research methodology

Sneha Subhedar, DCJ, K. P. B. Hinduja College 1

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AN INTRODUCTION


What is research?

It is an academic activity. Therefore the term is to be used in its

technical sense although the word is used more randomly to denote even a remotely investigative exercise.


Clifford Woody

Research comprises of the following steps -

a) Defining and redefining problems

b) Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions

c) Collecting, organising and evaluating data

d) Making deductions

e) Reaching conclusions

f) Carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.


Research is therefore an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement.

It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.


THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IS TO DISCOVER ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURES.


Each research study has its own specific purpose but research objectives fall into four broad groups


EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE To be able to decide what research one wants to do one

has to know what research has been done, what are the issues involved, who are the people working on the issues/ideas concerned, find the scope and the scale of the issues in question. One has to KNOW what has been and is being done NOW. This process involves exploration, groping around, meeting experts, reading up on the issues/ideas and some investigating.

Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies


DESCRIPTIVE

What are the characteristics of the individual, the issue, the situation, the group one is studying? These characteristics could be of any kind. Who is thinking what and how, who is behaving in what manner and why, how different is a situation from another, what are the similarities and differences between two groups?

When studies are conducted with a view to accurately portray such characteristics they are called descriptive research studies.


DIAGNOSTIC

How often is something happening? What is the frequency? What is the rate at which an event, a phenomenon is occurring? How is one event related to another? How often is such a relationship established?

When studies are conducted with the object of determining the frequency of occurrence of an event or phenomenon it is called diagnostic research study.


HYPOTHESIS-TESTING

It always rains heavily when I wear my Jeans. Is there a causal relationship here? Can I conclude ‘If I wear Jeans, then it rains’. A relationship that can be defined as – ‘If this, then that’ is called a causal relationship. There is a cause and there is an effect and every time the cause happens, the effect happens too.

When studies are conducted to test the hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (I don’t always wear Jeans and it does not always rain) such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies.


TYPES OF RESEARCH


DESCRIPTIVE

The major purpose of such research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present by collecting, correlating, comparing data.

Frequency of shopping, what people prefer to buy or sell, at what price are events that are happening all the time. We have no control over them. They vary from person to person, place to place.

Starting from what is, and trying to determine what is, involves research of a descriptive nature.

Which is why trends are important in this kind of research.


ANALYTICAL Surveys are constantly conducted, trends are being

identified but what do these really mean? The circulation figures of a newspaper, how many people bought railway tickets today, how many people visited a theatre today are figures that are easily available but what this means, can the information lead to some analysis of behaviour, patterns of economic, political, social activity?

When we start from existing data and then analyse it to make a critical evaluation that kind of research is analytical


APPLIED

The central aim of applied research is to find a practical, applicable solution to a pressing practical problem.

Rain stopped Mumbai in its tracks over the past week. There must be some immediate solutions to it, solutions that can be put into operation immediately, solutions that can be applied immediately.

Research done by marketing firms, by the newspapers to assess reader responses, by advertisers, the kind done by DNA before its launch are all applied research.


QUANTITATIVE/QUALITATIVE

The orgasm is the least understood biological phenomenon because it cannot be measured. What can be measured is the rate of the heart beat, the pulse, the blood pressure, the chemical movements in the brain, breathing etc but what precisely happens in an orgasm is not understood. Therefore also the motivation of human beings, the literal ‘run’ towards an orgasm, is something that has been puzzling behavioural scientists. So much of human activity is directed towards that orgasm. Especially after the control that humans gained over the process of reproduction one would imagine humans no longer had to grapple with sexual desire and yet the modern man is more repressed than his predecessors.

Any research that involves quantities like blood pressure etc in the above case would be quantitative research.

Any research that would involve qualities as in the quality of orgasm, it would be qualitative research.


CONCEPTUAL

Axioms are ‘truths’ that do not require ‘proofs’ like 2+2=4. What’s to prove there? But just try proving this simple ‘truth’ and you will find that you cannot prove it directly. You can only prove that 2+2 is not equal to any other number but 4. This is an indirect method. Out of a given set of answers if none except one fits then that must be the correct answer. This is fine with mathematics because it helps us that 2+2=4. This axiom makes life easier. We can buy vegetables and fruits and other things as a result of such axioms. But when axioms begin to form in areas like politics, philosophy, sociology, history then we have problems and we begin to stare at conclusions like All Muslims Are Communal, All Hindus Are Tolerant, All Christians Are Christian etc.

When research is directed to the study and analysis of concepts, abstract ideas, notions and axioms it is conceptual.


