Chapter 8

Recruitment and Selection

Olivia Kyriakidou

Intended Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the personnel selection system and its component parts

2. Understand the role played by the rational and objective staffing technologies,

including job analysis and recruitment and selection methods

3. Critically assess the concern with the selection-performance relationship that

underlines the personnel staffing agenda

4. Come to terms with the fact that employees are not simple ‘human resources’

that can be selected, recruited, controlled and processed, but human beings

characterised by agency, subjectivity and reflexivity

5. Consider the international implications of recruitment and selection, analyse

the different selection methods for expatriates and develop effective methods

in selecting expatriate managers.

6. Understand the necessity of studying recruitment and selection from a critical

perspective exploring, in particular, their ethical dimensions

7. Identify future theoretical and practical challenges in the field of recruitment

and selection research.

Introduction

Recruitment and selection are seminal topics within human resource management,

ensuring that organisations have the necessary human skills, knowledge and

capabilities that will enable the organisation to continue into the future. Recent

recognition of the strategic potential of recruitment and selection to enhance

organisational performance put a lot of emphasis on getting the ‘right person’ for a

post (see also Chapter 2). Selecting the ‘right person’, means that the personnel

recruitment and selection agenda should be dominated by a concern with

formalisation, enshrined in its language of ‘objectivity’, ‘reliability’, and ‘validity’,

and a technology and method which attempts to maximise ‘decision-making

accuracy’, as well as a concern with the selection-performance relationship. In most

HRM practice, performance is conceptualised in strict economic terms excluding

consideration of issues of fairness and acceptability to whatever individuals, groups or

authorities that might take an interest in selection decisions. Moreover, formalisation

refers to the use of formal methods which are supposed to aid an objective, fair and

rational selection decision, guarding at the same time against inefficiency and

discrimination through the use of scientifically validated techniques. This agenda

prescribes practices which, if followed properly, should guarantee the ‘truth’ of

selection decisions producing a better match between the individual and the

organisation at the point of selection and should remove ethical uneasiness from

personnel decision-making (see also Chapter 5).

Underpinning this assumption is the idea that the information identified as central or

critical to good selection decisions can be understood as relatively neutral. By neutral

it is meant that the content of knowledge, skills and ability profiles is treated as

largely reflecting the reality of the role of the person. However, there is a considerable

danger of managers having too much faith in the neutrality and the predictive powers

of selection techniques and procedures that tend to ignore the amount of human

interpretation and intuition involved in all staffing activities. A more critical way of

thinking indicates that selection processes should not exclude broader moral, social

and political considerations (Janssens & Steyaert, 2009) embedded on a pluralist

approach that stresses the existence of divergent interests within organisations as well

as the role of human agency, subjectivity and reflexivity on the enactment of certain

types of personnel selection technologies.

Such a critical way of thinking is further strengthened by research studies exploring

the international dimensions of personnel selection. For instance, it has been reported

that consistent with the national culture, organizations in the USA typically have

cultures that emphasise individual achievement, competition and rationality (Stone &

Stone-Romero, 2004). As a result, the ideal job applicant in organizations is one who

is individualistic and achievement oriented (Syed, 2004). In such situations,

individuals who come from collectivist societies could be disadvantaged during the

processes of personnel recruitment and selection. Similarly, Bevelander (1999)

highlights the fact that in many countries, a lot of monotonous jobs that used to

involve low or unskilled labour are increasingly replaced by jobs that require higher

communicative and social abilities as well as culture-specific social competence and

language skills. Such an orientation, however, towards specific social skills mainly

possessed by the native-born may lead to personnel recruitment and selection

practices which are not sensitive to the cultural diversity of the labour force.

The structure of this chapter is as follows. In the first section we explore the classical

theories and current research that underpin the three basic elements of a personnel

selection system: a) studying the job to be performed, b) recruiting a pool of

applicants for the job, and c) selecting the ‘best’ from the applicant pool. Such an

exploration will be enriched by international considerations and implications for

recruitment and selection, with a special focus on expatriate managers. Finally, we

adopt a critical perspective which tries to reveal the ethical issues that underpin

personnel staffing and problematise the currently strong relationship between

selection practices and performance.

Stages of recruitment and selection

Most recruitment and selection procedures involve several stages that occur over time.

The process usually includes a job analysis (see also Chapter 7) that results in job

description and personnel specification in order to uncover all the qualities that are

necessary to perform the job successfully, an initial recognition of the need for new

staff (see also Chapter 6), recruitment advertising, followed by pre-screening

applicants, and final selection decisions and induction of new employees into the

organisation. This systems view is generally based on the traditional predictivist

perspective on selection, which views the job as a given and stable entity into which

the most suitable candidate needs to be recruited. Person-job fit is therefore of

primary importance. Figure 1 illustrates the whole process and is reasonably self-

explanatory in terms of the critical objectives and key activities at each phase.

Figure 1

The recruitment and selection process

Critical objectives

To attract a suitablequality and quantity ofapplicants

To reduce applicantnumbers to manageableproportions

To conduct in-depthassessments and reachsuitability decisions

To facilitate transitioninto new work role

Key activities

Recognition of the need for new HRs

Job analysis: Job description, person specification

Recruitment of applicants: advertisements, agencies

Candidate decision-making

Pre-screening techniques

Organisational and candidate decision-making

Candidate assessment techniques: interview,Work sample, psychometric tests, assessment centre

Organisational and candidate decision-making

Offer of employment: Reference/testimonial, terms and conditions

Candidate decision-making

Induction procedures: placement, training needs analysis,review and appraisal

Validation

Phase IRecruitment

Phase IIPre-screening

Phase IIIAssessment

Phase IVInduction

The advantage of taking such a ‘systems view’ of selection is that it provides a

holistic overview of the entire process underlying two pertinent issues: bilateral

decision-making and validation feedback loops. First, decisions are made by both the

recruiter and the candidate at several points in the process, supporting the

constructivist perspective that both parties consider possible employment options and

make decisions over whether to accept a working relationship with each other.

Selection therefore serves as an opportunity for information exchange and the

development of mutual expectations and obligations. Hence, from this perspective,

selection aims to ensure not only person-job fit but also person-organisation fit (that

is, the fit between the applicant’s values and organisational culture) and person-team

fit (that is, the fit between the applicant’s skills and attitudes and the climate of the

immediate working group).

Second, the systems view highlights the importance of the validation feedback loop.

In larger scale selection processes, where numerous recruitment decisions are reached

over a period of time, the crucial question from the organisation’s perspective is:

‘How accurate are these decisions in selecting individuals who subsequently turn out

to be effective job performers?’ This question has driven much of the research from

the psychometric perspective. Validation feedback loops recycle information on the

effectiveness of selection decisions into the selection process at different stages in

order to modify and improve the procedure.

Job analysis

The traditional role of job analysis is to provide a fixed starting point for all

subsequent steps in the selection process. Job analysis refers to one or more

procedures designed to collect information about the tasks people perform and the

skills they require to do the jobs effectively. It is a process for describing what is done

in any job, not the best way to do it, nor what it is worth to have the job done. Job

analysis traditionally seeks for the following information:

Work activities, including both individual behaviours and job outcomes

Machines, tools, equipment and work aids used

Job-related tangibles and intangibles, such as materials processed and

knowledge applied, respectively

Standards of work performance

Job context

Personnel requirements, such as education, experience, aptitudes and so forth.

The end product of job analysis is often a job description, which is a factual statement

of the tasks, responsibilities, and working conditions of a particular job. Box 1

presents an example of a job description for a first-level supervisor post. The job

description should also include elements of contextual performance, as there is still

the tendency to focus upon specific, discrete tasks and ignore contextual aspects such

as maintaining morale, courtesy and other citizenship behaviours (Viswesvaran &

Ones, 2000). There may also be a person specification, which details the knowledge,

skills, abilities, experiences and attributes or attitudes required to perform the job

effectively.

However, Hough and Oswald (2000) indicate that, in recognition of the increasingly

rapid changes that are taking place in the workplace, job analysis should focus on

tasks and the cross-functional skills of workers, including information on personality,

cognitive, behavioural and situational variables, rather than on more static aspects of

jobs. Moreover, in many selection situations, the requirement to understand the job is

made particularly complex and difficult, because the job in question is likely to be

radically different in ways that are very difficult to predict within as little as 5 or

maybe 10 years. Finally, at the managerial / professional level someone may be

employed to fulfil objectives or agendas as opposed to specific tasks. In such

instances, Cascio (1995) says that what can often remain is something more ‘person-

like’ than ‘job-like’, insofar as the job (as a set of objectives or agendas) is

idiosyncratically defined and enacted.

