’s sub-stations in different districts have experimental stations with normal soil types and temperature – These are used as control fields.

Research Hypothesis

• When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.

• The opposite of Research hypothesis is known as null hypothesis.

Example of Research and Null Hypothesis

Research Hypothesis:

Paddy yield depends positively on fertilizer applied.

Null Hypothesis:

Paddy yield has no relationship at all with fertilizer applied

The End

Testing Significance of the Result

• Why done?

• Because a sample is taken rather than whole population, therefore there is a need to test significance or confidence on the result.

Lecture 4

Testing Significance on the Result

• How it is done?

• Random Sample is said to be replica of the population. Population’s

distribution

Sample’s distribution

2.5% 2.5%Mean Height in cm

15% 25%

Testing Significance on the Result

If sample mean and standard deviation is known and prior information on population mean is available, then 95% confidence interval can be calculated.

Formulating Research Problem and

Objectives to be attained

• Survey of Literature

• Discussion with persons affected by the problem, Resource persons

Sampling Design :Relevant Terminology

Universe / Population –entire research area

• Census – survey of entire population

• Sample Survey – surveying a part of the population

• Sampling Frame - List of population from which sample will be drawn

• Sampling list – List of sampling units selected

Systematic Bias

Aim should be to avoid Systematic bias.

Systematic Bias occurs when:

• Inappropriate sampling Frame• Defecting Measuring device• Non-respondents• Indeterminacy Principle• Natural bias

Sampling Errors

• Sampling Errors is the difference between the sample estimate and the true population parameter.

• The sampling error can be found by subtracting the value of a parameter from the value of a statistic.

• Example : Sample height – Population Height of individuals

• Sampling error depends on sampling design.

Different Types of Sample Design

• There are basically 2 types of Sampling:

• Probability sampling and Non-probability sampling:

• Probability sampling Random Sampling-

• EACH SAMPLING UNIT HAS EQUAL PROBABILITY

Non-probability sampling non-random sampling-

EACH SAMPLING UNIT HAS UNEQUAL PROBABILITY,

Unrestricted vs. restricted sampling

• When each sample element is drawn individually and directly from the population at large, then sample drawn is known as un-restricted sample.

• CHART SHOWING BASIC SAMPLING DESIGNS Representation Basis

Element Selection

Technique

Unrestricted

Restricted Sampling

(Researcher’s individual judgment involved)

Probability Sampling

Non-probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Haphazard sampling/ Convenience sampling

Stratified Sampling

(Researcher’s individual judgment involved)

Purposive sampling

(Researcher’s individual judgment involved)

Probability Sampling

• Known also as Random / chance sampling

• Here every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.

• All possible samples have equal chance of inclusion

Cont.. Probability Sampling

• Therefore sample has the same characteristics of the population- replica of the population.

• Errors of estimation or significance of the results can be measured.

The End

Procedure of selecting a random sample

• Suppose we have to randomly select 3 people from the class of 60 students.

• ------------------------------• 1-60 numbers corresponding to the students

are written in 60 pieces of paper • These are folded so that numbers are not

seen• The paper slips are thoroughly mixed

Lecture 5

Procedure of selecting a random sample

• Then 1 piece of paper is selected without seeing the numbers written. The number is returned to the pool.

• Then 2nd piece of paper is chosen and then the 3rd paper. If same no. is chosen, process is repeated.

• Suppose 34, 03, 58 numbers/students are chosen

• Each number and each possible sample (such as 01, 60, 45, or 43, 06,55 has equal chance of selection) (1/60 x 1/60 x 1/60)

Use of Random Table

47 91 82 28 81 95 70 89 73 48

10 4 41 40 86 27 46 80 20 58

24 34 43 50 12 33 90 3 96 38

97 11 63 21 55 99 68 87 29 78

52 31 71 1 39 62 49 16 88 66

75 15 22 74 59 26 85 100 25 76

35 2 93 14 92 13 36 54 72 37

23 83 32 64 79 45 5 61 17 77

8 44 7 19 30 60 94 56 98 67

53 9 51 69 42 84 18 65 6 57

Systematic sample: mix of random and non-random

sampling• Supposing, we have to chose 4 students

from 100 students.

• First a number from the random table is selected

• Then 25 is added to the number to select the next number. If total number exceeds 100 then move to the beginning.

Example

18 43 68 93

80 05 30 55

Initial chosen number and then 25 is added successively.

Advantage and disadvantage of Systematic Sampling

Advantage• Spread over evenly over the entire population

compared to random sample• Easier and less costlier methodDisadvantage

If any systematic bias on the ith item (e.g.., 25th item), it persists.

Otherwise, systematic sample is considered equivalent to random sample,

Random Stratified Sampling

• Stratified sampling is used when the population is not homogenous.