EMPIRICAL/Empiricism 2+2=4 cannot be proven by mathematics. Why then do we accept

it as truth? Because we ‘observe’ it happening all the time. Anywhere in the Universe when two and two are put together what emerges is four. This axiom has been ‘proved’ empirically.

The Sun stays where it is and the earth keeps going in circles but we say the Sun rises from the east. The Sun in reality simply seems to come up from a certain direction around the same time. We have named that direction east. How can one prove that the Sun indeed rises from the east without actually sitting down days on end and watching it? This is the empirical method of research where you actually look at phenomenon. At times the researcher tries to control the variables, deliberate manipulate the environment to conduct the experiment. Experiment is the mainstay of such research. It also necessitates a presumption, a hypothesis that the researcher has to formulate and then go about gathering facts to prove or disprove the hypothesis.


Depending on

time taken for research, issues involved, methods adopted and goals set

research can be further divided into sub types.


One-time/Longitudinal

Depending on the time taken research can be one-time affair like a product launch or longitudinal where one keeps identifying and tracking trends and patterns.


FIELD-SETTING/LABORATORY OR SIMULATED Field research is necessary when one has to

get out there, talk to people, observe phenomena, record it.

There are situations though when either the field itself is too large or the researcher wants to have a control over the variable factors. In such situation an environment is simulated, created within the confines of a laboratory.


CLINICAL OR DIAGNOSTIC

Such research involves case studies, in depth studies to reach the basic causal relations, it goes deep into the causes of things or events using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.


EXPLORATORY OR FORMALISED

The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalised research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.


HISTORICAL

In this kind of research historical material like documents, remains from archeological explorations etc are the object of study to draw conclusions on the past, including ideas, philosophies, the social context etc.


CONCLUSION ORIENTED

A decision has to be reached quickly about something. In this situation the researcher is guided by the decision maker. The researcher picks the problem, redesigns the enquiry as he proceeds with the enquiry and conceptualises on the way. Operations research, which provides executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control, falls in this category


THERE ARE TWO APPROACHES TO RESEARCH


QUANTITATIVE

This involves generation of data that can be measured on a scale and be rigorously tested in a formal and rigid fashion.


Quantitative approach can be further classified into:

a) Inferential approach – A data base is formed on the basis of which characteristics, relationships are inferred. ‘If this, then that’ where ‘this’ is the data collected and ‘that’ is the inference from the data.


b) Experimental approach – There is greater control over the environment, the subject of study and some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.


c) Simulation approach – This involves creating an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. Simulation means operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process.


QUALITATIVE

The subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions, behaviour involves qualitative research.

Research here is a function of the insights and impressions of the researcher.

The result of such research is in a form that cannot be measured on a scale and cannot be subjected to rigorous methods of formal, objective testing.


Research inculcates

scientific and inductive thinking,

promotes the development of logical habits of thinking

and

organisation.


In the context of government,

research as a tool of economic policy has three distinct phases of operation

i) Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts

ii) Diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them

iii) The prognosis – the prediction of future development


Research methods are used in performing research operations. All methods used by the researcher during the course of studying a research problem are termed as research methods.

Research methods can be put into three groups


1.Methods that involved collection of data.

2. Statistical techniques used for establishing relationships between what is known through data collection and what is not known.

3. Methods used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.


RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The term has a wider connotation than a research method. A method is part of a methodology. Subjects of research determine the method. Researchers have to design their own methodology according to the problem they choose to address. For instance one has to evaluate and justify why and on what basis a particular sample and sample size was chosen.

In research the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented.

Researchers need to know how to develop indices, tests, calculate the mean, median or standard deviation or chi-square, how, where and why to apply particular research techniques, what such techniques would indicate and why?


When we talk of research methodology we talk of methods and we talk of the logic behind the methods used in the context of the research

study and why a particular method or technique was used to the exclusion of other methods so that research results can be evaluated either by

the researcher or others.


Research is an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any

particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or

recorded just as they occur.

The researcher must be interested more than mere particular results; he must want to

investigate the repeatability of results and whether they can be extended to more

complicated and general situations.


Scientific method aims at achieving a systematic interrelation of facts by experiment, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.

Logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear.

The researcher or scientist can then state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts.


Research thus is a

scientific method


Problems encountered by Indian researchers Lack of scientific training Insufficient interaction between Universities and industry Lack of confidence, faith in researchers. A suspicion that data, if

supplied, will be misused. Overlapping of research studies. Unnecessary duplication of

effort. No code of conduct to regulate researchers leading to inter-

university and inter-departmental rivalries and one-upmanship. The difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance and

infrastructure. Mismanagement of libraries. Inaccessible historical material.