The recruitment process

In most reviews of recruitment research, authors (e.g., Rynes & Cable, 2003) have

offered organising models of the recruitment process. Figure 2 presents a model

developed by Breaugh et al. (2008). Given the detailed nature of the model, we will

Box 1

Job analysis: First-Level Supervisor – Department of Operations

Performance dimensions and task statements:

Organising work; assigning work; monitoring work; managing consequences; counselling, efficiency review, and discipline; setting an example; employee development.

KSAOs and definitions:

Organising; analysis and decision making; planning; communication (oral and written; delegation; work habits; carefulness; interpersonal skill; job knowledge; organisational knowledge; toughness; integrity; development of other; listening.

Predictor Measures

Multiple-choice in-basket exercise

(assume role of new supervisor and work through in-basket on desk)

Structured panel interview

(predetermined questions about past experiences relevant to the KSAOs)

Presentation exercise

(make presentation to a simulated work group about change in their work hours)

Writing sample

(prepare a written reprimand for a fictitious employee)

Training and experience evaluation exercise

(give examples of training and work achievements relevant to certain KSAOs)

not provide a thorough discussion of all of its contents. However, a key part of Figure

2, the box labelled ‘Intervening Job Applicant Variables’, does merit elaboration.

Although some of these variables (e.g., what makes a position attractive) have

received attention, many other variables (e.g., attracting applicant attention, applicant

self-insight) have received almost no attention from recruitment researchers (Breaugh

et al., 2008). A consideration of the job applicant variables portrayed in Figure 2

should play a central role in how an employer plans its recruitment process. For

example, if an employer is interested in attracting the attention of individuals who are

not currently looking for jobs, many commonly used (and commonly studied)

recruitment methods (e.g., newspaper advertisements, job fairs) may not be

particularly effective. Similarly, if an organisation hopes to improve

person–job/organisation fit by providing realistic information during the recruitment

process, applicant self-insight is important to consider (without such insight, even

having received the information, an applicant may not be able to evaluate whether the

position described represents a good fit). Research (see Breaugh et al., 2008; Rynes &

Cable, 2003) has found that many job applicants: (a) have an incomplete and/or

inaccurate understanding of what a job opening involves, (b) are not sure what they

want from a position, (c) do not have a self-insight with regard to their knowledge,

skills, and abilities, and (d) cannot accurately predict how they will react to the

demands of a new position.

Figure 2

A model of the recruitment process

Recruitment ObjectivesFilling ‘X’ number of positionsType of applicant sought:• education• knowledge, skills, ability• work experience• interests• diversityTime frameNumber of applicantsJob performance of new hiresNew hire retentions rateJob satisfaction of new hires

Strategy DevelopmentWhom to recruit?Where to recruit?Timing of activities?How to reach targeted

individualsWhat message to

communicate?Whom to use as recruiters?Nature of site visit?Nature of job offer?Budget considerations?

Recruitment ActivitiesMethods usedInformation conveyed:• completeness• realism• timelinessRecruiters usedHosting the site visitExtending the job offer

Intervening JobApplicant VariablesApplicant attentionMessage credibilityApplicant interest:• position attractiveness• expectancy of job offer• alternative opportunities• person-job / organisation fitAccuracy of expectationsApplicant self-insightApplicant decision-making

process

RecruitmentResults

Recruiting methods

External recruitment

Having done a thorough job analysis and produced an accurate job description,

including a realistic person specification, the organisation is now ready to start

recruiting potential applicants. With regard to the term external recruitment, it could

be defined as encompassing an employer’s actions that are intended to: a) bring a job

opening to the attention of potential job candidates who do not currently work for the

organisation, b) influence whether these individuals apply for the opening, c) affect

whether they maintain interest in the position until a job offer is extended, and d)

influence whether a job offer is accepted.

External recruitment sources

The type of recruitment method(s) (Table 1) an employer uses may make a difference.

The two most common explanations for why this might happen (Zottoli & Wanous,

2000) have been labeled the ‘realistic information’ hypothesis and the ‘individual

difference’ hypothesis. Simply stated, the realistic information hypothesis suggests

that individuals recruited via certain methods such as employee referrals have a more

accurate understanding of what a position involves. The individual difference

hypothesis posits that different recruitment methods may bring a job opening to the

attention of different types of individuals who vary on important attributes (e.g.,

ability, work ethic).

Table 1

External recruitment sources

Employee referrals Advantages: low cost/hire, high quality hires, decreased hiring time, opportunities to strengthen the bond with current employees. Employees carefully pre-screen applicants due to the activation of a reputation protection mechanism, they provide ‘difficult to obtain information, coaching and press their referrals to perform.

Job advertisements Ads with more information result in job openings being viewed as more attractive and more credible, increasing applicant interest and resulting in better person-organisation fit. The inclusion of pictures of minorities seems to increase the attraction of diverse applicants to the organisation

Internet / employer’s web site

They generate a large number of applicants at relatively low cost and their effectiveness depends upon the employer’s visibility and reputation, as well as aesthetics, the content and the function of the web site. A potential limitation is that a firm may be inundated with applications from individuals who are not good candidates for the positions. As a way to address this issue, given its interactive capability, a web site could provide feedback concerning person-job/organisational fit to potential applicants.

Universities, colleges and placement offices

They are source of people with specialised skills for professional positions. The choice of colleges and universities might depend on past experiences with students at the school, the quality of recent hires, offer acceptance rates and skills, experience and training in the desired areas, ranking of school quality and costs of recruiting at a particular school.

Co-ops, internships and job fairs

They are part-time working arrangements which allow the organisation to obtain services from a part-time employee for a short period of time, but they also allow the organisation the opportunity to assess the person for a full-time position after graduation.

Employment agencies and executive search firms

A source of nonexempt and lower-level exempt employees is employment agencies. For higher-level positions, executive search firms, or “headhunters” may be used. Care must be exercised in selecting an employment agency as many agencies might flood the organisation with CVs without careful screening and may misrepresent the organisation to the candidate and the candidate to the organisation if they are only concerned with a quick placement and pay no regard to the costs of poor future relationships with clients.

Recruiter effect. Chapman et al. (2005) found that individuals who viewed a recruiter

as having been personable, trustworthy, informative, and/or competent were more

attracted to a position with the recruiter’s organisation. A recruiter’s behaviour can be

very important as the way they treat an applicant may be viewed as a signal of how

the person would be treated if hired. Rynes et al. (1991) have found that recruiters

were “associated with changes in many job seekers’ assessment of fit over time – 16

of 41 individuals mentioned recruiters or other corporate representatives as reasons

for deciding that an initially favored company was no longer a good fit, whereas an

identical number mentioned recruiters as a reason for changing an initial impression

of poor fit into a positive one” (p. 59). Finally, Breaugh et al (2008) underline the

importance of different types of recruiters because a) they vary in the amount of job-

related information they possess, b) they differ in terms of their credibility in the eyes

of recruits, and c) they signal different things to job candidates.

Finally, with regard to the relative importance of recruitment vis-à-vis position

characteristics, conventional wisdom is that position attributes such as pay, job tasks,

and work hours are more important to job applicants than such recruitment variables

as the content of a job advertisement, the design of a company’s employment web

site, or a recruiter’s behaviour. Comparisons of the relative impact of recruitment

variables and position attributes have resulted in some individuals questioning

whether the manner in which an employer recruits is important. In this context, two

factors should be considered. First, if an employer does a poor job of recruiting, it

may not bring job openings to the attention of the type of persons it seeks to recruit.

Secondly, even if a position is brought to the attention of targeted individuals, poor

treatment during the recruitment process may result in individuals withdrawing as job

candidates before an employer has had a chance to even present a job offer (Boswell

et al., 2003).

Internal recruitment

The objective of the internal recruitment process is to identify and attract applicants

from among individuals already holding jobs with the organisation (Table 2). Many

organisations have recognized that careful management of their existing employee

base may be a cost-effective way to fill upper-level managerial and professional

vacancies.

Table 2

Internal recruitment sources

Job postings It spells out the duties and requirements of the job, shows how applicants can apply and its content should be based on the job description and should clearly define the KSAOs needed to perform the job. The main

characteristics that lead to high satisfaction by users include the adequacy of job descriptions and job notification procedures, the treatment received during the interview, the helpfulness of counselling and the provision of constructive feedback, and the fairness of the job posting system.

Intranet and intraplacement

It informs employees quickly for job postings and prospects inside the organisation. Some companies include an online career centre where employees can also gain access to information about KSAOs needed for positions that might interest them.