• Under Stratified sampling, more pertinent information about the different homogenous stratum is obtained and

• therefore better information for the whole population is obtained.

Cont…• However, various strata are to be formed in a

way so as to ensure that elements are most homogenous within strata and most heterogeneous between different strata.

• Otherwise no advantage from stratification

Cont. Random Stratified Sampling

• Here, Strata are purposively formed and involves past experience and personal judgment.

• Once strata are selected, selection of unit must be done on random basis

• For better result, sampling units taken from each strata should be proportion to the size of the strata.

Cluster sampling

• If total area of interest is large enough, area can be divided into a number of non-overlapping areas called clusters.

• The samples e.g., households are units in these small areas or clusters.

Example

• Salinity prone areas subdivided into different unions called clusters.

• Households belonging to the union can be sampling units who could be interviewed.

Multi stage sampling- Two stage Sampling

• Suppose we want to measure efficiency of Nationalized Commercial Banks (NCBs) of Bangladesh:

• First stage is to randomly select some 2/3 divisions.

• Second we can select some districts randomly and interview all bank managers of nationalized banks in these districts.

Cont……………..

• This is two stage sampling.

• Divisions

• Districts

• Sampling units are bank branches

Multi stage sampling -Three stage Sampling

• If instead of interviewing all bank managers in the districts, we go down one step and randomly select some towns in these districts. We then interview all bank managers of the towns.

Cont….

• Then this is a three-stage sampling.

• Divisions

• Districts

• Towns

Sampling units are bank branches

Multi-stage Sampling with probability proportional to size

• Here Probability of inclusion of a cluster/ town is proportional to its size (in terms of bank branches).

Example: Taking a sample of 10 branches from a total of 500 branches spread over 15

towns so that probability of selecting a town is proportional to size of the town (measured in

terms of branches)• Number of bank branches in 15 towns are as

follows:

1

35

2

17

3

10

4

32

5

70

6

28

7

26

8

19

9

26

10

66

11

37

12

44

13

33

14

29

15

28

• Table1

35

35

10

2

17

52

3

10

62

60

4

32

94

5

70

164

110

160

6

28

192

7

26

218

210

8

19

237

9

26

263

260

10

66

329

310

11

37

366

360

12

44

410

410

13

33

443

14

29

472

460

15

28

500

Cumulative branchesSequential number of branch selected starting with a random number 10

Comparison with Alternative sample design: Simple Random Sample

Randomly choosing 10 branches from 500 branches

No assurance of rightly covering all divisions, districts, and towns.

Bigger towns might have lower samples.

Complex/ Stratified sample is more justified.

Non-Probability Sampling

• Non probability sampling is one where there is no guarantee that sampling element has equal probability of being selected.

• It is a kind of deliberate sampling.

• It is also known as purposive sampling.• Example: For examining extreme poverty level

of draught prone area, some unions of Rangpur is purposively chosen and compared with a normal union of another district.

Limitation of Non-probability/ Purposive Sampling

• Researcher can purposively choose an area which best suits his point of view.

• Element of human bias is always there

• Used in small scale research.

Conclusion

• Probability sampling should be attempted as it has lowest bias and more importantly significance of the result/ confidence on the result can be estimated.

• If known characteristic of the population is known before hand (so that test of significance can be done), if probability sampling will not fully serve the purpose and if the researcher has no bias towards a particular result then purposive sampling is suitable.

The End

DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected inappropriately, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way.

Lecture 6

Example of Inappropriate data Collection

• Suppose a research involves collecting data of weight and age of infants living in a particular rural area.

• However, if information on whether the infant was suffering from any disease at the time of observation was not collected,there would be systematic error.

Various data collection techniques can be used such as:

• Using available information

• Observing

• Interviewing (face-to-face)

• Administering written questionnaires

• Focus Group Discussions

• Projective Techniques, mapping etc.

1. Using available information

• Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily have been analysed or published.

• Locating these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any data collection effort.

Cont…..

• The use of key informants is another important technique to gain access to available information.

• Key informants could be knowledgeable persons who has knowledge of the sources of available information.

• They can be involved in various stages of the research, from the statement of the problem to analysis of the data and development of recommendations.

2. Observing

• OBSERVATION is a technique that involves systematically watching and recording behaviour and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.

• Observation of human behaviour is a much-used data collection technique. It can be undertaken in different ways:

Cont….

• Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she observes. (For example, a doctor hospitalized with a broken hip, who now observes hospital procedures ‘from within’.)

• Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but does not participate.

Cont…• Observations can also be made on objects.

For example, the presence or absence of a latrine and its state of cleanliness may be observed. Here observation would be the major research technique.