Working with literatureWorking with literature

““What should I be reading, and what do I do What should I be reading, and what do I do with it all?”with it all?”


Working with literature is an essential part of Working with literature is an essential part of the research process that generates ideas, the research process that generates ideas, helps forms significant questions, and is helps forms significant questions, and is instrumental in the process of research instrumental in the process of research design. It is a complex task that involves design. It is a complex task that involves developing the skills to find, manage, use, developing the skills to find, manage, use, and review the literature.and review the literature.


Finding relevant literature can be made Finding relevant literature can be made easier if you are able to readily to access and easier if you are able to readily to access and draw on a wide variety of resources, including draw on a wide variety of resources, including reference materials, books, journals, grey reference materials, books, journals, grey literature, official publications, and archives. literature, official publications, and archives. In doing this, you should call on the expertise In doing this, you should call on the expertise of librarians and supervisors, as well as other of librarians and supervisors, as well as other researchers.researchers.


The ever-increasing availability of literature The ever-increasing availability of literature requires students to develop proficient search requires students to develop proficient search skills. Working with key words is the most skills. Working with key words is the most common way to navigate the internet and common way to navigate the internet and relevant data bases.relevant data bases.


Managing the literature requires efficient Managing the literature requires efficient reading skills to allow to cull through vast reading skills to allow to cull through vast amounts of written work. It also pays to be amounts of written work. It also pays to be organised and diligent when it comes to organised and diligent when it comes to keeping references.keeping references.


Annotating your sources provides you with a Annotating your sources provides you with a record of relevant literature. It should include record of relevant literature. It should include the citation, articulation of the author and the the citation, articulation of the author and the audience, a short summary, critical audience, a short summary, critical commentary, and notes on relevance that commentary, and notes on relevance that remind you of the significance, accuracy and remind you of the significance, accuracy and quality of the sources cited.quality of the sources cited.


Literature is used for disparate purposes Literature is used for disparate purposes throughout the research process. Whether it throughout the research process. Whether it be focussing interests, defining questions, be focussing interests, defining questions, articulating a rationale, theoretically informing articulating a rationale, theoretically informing your study, developing appropriate design, or your study, developing appropriate design, or writing a formal literature review, every stage writing a formal literature review, every stage of the research process demands literary of the research process demands literary engagement.engagement.


The formal literature review is a very specific The formal literature review is a very specific of writing designed to inform your readers of of writing designed to inform your readers of your topic, establish your credibility as a your topic, establish your credibility as a researcher, and argue the need for, and researcher, and argue the need for, and relevance of, your work. Most find it a difficult relevance of, your work. Most find it a difficult task, that takes patience, practice, drafts, and task, that takes patience, practice, drafts, and redrafts.redrafts.


Students are often unsure of what needs to Students are often unsure of what needs to be included in the literature review. Some be included in the literature review. Some have difficulty finding relevant literature, while have difficulty finding relevant literature, while others have difficulty focussing their reading. others have difficulty focussing their reading. Organising and searching for the literature Organising and searching for the literature according to various concepts/variables can according to various concepts/variables can help manage the task.help manage the task.


A good literature review is an argument that is more A good literature review is an argument that is more purposeful than a review of relevant literature. Writing purposeful than a review of relevant literature. Writing a good review requires you to: read a few good a good review requires you to: read a few good reviews; write critical annotations; develop a reviews; write critical annotations; develop a structure; write purposefully; use the literature to back structure; write purposefully; use the literature to back up your argument; review and write throughout the up your argument; review and write throughout the research process; get feedback; and be prepared to research process; get feedback; and be prepared to redraft.redraft.


Writing a good literature review can be Writing a good literature review can be likened to holding a good dinner party likened to holding a good dinner party conversation. They both require individuals conversation. They both require individuals who can engage, learn, debate, argue, who can engage, learn, debate, argue, contribute, and evolve their own ideas, contribute, and evolve their own ideas, without being hyper critical or sycophantic. without being hyper critical or sycophantic.


Case StudyCase Study

A method of studying elements of the social A method of studying elements of the social environment through comprehensive environment through comprehensive description and analysis of a single situation description and analysis of a single situation or case. or case.

A case study is ‘a way of organising social A case study is ‘a way of organising social data so as to preserve the unitary character data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being studied’. (Goode of the social object being studied’. (Goode and Hart 1952:331)and Hart 1952:331)


StrengthsStrengths

The concentrate research efforts on one case or one The concentrate research efforts on one case or one site and therefore can offer one se of boundaries for site and therefore can offer one se of boundaries for the study.the study.