Talent management system

It monitors and tracks the utilization of employee skills and abilities throughout the organisation

Career development centres

They provide employees with opportunities to take interest inventories, assess their personal career goals, and discuss with representatives across the organisation. In this way, employees learn about themselves, have a chance to explain the career options within the organisation and develop methods to structure internal career paths that match the interests of their employees.

Replacement and succession plans

Succession plans are organised by position and list the skills needed for the prospective position.

Realistic job previews

A realistic job preview (provided through work simulations and work tours among

others) requires that employers should provide recruits with candid information

concerning the pleasant but also the unpleasant aspects of the job as a way to address

inaccurate job expectations and decrease turnover.

Three important job applicant-related variables (i.e., anchoring and adjustment,

inability to predict how one will react to events in the future, and a lack of self-sight)

need to be highlighted in the context of realistic job previews (RJPs). Concerning

anchoring and adjustment, research in social psychology (see Kruglanski & Sleeth-

Keppler, 2007) has found that, having formed an initial attitude concerning a topic,

individuals typically do not sufficiently adjust this attitude after receiving additional

relevant information. This suggests that providing an RJP to an applicant who already

has an opinion of what a position with an employer involves may not result in an

adequate adjustment of this initial opinion.

Moreover, Dunning (2007) has shown that people who are asked to predict how they

will react to a future state of events with which they lack experience typically are

unable to make accurate predictions. This inability to predict one’s reactions means

that, even if an organisation provides descriptive information about what a job

involves, an RJP recipient may have difficulty anticipating how he or she will react to

various aspects of the new job. This inability to predict one’s reactions can at least

partially be overcome if an RJP includes information that is both descriptive (i.e.,

factual) and judgmental (i.e., addresses the reactions other employees have to the job

attributes) (Breaugh et al., 2008).

The effectiveness of an RJP can also be limited by a lack of applicant self-insight

concerning one’s abilities or what one wants in a job. Schmeichel and Vohs (2009)

indicate that individuals frequently lack self-insight and typically have an inflated

view of their abilities. Finally, RJPs could be used not only for entry-level hiring, but

also for internal recruitment. For example, a study by Caligiuri and Phillips (2003)

described how an employer successfully used an RJP to help current employees make

decisions concerning overseas assignments. Templer, Tay, and Chandrasekar (2006)

also documented the effectiveness of an RJP in facilitating cross-cultural adjustment

for employees transferred to non-U.S. assignments.

Personnel selection methods

Application forms, curricula vitae and references

CVs and application forms are used as a straightforward way of giving a standardized

synopsis of the applicant’s history in order to pre-screen applicants and generate a

shortlist to be invited to the next stage. To facilitate effective pre-screening decision-

making, an application form should ideally be designed according to the selection

criteria and a systematic screening process adhered to. However, research into

graduate recruitment suggests that the typical process is far from systematic (Knights

& Raffo, 1990), and this can clearly impact negatively on the selection process in the

longer term. Moreover, there is evidence that suggests that the inclusion of

competency statements in CVs (e.g., ‘I am highly motivated with a proven track

record in achieving goals and targets’) increased the probability of producing an

invitation to an interview (Earl, Bright & Adams, 1998). Although application forms

are very popular in the UK, there are cultural differences across Europe with standard

application documents being more popular in Germany and curricula vitae being more

prevalent in Denmark (Shackleton & Newell, 1997).

References involve the assessment of an individual by a third party; for example, the

applicant’s previous employer. The use of references is more common in the UK,

Ireland and Belgium than in France, Sweden, the Netherlands and Portugal

(Shackleton & Newell, 1997). References may involve either an open-ended format or

a structured format with questions developed from selection criteria. References may

serve at least two purposes: first, to confirm the accuracy of information provided by

the applicant; second, to obtain information on the applicant’s previous work

experience and performance. However, references suffer from problems of restriction

of range, low predictive validity, low inter-rated reliability, low criterion-related and

leniency, with few applicants given negative evaluations, suggesting that not too

much reliance should be placed upon their content (Shackleton & Newell, 1997).

Their validity could be improved when references are sought on a criterion-specific

basis (Smith & George, 1992) or by structuring references in the form of systematic

ratings of ‘personality’ (Mount, Barrick, & Strauss, 1994). References are therefore

rarely used in the decision-making process, but are more likely to be used merely as a

final check before any job offer is made.

Selection interviews

The use of interviews as selection technique continues unabated. In organisations

around the world, selection interviews continue to be one of the most frequently used

methods to assess candidates for employment (Wilk & Cappelli, 2003). McDaniel,

Whetzel, Schmidt and Maurer (1994: 599) define the interview as a ‘procedure

designed to predict future job performance on the basis of applicants’ oral responses

to oral enquiries’. Guion (1998), however, cautions against this generic definition

because it assumes that interviews are monolithic entities like tests. Beyond

everything else, we should keep in mind that the selection interview is a social

interaction where the interviewer and applicant exchange and process the information

gathered from each other.

The clearest boundary can be drawn between the traditional unstructured (measuring

for example social skills and aspects of personality) and more structured forms of

interview (measuring for example cognitive ability, tacit or job knowledge).

Traditionally, interviews are used merely to form a global impression about applicant

job suitability including whether they would ‘fit in’, rather than asking them job-

related questions. By contrast, structured interviews involve a series of job-related

questions with pre-determined answers consistently applied across all interviews for a

particular job (that is, standardisation of questions, question sequence, interview

length, evaluation, and so on). Probably the most consistent finding in interview

research is that interviewer judgments based on structured interviews are more

predictive of job performance than those from unstructured interviews (Dipboye,

Wooten and Halverson, 2004).

The two main ways of structuring interviews are situational interviewing and

behaviour description interviewing. The situational interview (Latham & Saari, 1984),

that assumes that intentions and behaviours are related, tries to elicit from candidates

how they would respond to particular work situations. The situational questions can

be developed using the critical incident technique of job analysis that tries to identify

the behaviours critical to effective performance on the job. This is then translated into

a question about a hypothetical but job-relevant situation. A scoring guide is

developed for evaluating an interviewee’s response to each question by providing

exemplars of behavioural responses to that question. An example of a situational

interview (Box 2) taken from Latham and Saari (1984: 571) is as follows:

Box 2

Example of a situational interview

For the past week you have been consistently getting the jobs that are the most time-

consuming (for example, poor handwriting, complex statistical work). You know it’s

nobody’s fault because you have been taking the jobs in priority order. You have just

picked your fourth job of the day and it’s another ‘loser’. What would you do?

Interviewees offer unstructured responses that are then scored against benchmark

answers. The benchmark answers for the example question are 1 = Thumb through the

pile and take another job (poor); 3 = Complain but do the job anyway (average); 5 =

Take the job without complaining and do it (good).

The behavioural description interview is a variant of the situational interview (Janz,

1982). However, whether the situational interview invites applicants to respond to

questions in the light of how they might behave, the behavioural interview requires

examination of how the applicant actually behaved in the past when encountering

similar incidents (assuming that past behaviour predicts future behaviour).

Interestingly, panel interviews, also referred to as board interviews or team

interviews, involving multiple raters of the same set of applicants, are another means

of adding structure and are expected to result in increased reliability and validity than

comparably structured one-to-one interviews, despite their considerably higher

administrative costs (Conway, Jako, & Goodman, 1995). However, the relational

demography and the racial composition of the interview panel may affect judgments

in ways consistent with similarity – attraction and social identity theories showing

same-race biases (McFarland, Ryan, Sacco & Krista, 2004; Buckley, Jackson, Bolino,

Veres & Field, 2007). Moreover, Herriott (2003) has suggested that the process of

discussion among individual raters can substantially distort the consensual score

through conformity and polarization effects implying that it is perhaps better to obtain

individual ratings from panel members before discussion.

Despite the evidence showing that interviews containing high levels of structure can

be valid predictors, surveys show that managers, HR professionals, and organisations

infrequently use them and most HR professionals reported using interviews with a

moderate degree of structure as it affords them more autonomy and ownership

(Lievens & De Paepe, 2004). The use of less structured interviews is related with

interviewers’ concerns about a) having discretion in how the interview is conducted,

b) losing the informal, personal contact with the applicant, and c) the time demands in

developing structured interviews (Lievens & De Paepe, 2004). There is also the

tendency for operational and HR personnel to use ‘satisficing’ versus maximising

selection practices. Finally, when interviewers are required to justify the procedures

they followed in making their ratings – procedure accountability – are more likely to

use structured interview procedures and make better judgments (Brtek & Motowildo,

2002).