Used for RMG Compliance requirements for export to USA / EU

Cont…..• If observations are made using a defined scale

they may be called measurements. • Measurements usually require additional tools.

• For example, in nutritional surveillance we measure weight and height by using weighing scales and a measuring board. We use thermometers for measuring body temperature

3. Interviewing• An INTERVIEW is a frequently used data-

collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either individually or as a group.

• Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately after the interview) or by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both.

Cont…

• Interviews can be conducted with varying degrees of flexibility. The two extremes, high and low degree of flexibility, are described below:

High degree of flexibility:• When studying sensitive issues such as

teenage pregnancy and abortions in slum areas, the investigator may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions.

• Examples are: • Responsibility of girls and their partners to

prevent teenage pregnancy,• actions to be taken once there there is

unwanted pregnancies etc.

Cont…

• The sequence of topics should be determined by the flow of discussion.

• It is often possible to come back to a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the interview to gather needed information.

Low degree of flexibility:

• Less flexible methods of interviewing are useful when the researcher is relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of respondents being interviewed is relatively large.

• Then questionnaires may be used with a fixed list of questions in a standard sequence, which have mainly fixed or pre-categorized answers.

Administering written questionnaires

• A WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is a data collection tool in which written questions are presented that are to be answered by the respondents in written form.

Cont..

• A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:

1. Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the questions and asking for mailed responses;

Cont…

2. Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires;

3. Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.

5. Focus group discussions (FGD)

• A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a certain subject without restraint under the guidance of the researcher /facilitator.

Cont.

• Focused group discussions are done specially when inter-group sensitivity exists.

• Example: Tenant farmer and Owner farmer

• Tenant farmer would not mention about exploitative behaviors of Owner farmers if the later are present in the same group

6. Projective techniques

• When a researcher uses projective techniques, he / she asks an informant to react to some kind of visual or verbal stimulus.

• For example: An informant may be provided with a rough outline of the body and be asked to draw his/her illness.

Mapping • Mapping is a valuable technique for visually

displaying relationships and resources.• In a water supply project, for example, mapping

is invaluable. It can be used to present the placement of wells, distance of the homes from the wells, other water systems, etc.

• It gives researchers a good overview of the physical situation and may help to highlight proper selection of a new water source.

Difference between Data collection techniques and tools

Data Collection Techniques

Data Collection Tools

Using available information

Observing

Interviewing

Administering written questions

Checklists, Data compilation forms.

Eyes and other senses, pen/paper, watch, scales etc.

Interview guide, checklist, questionnaire, tape recorder

Questionnaire

Techniques Advantages Disadvantage

.Using available information

Is inexpensive, because data is already there

Permits examination of trends over the past.

Data is not easily available.

Information may not be fully appropriate

Observing Permits collection of information on facts not mentioned in an interview.

Permits tests of reliability of responses to questionnaire

Presence of data collector may influence result

Ethical issues regarding privacy may arise.

Techniques Advantages Disadvantage

.Interviewing Is suitable for use with

both literates and illiterates.

Permits clarification of questions.

Has higher response rate than written questions

The presence of the interviewer can influence responses.

Reports of events may be less complete than information gained through observations.

Techniques Advantages Disadvantage

.Flexible interview

Permits collection of in-depth information and exploration of spontaneous remarks by respondents

.Interview may inadvertently influence the respondents.

Analysis of open-ended data is more difficult and time -consuming

Fixed interview Easy to analyze Important information may be missed

Techniques Advantages Disadvantage

.Administering written questionnaire

Is less expensive

Permits anonymity and may result in more honest responses.

Eliminates bias due to phrasing questions differently with different respondents.

Cannot be used with illiterate respondents.

There is often a low rate of responses.

Questions may be misunderstood.

Techniques Advantages Disadvantage

.Participatory and projective methods

Provide rich data and may have positive spin offs for knowledge and skills by researchers and informants.

Require some extra training of researchers.

Guidelines for Development of Questionnaire

• Problem/ issue to be studied must be kept in view

• Type of analysis to be done would dictate data to be collected.

• Draft questionnaire to be framed first. After a pilot survey, this is to be finalized.

• Questions should be simple without ambiguity.

Guidelines for Interviewing

• Researcher/Interviewer should be aware of the problem being researched. Training to be given to the interviewer.

• User-friendly and informal approach to be used.

• Interview atmosphere should be normal.

• Interviewer has to establish proper rapport with interviewee for a two-way communication.

The End

Individual Assignment

1. Formulate a research problem of your. choice (should involve primary data collection).

2. Formulate research objectives (benefits of the research).3. Formulate research / null hypotheses to be tested.4. Design sampling procedure.5. Design data collection (type of data to be collected and

how).

In maximum 2 pages ( single space typed).Time allowed :2 weeks (15th February, 2011).