Minimize travel, therefore doable.Minimize travel, therefore doable. Attempt to build holistic understandings through the Attempt to build holistic understandings through the

development of rapport and trust.development of rapport and trust. The goal is ‘authenticity’ and a richness and a depth The goal is ‘authenticity’ and a richness and a depth

in understanding that goes beyond what is generally in understanding that goes beyond what is generally possible in large-scale survey research. possible in large-scale survey research.


Case studies can:Case studies can:

Have an intrinsic value – be unique, interesting or Have an intrinsic value – be unique, interesting or even misunderstood.even misunderstood.

Be used to debunk a theory – one case can show Be used to debunk a theory – one case can show that what is commonly accepted might, in face, be that what is commonly accepted might, in face, be wrong.wrong.

Bring new variables to light – exploratory case Bring new variables to light – exploratory case studies can often bring new understandings to the studies can often bring new understandings to the fore.fore.

Provide supportive evidence for a theory – can be Provide supportive evidence for a theory – can be used to provide anecdotal evidence for a theory or to used to provide anecdotal evidence for a theory or to triangulate other data collection methodstriangulate other data collection methods

Be used collectively to form the basis of a theory – a Be used collectively to form the basis of a theory – a number of cases may be used to inductively generate number of cases may be used to inductively generate new theory.new theory.


Difficulties associated with case Difficulties associated with case studiesstudies

Required level of access can be difficult to Required level of access can be difficult to negotiatenegotiate

Demands on the one or the few ‘samples’ can Demands on the one or the few ‘samples’ can be very high.be very high.

Researcher can come to have an effect on Researcher can come to have an effect on the researched and vice versa.the researched and vice versa.

Immersion can come with emotional costs for Immersion can come with emotional costs for all parties involved.all parties involved.


Case selectionCase selection

Define a ‘case’ – Defining boundaries that separate Define a ‘case’ – Defining boundaries that separate some aspect of the case that makes it distinct.some aspect of the case that makes it distinct.

Determine how many cases you will explore – The Determine how many cases you will explore – The number is dependent on your research goals and number is dependent on your research goals and what you wish to uncover.what you wish to uncover.

Select cases for study – Researchers handpick cases Select cases for study – Researchers handpick cases on a pragmatic or theoretical basis. on a pragmatic or theoretical basis.


Methodologies for case studiesMethodologies for case studies

Ethnography – study of a cultural groupEthnography – study of a cultural group Phenomenology – exploration of the lived Phenomenology – exploration of the lived

experience of a particular phenomenon.experience of a particular phenomenon. Ethnomethodology – exploring specific Ethnomethodology – exploring specific

interactions like doctor-patient.interactions like doctor-patient. Action research – an attempt to change the Action research – an attempt to change the

focus through research.focus through research.


Exploring cultural groupsExploring cultural groups

Whether it be foreign cultures, marginal cultures Whether it be foreign cultures, marginal cultures closer to home, or even our own culture, delving into closer to home, or even our own culture, delving into cultural complexities often involves an attempt to cultural complexities often involves an attempt to understand the world from the perspective of the understand the world from the perspective of the participants and often involves prolonged and participants and often involves prolonged and participative cultural engagement. Ethnography, a participative cultural engagement. Ethnography, a research methodology with roots in cultural research methodology with roots in cultural anthropology, can be quite powerful in building anthropology, can be quite powerful in building understandings at this level.understandings at this level.


Ethnography – To ‘write a culture’Ethnography – To ‘write a culture’

It is a study of ‘cultural groups’. Cultural It is a study of ‘cultural groups’. Cultural suggests that what binds the group is more suggests that what binds the group is more than just genetics, biology, or geography. than just genetics, biology, or geography. Such groups are bound by tradition, common Such groups are bound by tradition, common patterns of belief and behaviours. The patterns of belief and behaviours. The premise of ethnographic studies is ‘how an premise of ethnographic studies is ‘how an individual processes the world is constructed individual processes the world is constructed and constrained by cultural experience’. and constrained by cultural experience’.


Explores a way of life from the ‘point of view Explores a way of life from the ‘point of view of its participants’. The goal is to ‘see’ things of its participants’. The goal is to ‘see’ things the way the group members do and grasp the the way the group members do and grasp the meanings that they use to understand and meanings that they use to understand and make sense of the world. Ethnography thus make sense of the world. Ethnography thus accepts multiple realities and requires cultural accepts multiple realities and requires cultural empathy.empathy.