In practice, there is tension between increasing structure (that is, to enhance validity)

and avoiding adverse reaction. Whilst the unstructured interview may be charged with

being overly personal, the highly structured interview may create adverse reaction

because it is perceived as ‘depersonalising’. Overall, applicants demonstrate a distinct

preference for the unstructured over the structured interview (Hough & Oswald,

2000). Also, the less structured the interview, the more symbolic opportunity there is

for the applicant to get a feel for the organisation and its culture (via the interviewer),

enabling more realistic acceptance decisions (Anderson, 2001). Box 3 highlights the

dilemmas behind the use of highly structured interview formats.

Applicant factors and characteristics

Recent research has found effects in relation to subtle discrimination. Frazer and

Wiersma (2001) found that one week after conducting interviews, interviewers

recalled African-American applicants as having given less intelligent answers

compared to White applicants. Similarly, Purkiss, Perrewe, Gillespie, Mayes and

Ferris (2006) observed that those applicants with both an ethnic name and

corresponding accent received the least favourable interviewer ratings, whereas

applicants with a Hispanic name but no accent were evaluated most favourably. This

result provides support for expectancy violation theory (Jussim, Coleman, & Learch,

1987). The applicants with Hispanic names were likely expected to speak with an

accent. When they did not, thus violating expectations, they were viewed more

positively. Finally, there is evidence suggesting the existence of selection biases

against overweight applicants, especially when interviewers perceive the applicants’

obesity as controllable (Kutcher & Bragger, 2004), and Bragger and his colleagues

(2002) indicate that pregnancy discrimination claims are the fastest growing type of

employment discrimination charge.

Biodata

The use of biodata for employee selection has a long history and many researchers

(e.g., Ployhart, Schneider & Schmitt, 2006) have concluded that biodata is one of the

best selection devices for predicting employee performance and turnover. Biodata

forms typically assess factual and sometimes also attitudinal factors that seek

biographical information, or descriptions of individuals’ life histories using a

retrospective, quasi-longitudinal, self-report format and should be defined only in

terms of an applicant’s past behaviour and experience (Mael, 1991). These past

Box 3

Does your company need a highly structured interview format?

David Hill was tiring. Having sat on Speed’s interview panel conducting graduate

‘milk round’ interviews over the past five days at the company’s Athens offices, he

had become so accustomed to the structured format that he could totally recite the

standardised questions asked of all candidates in reverse order if so required. More

to the point, his two line management colleagues on the interview panel had need

strict chairing throughout the interviewing process, as both had pronounced

tendencies to stray away from the structured format. One in particular, John Oliver,

the Director of Speed Production, could not on occasions resist the temptation of

asking candidates questions on their personal and family circumstances. This was

especially unfortunate, David Hill felt, given that the company had paid a firm of

HRM consultants a considerable sum to introduce a highly structured interview

format. Still, he mused to himself, only one more candidate to see today and they

would be finished. He glanced at the clock – 5.00 p.m. – settled back into his chair,

composed himself and enquired of his fellow panel members whether they were

ready for the last interviewee.

Critical Questions:

Was David Hill correct to commission a firm of HRM consultants to develop a

highly structured interview format?

If structure is a ‘good thing’ in terms of improving interview validity and

reliability, can there be situations where structure is disadvantageous?

How should the chair of an interview panel deal with maverick interviewers who

either

Deviate from the standardised format;

Ask personal or intrusive questions?

behaviours and experiences can reflect events that occurred in a work context (e.g.,

quit a job without giving notice), an educational setting (e.g., graduated from college),

a family environment (e.g., travelled considerably growing up), community activities

(e.g., volunteer of a not-for-profit organisation), or other domains (e.g., active in local

politics, religious activities, whether they know people who work for the

organisation). Biodata items are often referred to as ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ items

respectively, in that the former are potentially verifiable whereas the latter are not.

Finally, research suggests that biodata scales can be developed so as to be useful in

different organisations since the biodata items are relevant to a given job (e.g.,

insurance agent, supervisor) regardless of the organisation and Dalessio, Crosby and

McManus, (1996) argue that a biodata scale that has been found to be valid in one

country will have value if used in other countries.

A concern that has been raised with using biodata is adverse impact against members

of protected groups (e.g., Sharf, 1994). Drakeley (1989) also criticises the model for

being derived from work primarily involving ‘classification’ of North American

university students and thus no generalisable to other populations. Given some of the

items that have been used (e.g., age, educational level), this concern seems

appropriate. In particular, biodata items that reflect cognitive ability (e.g., college

grade point average) are likely to result in adverse impact. Given there is not a lot of

research regarding adverse impact, it seems prudent for an organisation to examine

each biodata item it is considering using. Applicants might also be likely to react

negatively to items that are perceived as lacking job relatedness, that are perceived as

fakable, and that are perceived as overly personal in nature.

Psychometric tests

A test can be defined as a standardized measure of aptitude, knowledge, ability or

performance administered and scored using fixed rules, most of them statistical, and

procedures. All psychometric tests are scaled using a fine graded numerical system

and a set of statistical formulae to ensure reliability and validity. Most psychometric

tests are also norm-referenced such that the range and distribution of scores obtained

from many different types of sample provide group-specific norms against which to

compare an individual’s score. The scores for a managerial applicant, for example, are

examined with reference to the most closely matching set of norms (that is,

managerial). Reference to norms can also demonstrate whether the test is

‘transportable’ from one context to another. For example, it is only fairly recently that

UK norms for the well-known and much-used US-developed 16 Personality Factors

Test (16PF) have become available. Finally, there is variation across Europe in

relation to the use of psychometrics, with Britain, Belgium and Portugal making more

substantial use than Germany or Italy (Shackleton & Newell, 1997). Psychometric

tests can be divided into two main categories: cognitive ability tests and personality

tests.

Cognitive ability tests

Since the very earliest research on personnel selection, cognitive ability has been one

of the major methods used to attempt to discriminate between candidates and to

predict subsequent performance. Cognitive ability tests (CATs) can be classified

somewhat arbitrarily as achievement tests, specific aptitude tests, and general mental

ability (GMA) tests. Achievement tests measure skills that have already been acquired

and tap current knowledge or ability in a particular ability domain, usually as a

function of education or training. Aptitude tests look at what one is capable of doing

in the future, usually in specific domains like mechanical aptitude, spatial and

perceptual ability, verbal and numerical aptitude and psychomotor ability. GMA tests,

are designed to give an indication of overall mental capacity indicative of overall

capability for acquiring and using knowledge, passing examinations and succeeding at

work. A variety of questions are included in such tests, including vocabulary,

analogies, similarities, opposites, arithmetic, number extension and general

information. Many meta-analytic studies (e.g., Salgado et al., 2003; Schmidt &

Hunter, 1998) have produced conclusive results concerning not only the validity of

cognitive validity, but also that the core dimension of cognitive ability (general

mental ability, or ‘g’) is the key component in providing predictions of subsequent job

performance.

The idea nonetheless of using only an ability test score to select someone is highly

controversial, underpinned by moral as well as legal debate. For years it has been

consistently argued that ability testing does not produce differentially unfair

predictions for different groups of people. Recently, however, there are findings

suggesting that ability testing is unfair to minority groups, with over 60 percent of

Blacks likely to be incorrectly rejected for a job (Chung-Yan & Cranshaw, 2002).

This finding is set to cast the legal and moral debate into a completely different

landscape and has prompted some to develop latent intelligence tests presented as

work samples (Klingner & Schuler, 2004). They are potentially costly to develop

because they ‘sample’ work pertinent to particular occupational groups or jobs, but

they may signal one constructive way forward on the issue of how to balance

efficiency needs with legal imperatives and psychological concerns.

Moreover, some maintain that many jobs, especially managerial jobs, presuppose

‘tacit’ knowledge or action-oriented ‘know how’ rather than ability per se (Sternberg

& Wagner, 1995), ‘emotional intelligence’ (ability to perceive, understand and

manage emotion) (Goleman, 1996) and at least some level of commitment (Meyer &

Allen, 1997). Reviews, however, show that tests of tacit knowledge, emotional

intelligence and ‘practical’ intelligence do not produce better predictive or

incremental validities than CATs (Salgado, 1999) indicating that they are just

different ways of referring to ‘job knowledge’ (Schmidt & Hunter, 1993). Finally, the

increased cognitive demands of today’s technologically complex, fast-paced,

consumer oriented economic environment underline the fact that GMA might

seriously matter to performance.

Personality inventories

Personality measures are increasingly being used by managers and human resource

professionals to evaluate the suitability of job applicants for positions across many

levels in an organisation. There are many different types of personality measure, each

assuming a certain number of traits and trait structures. Cattell’s (1965) work led to

the development of the now renowned 16PF, one of the most widely used measure of

personality in the occupational context. A contrary view is provided by the Eysenck

Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck, 1982) that assumes a three-factor

personality model: extroversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism.

The contemporary view is that there are five super-ordinate trait dimensions (the so-

called ‘big five’ or FFM) on which all people can be described (Costa & McCrae,

1990):

Extroversion. The degree to which someone is talkative, sociable, active,

aggressive, and excitable.

Agreeableness. The degree to which someone is trusting, amiable, generous,

tolerant, honest, cooperative, and flexible.

Conscientiousness. The degree to which someone is dependable and

organised and conforms and perseveres on tasks.

Emotional stability. The degree to which someone is secure, calm,

independent, and autonomous.

Openness to experience. The degree to which someone is intellectual,

philosophical, insightful, creative, artistic, and curious.

Box 4 provides some sample items from a personality characteristics inventory

Until quite recently, personality was not a popular personnel selection method.

Schmitt, Gooding, Noe and Kirsch (1984) reported very low validities for the

relationship between personality and job performance and Blinkhorn and Johnson

(1990) argued that using personality tests can delude people into assuming they offer

a comprehensive picture of a person, and also ‘overly objectify’ the person.

Moreover, few would dispute the conclusion that non-work related selection tools are

relatively poor predictors of job success relative to structured interviews and ability

Box 4

Sample items from a personality characteristics inventory

ConscientiousnessI can always be counted on to get the job doneI am a very persistent workerI almost always plan things in advance of work

ExtraversionMeeting new people is enjoyable to meI like to stir up excitement if things get boringI am a “take-charge” type of person

AgreeablenessI like to help others who are down on their luckI usually see the good side of peopleI forgive others easily

Emotional stabilityI can become annoyed at people quite easily (reverse-scored)At times, I don’t care about much of anything (reverse-scored)My feelings tend to be easily hurt (reverse-scored)

Openness to experienceI like to work with difficult concepts and ideasI enjoy trying new and different thingsI tend to enjoy art, music, or literature.

Source: Mount, M.K. & Barrick, M.R. (1995). Manual for Personal Characteristics Inventory.

tests and should be treated with caution (Robertson & Smith, 2001). However,

renewed interest in personality testing and the acceptance of the FFM personality

structure has led to a widespread belief and confidence that personality can play a

significant role to effective personnel selection.

Conscientiousness is considered to be the best predictor of job performance across

various performance criteria, such as team performance, leadership emergence, and

task role behaviour, and occupational groups (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). Ones and

Viswesvaran (1998) argue that this finding is not surprising really in that the

conscientious person is more likely to spend time on assigned tasks, acquire greater

job knowledge, set goals autonomously and persist in achieving them, go beyond role

requirements and avoid being counterproductive, but advocate the use of some kind of

‘social desirability’ screening measure, to minimise distortion likelihood.

Apart from conscientiousness, the other FFM dimensions vary in their predictive

effects depending on the nature of the performance criterion and occupational group.

For example, agreeableness and openness to experience are related to performance

involving interpersonal skills (Nikolaou, 2003) and conscientiousness and

extraversion predict managerial performance significantly better in jobs categorized

as high in autonomy (Barrick & Mount, 1993). Witt (2002) reported that extraversion

was related to job performance when employees were also high in conscientiousness,

but with employees low in conscientiousness, extraversion was negatively related to

performance. Finally, Mol, Born, Willemsen and Van Der Molen (2005) investigated

relations between expatriate job performance and FFM personality dimensions and

found that extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

predict job performance.

Finally, regarding the relationship between FFM and not standard performance

criteria, Williams (2004) found that openness to experience was significantly related

to individual creativity while O’Connell, Doverspike, Norris-Watts, and Hattrup

(2001) reported a significant correlation between conscientiousness and organisational

citizenship behaviours. Lin, Chiu, and Hsieh (2001) investigating the relation between

the FFM and customer ratings of service quality, reported significant relations

between openness to experience and assurance behaviours, conscientiousness and

reliability, extraversion and responsiveness, and agreeableness with both empathy and

assurance behaviours. Finally, LePine and Van Dyne (2001) found that

conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness were related more strongly to

change-oriented communications and cooperative behaviour than to task performance

and Lievens, Harrs, Van Keer, and Bisqueret (2003) found that openness to

experience was significantly related to cross cultural training performance in a sample

of European expatriate managers.

The study of the impact of personality on team behaviour and performance is another

area that has seen renewed activity in recent years. Overall, extraversion appears to be

the best predictor of team performance (Morgeson, Reider, & Campion, 2005), group

interaction styles (Balthazard, Potter, & Warren, 2004), oral communication

(Mohammed & Angell, 2003), emergent leadership (Kickul & Neuman, 2000), task

role behaviour (Stewart, Fulmer, & Barrick, 2005), and leadership task performance

(Mohammed, Mathieu, & Bartlett, 2002). Moreover, conscientiousness and emotional

stability are the two other FFM constructs found to be generally good predictors of

team-related behaviour and performance (Halfhill, Nielsen, Sundstrom &

Weilbaecher, 2005).

Faking and personality assessment. The most pervasive concern HR practitioners

have regarding the use of personality testing in personnel selection is that applicants

may strategically ‘fake’ their responses and thereby gravely reduce the usefulness of

personality scores. However, most of the research concerning the effects of

impression management or intentional or unintentional distortion on the validity of

personality assessment has provided results that indicate that in practical terms, there

are relatively few problems (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1996). Intentional distortion

could be minimised if applicants are warned of the consequences of such distortion.

Moreover, HR professionals should also consider incorporating the ‘threat of

verification’ in the faking warning, as applicants may respond more honestly when

they believe their responses will be subject to verification. The threat of verification

becomes more real when accompanied by carefully developed letters of reference

which may provide valid assessment of personality. Finally, it may still be valuable to

include ‘social desirability’ scales in personality instruments, even though there is

now considerable evidence that they generally do not improve validity and that

elevated scores on typical social desirability scales may be more a function of valid

personality differences than the motivation to fake (Ellingson, Sackett & Hough,

1999).

Assessment Centres

Assessment centres have recently become popular in the business sector for assessing

suitability across a whole range of jobs mainly measuring general intelligence,

achievement motivation, social competence, self-confidence and dominance. In this

sense, the primary construct measured relates to general mental ability. Assessment

centres are meant to stimulate the job realistically, employ a variety of techniques for

eliciting evidence, assess several applicants at once on several criteria ad involve

several trained assessors. The rationale behind the use of an assessment centre is that

an applicant who can perform a sample of the job satisfactorily probably can perform

the job. How true this is depends on the extent to which the job sample reflects the

whole job. The assessment centre is organised around behavioural dimensions

identified through job analysis and activities are chosen according to their capacity for

creating a situation in which these dimensions can be demonstrated. Across Europe,

there are wide differences in the use of assessment centres for selection; they are more

common, particularly in large organisations, in the UK, Belgium, Denmark and

Germany, and less common in France, Switzerland, Spain and Italy (Shackleton &

Newell, 1997).

The types of activities vary considerably from one assessment centre to another.

Individual activities may include psychological tests, biodata inventories and

personality tests. Candidates may be asked to perform written and oral

communication exercises (such as preparing written and oral reports) and the in-

basket exercise. The in-basket exercise requires the candidate to deal with the kind of

correspondence that usually accumulates while an executive is on vacation. It contains

requests, questions, directives, and various pieces of information that must be handled

within a specified period of time. Dyadic activities include role-playing exercises,

such as how to deal with a troublesome employee or interview an applicant for a job

and group exercises include the leaderless group discussion in which candidates work

together without any assigned roles on some organisational problem.

However, Zedeck and Cascio (1984) suggest that we should question the assessment

centre as a valid selection procedure as there are a lot of questions over the validity

and reliability of the assessment of specific competencies and Lievens and Klimoski

(2001) argue for the necessity to establish the utility and cost-effectiveness of

assessment centres. Finally, assessment centres may operate to maintain the status quo

in managerial jobs. Individuals who might be successful on the job, yet do not

resemble the present employees, can be neglected. Organisational policies and

traditions in hiring and promotion may influence who is successful in the

organisation. If so, then basing assessment centres on current employees will amplify

these effects.