To explore is to ‘understand, discover, To explore is to ‘understand, discover, describe and interpret’. These descriptions of describe and interpret’. These descriptions of course are filtered through a researcher’s course are filtered through a researcher’s worldview, inherent biases, and theoretical worldview, inherent biases, and theoretical and analytical frameworks. and analytical frameworks.


Ethnography thus – involves Ethnography thus – involves explorationexploration of a of a cultural group cultural group in a bid to in a bid to understandunderstand, , discoverdiscover, , describedescribe, and , and interpret interpret a way of a way of life from the life from the point of view of its point of view of its participantsparticipants..


Methods of data collectionMethods of data collection

ObservationObservation InterviewsInterviews Document analysisDocument analysis SurveysSurveys


Exploring phenomenaExploring phenomena

Phenomenology is premised on a world that is a) Phenomenology is premised on a world that is a) ‘constructed’ – people are creative agents in building ‘constructed’ – people are creative agents in building a social world and b) ‘intersubjective’ – we a social world and b) ‘intersubjective’ – we experience the world with and through others. experience the world with and through others.

Therefore to understand the world you need to explore Therefore to understand the world you need to explore human phenomena without worrying about their human phenomena without worrying about their causes, truth-value, reality, or appearances. causes, truth-value, reality, or appearances.


Phenomenology is therefore – a study of Phenomenology is therefore – a study of phenomena as they present themselves in phenomena as they present themselves in direct experience.direct experience.

What is a phenomena and how can one study What is a phenomena and how can one study it?it?


Refugees, athletes or leaders might be called Refugees, athletes or leaders might be called upon to provide descriptions of the upon to provide descriptions of the experience of displacement, victory and experience of displacement, victory and power respectively. Individuals are therefore power respectively. Individuals are therefore central to the conduct of such studies. It is central to the conduct of such studies. It is their ‘description’ of lived experience, rather their ‘description’ of lived experience, rather than they themselves, that are the focus of than they themselves, that are the focus of phenomenology.phenomenology.


Phenomenological studies are also highly dependent on Phenomenological studies are also highly dependent on ‘constructs’. Constructs such as displacement, victory and ‘constructs’. Constructs such as displacement, victory and power are central to the phenomenological experience being power are central to the phenomenological experience being explored. explored.

In phenomenological studies the ‘reality’ of the construct is not In phenomenological studies the ‘reality’ of the construct is not of concern and in fact should be ‘bracketed’ or they should be of concern and in fact should be ‘bracketed’ or they should be explored as free as possible from what the world says they are explored as free as possible from what the world says they are supposed to be or supposed to mean. In phenomenology, a supposed to be or supposed to mean. In phenomenology, a construct freed from its constructed meaning is often referred to construct freed from its constructed meaning is often referred to as an ‘object’. as an ‘object’.

Rather than ask ‘what causes x’ or ‘what is x’, phenomenology Rather than ask ‘what causes x’ or ‘what is x’, phenomenology explores the experience of x. It is the study thus of a explores the experience of x. It is the study thus of a phenomenon as it presents in an individual’s direct awareness.phenomenon as it presents in an individual’s direct awareness.


StrengthsStrengths

Phenomenology reminds that: Phenomenology reminds that:

a)a) There are things called phenomena in the There are things called phenomena in the social world;social world;

b)b) That these things can be researched; andThat these things can be researched; and

c)c) They are a worthy object of inquiry. They are a worthy object of inquiry.

For example understanding and describing the For example understanding and describing the lived experience of critical illness. lived experience of critical illness.


Action ResearchAction Research

Action research is a research strategy that Action research is a research strategy that pursues action and knowledge in an pursues action and knowledge in an integrated fashion through a cyclical and integrated fashion through a cyclical and participatory process. In action research, participatory process. In action research, process, outcome, and application are process, outcome, and application are inextricably linked.inextricably linked.


Basic tenets of action researchBasic tenets of action research

Addresses practical problemsAddresses practical problems Generates knowledgeGenerates knowledge Enacts changeEnacts change Is participatoryIs participatory Relies on a cyclical processRelies on a cyclical process


Issues in action researchIssues in action research The ultimate direction is not in your handsThe ultimate direction is not in your hands It can be difficult to control the pace of the project.It can be difficult to control the pace of the project. Facilitating collaboration is not always easy.Facilitating collaboration is not always easy. The researcher carries the burden of ethical The researcher carries the burden of ethical

responsibility for the production of knowledge and for the responsibility for the production of knowledge and for the welfare of the researched.welfare of the researched.

The researcher needs to negotiate ownership of The researcher needs to negotiate ownership of research outcomes, which may include rights to publish, research outcomes, which may include rights to publish, issues of authorship, etc.issues of authorship, etc.