Work samples

Work samples are said to be one of the most appropriate means of selection because

of the ‘point-to-point correspondence’ between the job and the assessment scenario

(Smith & George, 1992). It is an analogous test (as opposed to an analytical test)

designed to replicate the key activities of a job. Work samples are relatively easy to

construct for manual jobs, clerical jobs (for example, typing) or those involving

contact with clients (for example, role play dealing with a complaint). For more

managerial/intellectual type jobs work samples may be built around specific and

identifiable concrete tasks (for example, writing a report, dealing with the in-tray).

They can be used to assess both performance and ‘trainability’ potential.

A prime example of a work sample test is the ‘in-tray’ exercise. One potential

problem with the use of in-tray exercises is the heavy reliance of organisations on

‘off-the-self’ packages. Moreover, just like any other test, a work sample needs to be

carefully constructed and validated. The most valid work samples not only correspond

with a particular task, but also capture some of its contextual features (Robertson &

Kandola, 1982). A basic rule of thumb is to ensure that the work sample is as

‘complex’ and ‘ambiguous’ as the task itself, but the downside here is that the

‘sample’ cannot be ‘transferred’ across jobs (unless jobs are similar). On the other

hand, they provide a good source of ‘realistic job preview’ for the applicant. Porteous

(1997) says that because reliable and valid work samples are time-consuming and

costly to construct, administer and score, they are of most value when used in the last

stages of a selection process.

Integrity and honesty tests

Integrity and honesty tests are used to predict the likelihood that the individual will

engage in counterproductive behaviour such as theft, violence, excessive absenteeism

and dishonesty (Hogan & Brinkmeyer, 1997). Integrity tests are more popular in the

USA than in most European countries, although both US and French applicants have

been found to react somewhat negatively to these tests (Steiner & Gilliland, 1996).

There are three types of integrity testing: overt measures of integrity dealing with

attitudes towards theft and other forms of dishonesty, including admissions of theft

and other illegal activity, personality-oriented methods which include questions on

various dimensions, such as dependability, conscientiousness and social conformity,

and clinical measures like the ‘galvanic skin response’, an indicator of increased

physiological arousal.

There are many disagreements about the value of integrity testing, and also its ethical

status since the construct of integrity is vague and ill-defined, and there is no

compelling evidence for its criterion-related validity (Camara & Schneider, 1995).

Other concerns include misclassification, high selection thresholds and adverse

impact on applicants screened out by integrity test results, couple with the fact that

anyone can use them. By contrast, Ones, Viswesvaran and Schmidt (1995) point to

good construct and criterion validities suggesting promising results that should not be

ignored.

Recruiting and selecting expatriate managers

For effective performance in overseas work assignments (see also Chapter 3), a lot of

researchers have concentrated on how to prepare potential expatriates for overseas

transfer. For instance, Lanier (1979) recommends seven steps to be taken in preparing

personnel:

1. A well planned, realistic, pre-visit to the site (country).

2. Early language training, prior to departure.

3. Intensive study on issues such as history, culture and etiquette.

4. The provision of country-specific handbooks, including useful facts.

5. Efficient, explicit provision of intercompany counseling facilities.

6. Meeting returnees for “old hand” tips.

7. Notification of personnel office and spouses’ committee on arrival.

Sievenking et al (1981) stress the importance of orientation programmes prior to

expatriation, which aim to do such things as:

Develop an understanding of personal and family values so that employees can

anticipate and cope with the inevitably unsettling emotions that accompany

culture shock.

Develop an appreciation of the important ways in which the host culture will

differ from the employee’s own culture, so that the employee can guide his or her

behavior accordingly.

Show the expatriate how he or she can be rewarded in ways in addition to income

and travel, such as novelty, challenge and the opportunity to learn new skills.

Help expatriates anticipate and begin to plan for hardships, delays, frustrations,

material inconveniences, and the consequences of close living and working with

others.

Help expatriates to anticipate that, although they may have been superior

employees in their own culture, they may need to gain greater satisfaction from

experiences other than those that are work related.

In a more considered and thoughtful paper on the selection of personnel for overseas,

Tung (1981) outlines a contingency approach and notes four types of factors crucial to

success in foreign assignments: technical competence on the job; relational abilities

(social skills); ability to deal with environmental constraints (government, labor

issues); and family situation.

Tung offers a contingency approach of coping with the process based on a sensitive

selection process. A contingency framework states that in practice there is no one

criterion that could be used in all situations. Rather, each assignment should be

viewed on its own. In each instance, the selection of the ‘right person’ to fill the

position should be made only after a careful analysis of the task (in terms of

interaction with the social community) and the country of assignment (in terms of the

degree to which it is similar / dissimilar to that of the home country), and the

personality characteristics of the candidate (in terms of the candidate’s and spouse’s

ability to live and work in a different cultural environment) (p. 77-8).

Mendenhall et al. (1987: 333) indicate that the criteria which can predict acculturation

and productivity in overseas assignments have been identified by a number of authors

and are summarized as being self-orientation, others-orientation and perceptual

orientation. They suggest that self-orientation includes factors such as stress

reduction, technical competence, dealing with isolation and alienation. Others-

orientation includes factors such as relationship skills, willingness to communicate,

respect and empathy for others. Perceptual orientation is noted to include factors such

as flexible attributions, high tolerance for ambiguity, being open-minded and non-

judgmental. Underscoring the importance of personal characteristics, Hailey indicates

that personality and attitude of expatriates is the key to their success, suggesting that

“those who are outgoing, relaxed, and prepared to work within the local management

style are perceived to adapt more successfully, while unsurprisingly those who are

inflexible, arrogant, or straight jacketed fail to adapt to the local culture” (1996: 265).

Exercise

A large pharmaceutical company is one of the leading pharmaceutical manufacturers

in the United Kingdom. Because of the intense competition in the industry and the

heightened competition for highly skilled personnel, the company believes that

quality-of-work-life is a key factor for achieving competitive advantage. In support of

this belief, the company is considering the adoption of a telecommuting work

arrangement for selected jobs.

The job of Public Relations (PR) Specialist has been identified as an appropriate job

for telecommuting due to the fact that the job responsibilities are mostly information-

related activities that require independent mental effort with no supervisory

responsibilities. Exhibit 1 contains the current job description for the PR Specialist,

which reflects the primary job activities and qualifications for a full-time, in-office PR

Specialist. There is currently only one job incumbent, and that person has resigned.

You have been asked to develop a plan for recruiting and hiring a replacement who

will telecommute from home.

a) What method of job analysis would you recommend to determine the job

requirements and job specifications for a telecommuting job? Is the method you

recommend different that the method you would use if the job were performed in a

traditional office environment?

b) What procedures do you recommend for recruiting and hiring a telecommuter? Are

the procedures you recommend different than the procedures you would use if the job

were performed in a traditional office environment?

c) What changes would you make to the job description in Exhibit 1 to reflect the

telecommuting nature of the job?

d) What other recommendations would you make in order to ensure the successful

implementation of a telecommuting work arrangement?

Exhibit 1

Job Title: Public Relations Specialist

Department: Public Relations

Reports to: Director of Public Relations

General Summary: Serves as a writer on numerous firm publications; coordinates

materials; writes, edits, and proofs articles, public relations publications and

advertising copy using WordPerfect software.

Essential Job Functions:

1. Writes, edits, and proofs public relations articles, newspaper copy, and human

interest stories.

2. Writes advertising copy in conjunction with the marketing department.

3. Writes, edits, and coordinates printing and layout of company newsletter.

4. Meets with executives to determine PR needs.

5. Meets with media officials and the public to publicise firm’s accomplishments.

6. Attends information meetings at the main office on an as-needed basis.

7. Gives presentations at meetings and other public events.

8. Performs other related duties as assigned by management.

Education and Experience Required: Degree in Art/Graphic Design; demonstrated

ability to use a Windows computer hardware/software; some experience in television

or public speaking; considerable knowledge of journalism principles, English

grammar and usage; demonstrated ability to write newspaper, news, and human

interest articles, reports, brochures, and advertising copy; demonstrated ability to

work and communicate effectively with others.

Critical summary of theories

The above literature review shows an increasing homogenisation in the approaches

employed to account for the phenomena of personnel recruitment and selection which

are mainly dominated by a generic focus on improving the efficiency, effectiveness

and fairness of personnel management practice and by a concern with the selection-

performance issue. Performance is conceptualised in strict economic terms excluding

thus broader moral, social and political considerations on selection practice and

policy. Moreover, such approaches (for example, the ones that try to achieve person-

organisation fit) assume a unitary framing of the issues, in which all members of an

organisation are thought to have mutual interests and are embedded in the prevailing

socio-economic order of capitalism which attempts to govern the soul of employees

and regulate social behaviour through their endorsement of managerial objectives, and

the philosophy of individualism as a fundamental social good. The unreflective

adoption of the scientific and rational discourse of ‘objectivity’, ‘validity’, and

‘reliability’ that characterises recruitment and selection practices reinforces the mask

of science and plays a decisive role in constituting employees’ subjectivities to ensure

that employee performance can be managed. Such an approach, however, mainly

ignores the fact that personnel practices are outcomes of human interpretations,

conflicts and generalisations (Watson, 2004) and that employee agency, subjectivity

and reflexivity leads employees to multiple and differential engagements with HRM

practices (Zanoni & Janssens, 2007). Finally, the standardisation of employee

selection practices and the treatment of certain individual competencies and job

characteristics as neutral (i.e., as reflecting the reality of the person or the role) and

not as socially constructed or situated, instead of containing inequalities, has

paradoxically legitimised gendered employment practices by cloaking them in

spurious objectivity (Ozbilgin & Woodward, 2004).

Personnel Selection and Ethics

Karen Legge (2007) has argued that we need to consider the ‘moral economy’, that is

what moral norms concerning the good and the just should be embodied in and guide

choices and action in organizations (see also Chapter 5). The moral economy implies

that instead of being preoccupied with issues of efficiency and performance in strict

economic terms, we should include broader moral, social and political considerations

on recruitment and selection practice and policy. First of all, employees should be

brought back to the equation of personnel selection, by considering not only

individual variables such as abilities, skills and competencies, but also the political

nature of the employment relationship (Janssens & Steyaert, 2009), adopting a

pluralist approach to managing the employment relationship. Such an approach

criticises the belief that staffing techniques that lead to high performance are

beneficial for employees and for unions that accept them, draws attention to the

negative effects of such techniques, such as work intensification and highlights the

existence of continued discrimination against marginalised groups (Knights &

McCabe, 1998). Moreover, the complexity of the employment relationship

necessitates the exploration of the impact of a number of issues, such as fear of

layoffs, perceptions of job opportunities, unemployment or labour market positions,

on personnel recruitment and selection without ignoring multiple stakeholders’

(including employees’) interests and perspectives.

Furthermore, the quantitative techniques of recruitment and selection procedures are

methods that create a technical-scientific order whereby the technical is superimposed

on the moral and constructs a rational, goal-directed image of organisational

effectiveness, legitimasing thus managerial prerogatives. Consequently, the

management of personnel staffing concerns itself with the technical application of

techniques even where circumstances may denote that these might not be the most

appropriate responses. On the contrary, HR practices and procedures concerning

recruitment and selection should act in such a way as to achieve the ultimate and true

good of human beings as understood by the community of politicians, civil servants,

professionals, practitioners, clients and citizens in which those goods are practiced. In

this sense, the use of techniques and procedures have to be exercised with judgment

as to their relevance and applicability and informed by practical reason (Watson,

2010).

Finally, we need to ensure that the voices of those who tend to be excluded from

mainstream analyses are better represented in recruitment and selection theory and

practice (see also Chapter 4). This includes, but is not exhausted by, those in non-

standard forms of employment, minority workers and those working outside the

western industrialized economies.

Critical analysis and discussion

The formalisation part of the personnel selection agenda reinforces an image of the

work organisation as a black-box system which functions more or less well in

performance terms according to the neutral, scientific and formal, rational procedures

that convert human resource ‘inputs’ into outputs. Consequently, the objectives

pursued by the implementation of such procedures (i.e., maximization of efficiency

and effectiveness) should be of benefit to all concerned – managers, employees,

government and ‘the public’. However, it is rare for such ‘best practices’ to be

subjected to any critical analysis of the potential ‘operating’ costs, ‘unintended

consequences’ or – more graphically – the ‘collateral damage’ consequent on their

introduction. What is ‘good’ for business is not necessarily ‘best practice’ for

employees. In this respect, it is important to note that such procedures are never

neutral – they always implicate and privilege particular social values if not also

specific socio-economic interests.

Moreover, the mainstream analysis of personnel selection processes and procedures is

based on the unitarist approach – in which all members of an organisation are

assumed to have mutual interests. In practice however, recruitment and selection

practices seem to be enacted both by candidates and by selectors within organisations.

If we take into account concepts such as agency and subjectivity, and recognise

employees as human beings capable of reflexive thought and action (Giddens, 1993),

then there is the possibility that different employees actively engage in different ways

with recruitment and selection practices, undermining, delaying or supporting their

implementation. On the other hand, selectors do not simply adopt the ‘scientific’ and

rational principles of the practices, but appear to manipulate them according to pre-

existing local power relations, since the design of such practices is ‘mediated’ by

managerial interpretation and political manoeuvring (Watson, 2004). It should not be

ignored that HR strategies are outcomes of human interpretations, conflicts, guesses

and rationalisations, albeit with these of human agency operating within a context of

social and political-economic circumstances.

Finally, a significant consequence of the ever-increasing emphasis on the HR-

performance link has been the progressive exclusion of more and more alternative

voices, and practices which do not necessary promote high commitment and high

performance (MacDuffie, 1995). Hence, the problems and issues of personnel

selection have largely been ignored in small and medium-sized organisations (e.g.,

Taylor, 2004), in various forms of sub-contracting designed to increase ‘flexibility’

through the creation of ‘dependent self-employment’ (Muehlberger 2007); there is

little specific reference to unionised workplaces or to the increasing problems

associated with (and for) immigrant labour, as well as employees in non-Western and

so-called developing economies. Similarly, the increasing resort to outsourcing work

to countries where labour is cheaper is excluded from the mainstream ‘recruitment

and selection agenda’. The irony here, of course, is that most of these social practices

can be seen as reflecting the ‘success’ of the globalisation project for they can all be

seen as symptoms of the successful deregulation of labour markets which is a central

element of the neo-liberal policy agenda.

Benefits of studying HRM from a critical perspective

A critical perspective is advanced in order that personnel recruitment and selection

practices might be better contextualised within the prevailing socio-economic,

political and cultural factors which shape those practices; that the scientific, objective

and rational assumptions and language of recruitment and selection may be

denaturalised and challenged; and that voices excluded in mainstream personnel

selection may be heard. The adoption of a pluralist frame of reference, in which the

employment relationship is understood to involve and articulate different interests,

has the potential to reintroduce the possible contribution of those ‘external’ to the

organisation such as the state or trade unions as significant actors in devising selection

policies and practices. Such an approach will force selection specialists to consider

possible ways to manage the endemic potential conflicts associated with such

differential interests.

Moreover, the deconstruction of the natural and neutral language of science,

rationality and objectivity used for the legitimisation of the ‘reliable’ and ‘valid’

recruitment and selection procedures might expose the institutionalised power

inequalities but also the local power relations within organisations which reinforce but

also impede their implementation in practice. A critical perspective directs us towards

the analysis of the contextual circumstances in which certain practices are adopted or

not by management.

This is perhaps most clearly evident in another aspect of denaturalisation: the concern

of critical approaches to reveal how the content of knowledge, the individual skills

and ability profiles identified as central or critical to good selection decisions are

understood as relatively neutral and are treated as largely reflecting the reality of the

role or the person. Viewing competencies as individual-level attributes deflects

attention away from how their meaning is socially constructed in specific contexts.

Treating individual skills and job characteristics as neutral and not as socially

constructed or situated, we are in danger of either privileging certain modes of

performance or reproducing the idea that different groups are naturally suited to some

roles rather than others, undermining in such a way the chances of achieving equal

opportunities. Consequently, recruitment and selection would benefit from the

adoption of a critical perspective as it can offer additional insights into how roles,

identities and individual competencies are socially constructed and identify the

implications of these processes for selection and recruitment.

Finally, a critical perspective will provide voice for all those marginalised actors from

mainstream personnel recruitment and selection research and practice. These include,

for example, the employees themselves of large multinational corporations but also

employees in non-Western and so-called developing economies, employees in SMEs,

public and third-sector organisations as well as alternative forms of organisation (e.g.,

cooperatives), employees working in non-standard forms of employment, including

the self-employed, sub-contractors, part-times and agency workers, and immigrant

labour among others. Such a focus will enhance our understanding of what is

happening to employment regulation outside large and multinational corporations.

In short, Boxall et al. (2007, p.7) argue that a critical perspective to HRM should be

concerned with why management does what it does; with how contextualised

processes of HRM work in practice; and with questions of “for whom and how well”

when assessing the outcomes of HRM, taking account of both employee and

managerial interests, and laying a basis for theories of wider social consequence.