Cycles in action researchCycles in action research

Observe (research/data collection)Observe (research/data collection) Reflect (critical reflexivity)Reflect (critical reflexivity) Plan (strategic action plan)Plan (strategic action plan) Act (implementation)Act (implementation) ObserveObserve ReflectReflect PlanPlan Act….Act….


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Writing itWriting it

The questionsThe questions

So tell me what your So tell me what your research is about?research is about?

The answers that structure The answers that structure the chapters/sections of the chapters/sections of the conventional reportthe conventional report

TitleTitleAbstractAbstractIntroductionIntroduction Research question (s)Research question (s) Hypothesis (as appropriate)Hypothesis (as appropriate)


And why did you And why did you choose this particular choose this particular topic/question?topic/question?

IntroductionIntroduction rationalerationale


Action ResearchAction Research

Action research is a research strategy that Action research is a research strategy that pursues action and knowledge in an pursues action and knowledge in an integrated fashion through a cyclical and integrated fashion through a cyclical and participatory process. In action research, participatory process. In action research, process, outcome, and application are process, outcome, and application are inextricably linked.inextricably linked.


Basic tenets of action researchBasic tenets of action research

Addresses practical problemsAddresses practical problems Generates knowledgeGenerates knowledge Enacts changeEnacts change Is participatoryIs participatory Relies on a cyclical processRelies on a cyclical process


Issues in action researchIssues in action research The ultimate direction is not in your handsThe ultimate direction is not in your hands It can be difficult to control the pace of the project.It can be difficult to control the pace of the project. Facilitating collaboration is not always easy.Facilitating collaboration is not always easy. The researcher carries the burden of ethical The researcher carries the burden of ethical

responsibility for the production of knowledge and for the responsibility for the production of knowledge and for the welfare of the researched.welfare of the researched.

The researcher needs to negotiate ownership of The researcher needs to negotiate ownership of research outcomes, which may include rights to publish, research outcomes, which may include rights to publish, issues of authorship, etc.issues of authorship, etc.


Cycles in action researchCycles in action research

Observe (research/data collection)Observe (research/data collection) Reflect (critical reflexivity)Reflect (critical reflexivity) Plan (strategic action plan)Plan (strategic action plan) Act (implementation)Act (implementation) ObserveObserve ReflectReflect PlanPlan Act….Act….


Writing itWriting it

The questionsThe questions

So tell me what your So tell me what your research is about?research is about?

The answers that structure The answers that structure the chapters/sections of the chapters/sections of the conventional reportthe conventional report

TitleTitleAbstractAbstractIntroductionIntroduction Research question (s)Research question (s) Hypothesis (as appropriate)Hypothesis (as appropriate)


And why did you And why did you choose this particular choose this particular topic/question?topic/question?

IntroductionIntroduction rationalerationale


What do you hope to What do you hope to achieve?achieve?

IntroductionIntroduction Aims and objectivesAims and objectives


I really don’t know much I really don’t know much about this, can you fill about this, can you fill me in?me in?

BackgroundBackground Recent literature and Recent literature and

prior/research (literature prior/research (literature review)review)

Theory (current and Theory (current and seminal as appropriate)seminal as appropriate)

Context (social, cultural, Context (social, cultural, historic, and historic, and geographic)geographic)


How exactly did you go How exactly did you go about doing your about doing your research?research?

Research Research design/Approachdesign/Approach

Methodological Methodological approach (framework)approach (framework)

Methods Methods (techniques/procedures)(techniques/procedures)

LimitationsLimitations


And what did you find And what did you find out?out?

Findings/results/emergent Findings/results/emergent storystory

Text, tables, graphs, Text, tables, graphs, charts, themes, quotes charts, themes, quotes etcetc

Discussion Discussion Analysis, interpretation, Analysis, interpretation,

and meaning of and meaning of findings.findings.


How would you explain How would you explain the the relevance/importance of relevance/importance of what you’ve done?what you’ve done?

ConclusionConclusion ImplicationsImplications SignificanceSignificance Recommendations Recommendations

(particularly importance (particularly importance in applied research)in applied research)


Reasons for reviewing the Reasons for reviewing the literatureliterature

Informing your self of Informing your self of what is happening in the what is happening in the fieldfield

Gaining a level of topical Gaining a level of topical and methodological and methodological knowledge and expertiseknowledge and expertise

Purposes of the ‘literature Purposes of the ‘literature review’review’

Informing your audience Informing your audience of what is happening in of what is happening in the field.the field.

Establishing your Establishing your credibility as a credibility as a knowledgeable and knowledgeable and capable researchercapable researcher


Finding potential gaps in Finding potential gaps in the literature that may the literature that may point to potential research point to potential research questionsquestions

Critically evaluating Critically evaluating common/typical methodscommon/typical methods

Arguing the relevance Arguing the relevance and the significance of and the significance of your research question(s)your research question(s)

Providing the context for Providing the context for your own methodological your own methodological approachapproach


Facilitating the Facilitating the development of your development of your own methodological own methodological approachesapproaches

Arguing the relevance Arguing the relevance and appropriateness of and appropriateness of your approachyour approach


The writing processThe writing process Read good, relevant reviewsRead good, relevant reviews Write critical annotations as you goWrite critical annotations as you go Develop a structureDevelop a structure Write purposefullyWrite purposefully Use the literature to back up your argumentsUse the literature to back up your arguments Make doing the literature review an ongoing processMake doing the literature review an ongoing process Get plenty of feedbackGet plenty of feedback Be prepared to redraftBe prepared to redraft


HypothesisHypothesis

Logical conjecture (hunch or educated guess) about Logical conjecture (hunch or educated guess) about the nature of relationships between two or more the nature of relationships between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable variables expressed in the form of a testable statementstatement


A hypothesis may not be A hypothesis may not be appropriate ifappropriate if

You do not have a hunch or educated guess about You do not have a hunch or educated guess about a particular situationa particular situation

You do not have a set of defined variablesYou do not have a set of defined variables Your question centres on phenomenological Your question centres on phenomenological

descriptiondescription Your question centers on ethnographic study of a Your question centers on ethnographic study of a

cultural groupcultural group Your aim is to engage in, and research, the process Your aim is to engage in, and research, the process

of collaborative changeof collaborative change


Keeping a sense of the overall Keeping a sense of the overall How should I treat my data in order to best address my research question?How should I treat my data in order to best address my research question? What do I expect to find?What do I expect to find? What don’t I expect to find, and how can I look for it?What don’t I expect to find, and how can I look for it? How do my findings relate to my research question?How do my findings relate to my research question? Are my findings confirming my theories? How? Why? Why not?Are my findings confirming my theories? How? Why? Why not? Does my theory inform/help to explain my findings? In what ways?Does my theory inform/help to explain my findings? In what ways? Can my unexpected findings link with alternate theories?Can my unexpected findings link with alternate theories? How might my methodological shortcomings be affecting my findings?How might my methodological shortcomings be affecting my findings? Can my findings be interpreted in alternate ways? What are the implications?Can my findings be interpreted in alternate ways? What are the implications?


VariablesVariables

Understanding the nature of variables is essential to Understanding the nature of variables is essential to statistical analysis. statistical analysis.


WHAT DEPENDS ON WHAT?WHAT DEPENDS ON WHAT?

Dependent variables – Dependent variables – the things you are trying the things you are trying to study or what you are to study or what you are trying to measure.trying to measure.

Independent variables – Independent variables – What might be causing What might be causing an effect on the things an effect on the things you are trying to you are trying to understand.understand.

Sneha Subhedar, DCJ, K. P. B. Hinduja College 95Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, of Communication and Journalism,

University of MumbaiUniversity of Mumbai 9595

Methodological DesignMethodological Design

““What’s the best way to design my study?”What’s the best way to design my study?”

Sneha Subhedar, DCJ, K. P. B. Hinduja College 96Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communication and Journalism, of Communication and Journalism,

University of MumbaiUniversity of Mumbai 9696

There are often a number of ways to credibly There are often a number of ways to credibly move from questions to answers with each move from questions to answers with each part giving a different perspectives.part giving a different perspectives.


Sampling Methods

Sampling is the term used to refer to selecting people or units for inclusion in a research study

It is important for the sample to be representative of the entire group.


Population – is an entire set of objects, observations or scores that have some characteristic in common

An entire population for a study would be large

Therefore one uses a sample


Sample

Refers to terms or units that a researcher actually includes in the study

Generalizable – refers to the notion that the results of studying a sample can be assumed to be true of the entire population.


Primary task is to identify appropriate sample Secondary task involves identifying all members of

that group and determining how each could be contacted for inclusion in the study

The final step involves identifying the method that will be used to select members of the accessible population for inclusion in the sample that is contacted for the study


Selecting a Sample Design

To use probability or non probability sampling Probability samplings involves random

selection of participants that guarantees that each member of the population has as equal chance of being selected

Non-probability designs involve selecting members of the accessible population in a non random manner


Probability Sampling

Involves randomly selecting participants for the population so that all potential participants have an equal chance of being selected for the study

Eliminate any potential bias by ensuring that each person in the population has as equal chance of being chosen


Types of Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Samples Systematic Samples


Simple Random Samples

Considered the purest method of collecting samples.

Ensures that each member has equal chance of being selected for the study

The researcher makes a random decision who will be included in the sample

Two forms of randomization used to selected ensure the validity of the study

Random Assignment and Random sample


Random sample refers to the selection of study participants

Random assignment refers to how the researcher assigns the sample drawn from the population of the various groups within the study.

Random sampling allows the researcher to generalize the results to the population, thus enhancing the external validity of the study

Its also allows the researcher to strengthen the internal validity of the study by ensuring that participants are randomly assigned to the conditions being examined


Stratified Random Sampling

This procedure enables the researchers to divide the population into specific strata, know as subsets of the population that have a common characteristic

Participants are randomly selected from the strata that have been identified

Eg male and female, congress and bjp supporters etc


Cluster Sampling

Allows a researcher to identify naturally occurring clusters of participants who have a variable in common within the target population

For e.g. if you want to conduct a study of college students across the country, the researcher divides the country into region; west; east, north and south; the sampling will involve selecting the region from which to select participants, once the region is selected then random sampling is conducted


Systematic Samples

It involves selecting a sample by determining the sample size needed from the population and selecting every ‘nth’ person from the population for inclusion in the study.

This method is effective as simple random sampling as long as there is no systematic order to the listing of population.


Non-probability Samples

Not selected randomly selected A greater chance of bias existing in the

results Why use non –probability sampling?- Some instances a study might be examining

a variable or phenomenon that is new- Efficiency of cost and time associated with

finding participants


Types of non-probability

Convenience Volunteer Purposive Quota Network/Snowball


Convenience Sampling

Based on availability E.g. the questionnaire you asked your

classmate to fill as he was there


Volunteer Sampling

Volunteer may be participating to study Volunteer samples are recruited by offering

participants a reward in exchange for their time

The participants may choose whether or not to be a part of the sample population


Purposive Samples

Involves nonrandomly selecting participants to fulfill or meet a specific purpose the researcher has in mind

Sample is selected based on specific characteristics the researcher is investigating

For e.g. to study the perspective taught in public relations courses, only students who have enrolled in the public relations course will be interviewed


Quota Samples

To obtain quota samples participants are separated into strata or groups based on a common characteristic or variable and then participants from each group are selected non randomly for inclusion in the study


Network/ Snowballing

Asking participants to refer researchers to other people who could serve as participants

Is used in instances where a variable or characteristic being studied is rare or difficult to identify in a population


Content analysis

According to Neuendorf, content analysis is a ‘summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific method (including attention to objectivity – intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalization, replicability and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented’.


It may be conducted on written text, transcribed speech, verbal interactions, visual images, characterizations, non verbal behaviours, sound events or any other type of message

It can be used to examine a wide range of different communication phenomena.


The major purpose of content analysis is to identify patterns in text.

Content analysis is an extremely broad area of research.

Thematic analysis of text Indexing Quantitative descriptive analysis

Thematic analysis

The identification of themes or major ideas in a document or set of documents.

The documents can be any kind of text including field notes, newspaper articles, technical papers or organizational memos.


Indexing There are a wide variety of automated methods for

rapidly indexing text documents. For instance, Key Words in Context (KWIC)

analysis is a computer analysis of text data. A computer program scans the text and indexes

all key words. A key word is any term in the text that is not

included in an exception dictionary. Typically you would set up an exception dictionary

that includes all non-essential words like "is", "and", and "of".


All key words are alphabetized and are listed with the text that precedes and follows it so the researcher can see the word in the context in which it occurred in the text.

In an analysis of interview text, for instance, one could easily identify all uses of the term "abuse" and the context in which they were used.


Quantitative descriptive analysis

Here the purpose is to describe features of the text quantitatively.

For instance, you might want to find out which words or phrases were used most frequently in the text.

Again, this type of analysis is most often done directly with computer programs


Demerits First, you are limited to the types of information

available in text form. If you are studying the way a news story is

being handled by the news media, you probably would have a ready population of news stories from which you could sample.

However, if you are interested in studying people's views on capital punishment, you are less likely to find an archive of text documents that would be appropriate


Second, you have to be especially careful with sampling in order to avoid bias

For instance, a study of current research on methods of treatment for cancer might use the published literature as the population. This would leave out both the writing on cancer that did not get published for one reason or another as well as the most recent work that has not yet been published


THE END


research methodology

Education

hinduja college

kind of research

purpose of research

analytical sneha subhedar

clifford woody research

causal relationship

formulating hypothesis

suggested solutions