Summary and recommendations including the identification of good practices

Employee staffing decisions involving the recruitment and selection of individuals are

made every day in work organisations. There has been a tendency for a rational and

scientific personnel technology to be applied to these choices. This involves strongly

formalised procedures and the heavy use of such devices as psychological tests. Such

a technology is intended to help select individuals in a way that will be deemed

efficient, acceptable and fair. However, it tends to become restrictive and

counterproductive. Its use can be associated with a control way of thinking about

work organisations and people. A more realistic and critical way of thinking indicates

that selection processes are highly ambiguous and are dependent on basic human

processes of judgement, guesswork, chance taking, debate and negotiation. Selection

processes in general are better seen as parts of broader and more continuous processes

of bargaining and adjustment in which both organisational arrangements and human

beings themselves change and adapt within the ongoing negotiated order of the

organisation.

End of chapter set of (mini-essay type) questions and class activities

1. If you had entered into a joint venture with a foreign company but knew that

women were not treated fairly in that culture, would you consider sending a female

expatriate to handle the start-up? Why or why not?

2. Evaluation hiring is a procedure where a job candidate is hired by a staffing

company but put to work at another company. After a set period of time (usually 90

days) the company decides whether to hire the person as a permanent employee.

Analyse the benefits for the company which arise from using such a procedure. Which

are the ethical issues involved in evaluation hiring?

3. Should applicants be selected primarily on the basis of their ability or on

personality / fit? How can fit be assessed?

4. You work for a medium-sized, high-tech firm that faces intense competition on a

daily basis. Change seems to be the only constant in your workplace, and each

worker’s responsibilities shift from project to project. Suppose you have the major

responsibility for filling the job openings at your company. How would you go about

recruiting and selecting the best people? How would you identify the best people to

work in this environment?

5. In many organisations that have worked to a team structure, the team is the

principal unit where work gets done. However, most organisations recruit and hire as

though there was one job description and the team did not exist. If there are distinct

roles to be played on a team, how would you go about recruiting and hiring for them?

The characteristics needed by individual team members depend on the team and the

strengths and weaknesses of other who are on the team. How could you include this

dynamic and interactive nature in the recruitment and hiring process?

6. One of the strategic staffing choices is whether to pursue workforce diversity

actively or passively. First suggest some ethical reasons for active pursuit of diversity,

and then suggest some ethical reasons for a more passive approach. Assume that the

type of diversity in question is increasing workforce representation of women and

ethnic minorities.

7. Why is it important for the organisation to view all components of staffing from the

perspective of the job applicant?

8. Assume the organisation you work for practices strict adherence to the rules of

objective, scientific and rational recruitment and selection. But beyond that it seems

that “anything goes” in terms of tolerated staffing practices. What is your assessment

of this approach?

9. Do you think targeted recruitment systems, for example those that target older

workers, women, minorities or people with desired skills, are fair? Why or why not?

10. Cognitive ability tests are one of the best predictors of job performance, yet they

have substantial adverse impact against minorities. Do you think it’s fair to use such

tests? Why or why not?

11. Do you think it’s ethical for employers to select applicants on the basis of

questions such as “Dislike loud music” and “Enjoy traveling around the world on a

backpack” even if the scales that such items measure have been shown to predict job

performance? Explain.

12. Given recent changes in the nature of work, and especially in period of economic

turbulence, discuss the relative effectiveness of job analysis techniques and suggest

how they might be improved.

13. Suppose you are asked to write a recommendation letter for a friend you like but

consider unreliable. Would it be ethical for you to write a positive reference even

though you anticipate that your friend will not be a good employee? If not, would it

be ethical for you to agree to write the letter knowing that you will not be very

positive in your assessment of your friend’s abilities?

Annotated further readings

Bolton, S.C. & Houlihan, M. (2007). Searching for the Human in Human Resource

Management. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Boxall, P., Purcell, J., Wright, P. (2007). The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource

Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Grey, C., & Willmott, H. (2005). Critical Management Studies: A Reader. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Legge, K. (1995). Human Resource Management: Rhetorics and Realities. London:

Palgrave Macmillan.

Leopold, J., Harris, L. & Watson, T.J. (2005). The Strategic Management of Human

Resources. London: FT Prentice Hall.

Pinnington, A., Macklin, R. & Campbell, T. (2007). Human Resource Management:

Ethics and Employment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Case Study

On Monday morning at 7:30 a.m., Dr. Hans was leaving his apartment, specifically

rented to expatriates, and was going towards his office in Kuala Lumpur’s central

business district. On the way, Hans listened to the voice messages on his mobile

phone, one of which was from the assistant of the firm’s owner, Frank. The message

stated that Hans was expected to call back before his meeting with the human

resources (HR) team that he was leading. The team meeting was scheduled in order to

bring together Hans and Chinese human resource experts to form a cross-functional

project team responsible for the development and implementation of a new personnel

process, in the context of global restructuring, in order to fill 25 middle management

positions in the Australasia region. According to the company’s, MobilCom’s, in-

house global localisation policy, 90 per cent of the new management positions were

filled by individuals who originated from the country they would be working in. The

affected areas included sales and marketing, purchasing, supply chain management,

and finance and accounting, at locations in Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok,

Jakarta, Singapore, Sydney, Oakland and Port Moresby. The new personnel selection

system was part of the company’s new objective to standardise all human resource

instruments for selection purposes around the globe. This new personnel selection

system had to be developed internally.

When Hans first heard about the above changes, it immediately occurred to him that

this would not be easy as personnel selection procedures varied significantly between

countries. He also knew that the existing selection instruments were by no means

flawless in any specific country. After the application documents were analysed,

structured interview with the candidates were conducted by a department

representative and an HR specialist. If both interviewers came to a positive conclusion

on the candidate’s qualifications, the top candidate completed an individual

assessment centre in order to point out his/her interpersonal competencies rather than

his/her professional competencies. The individual assessment centres consisted of

biographical questions, case studies on leadership in an international context and

participation in a leaderless group discussion. Ultimately, additional references were

obtained for each candidate, although different procedures existed in different

countries. After reference checks were completed, each candidate received written

feedback and a report was generated and added to the successful candidate’s

personnel file.

For several years now, Hans had been finding faults in the design of the individual

assessment centres, but he could not influence possible modifications because the

individual assessment centres were conducted by external consulting firms.

Additionally, he questioned the validity of the information obtained from the centres,

as well as the selection system as a whole and he felt the need to improve the contents

of the structured interviews that were based on the candidate’s current situation, as

opposed to the candidate’s previous work experience. Overall, efforts to improve the

current selection systems had only rarely been undertaken due to limited time and the

budget allotted for personnel affairs – a memorable fact that Hans had already pointed

out to the management several times.

The development of a new multinational personnel selection system now posed a

huge challenge for Hans and his project team. His team, comprised of Australian and

Chinese members with HR knowledge as well as HR managers from the headquarters,

had already been working on the development of the new personnel selection system

for four months. Over the past few weeks numerous meetings had been held, yet no

significant progress had been made. One reason could be attributed to the fact that

there was obvious heterogeneity between the Australian and Asian team members’

opinions regarding the new personnel selection system. This created an ambience that

was tense and dissent with respect to sharing the workload. For today’s meeting, the

goal was to come to a consensus on several important issues: 1) what individual

modules the new personnel selection system should contain, 2) whether country-

specific adaptations were necessary and feasible for each module, and 3) the

implementation process of the new personnel instrument at each location.

When Hans arrived at his office, one of the three Chinese secretary, avoiding eye-

contact by looking down to the floor but with a big smile and gestures that appeared

submissive as she perpetually nodded her head – reminded him that Frank was

waiting for him to return his call. Hans picked up the telephone and Frank began

speaking:

“Mr. Hans, you know how much I appreciate your dedication to the company, but I

have concerns about the current international selection procedures. We need

something that is going to work, and work immediately! And don’t you dare try to

offer me this empirical or validity stuff. I don’t give a damn. You have a whole

department with highly qualified people. I assume you are capable of filling these

vacant management positions. We also need a selection system that works

everywhere. We cannot afford to apply different procedures in every country. What

we need are consistent procedures, something applicable cross-nationally and cross-

regionally. You, as a cosmopolitan, should know exactly what I mean. I also expect

everything to be documented with every detail”.

Although Hans shared Frank’s enthusiasm for an improved personnel selection

system, there were many complications that could arise of which Frank seemed

obviously unaware and Hans tried to inform him about possible problems. Hans

argued that although a multinational selection system would have its advantages,

these advantages may become costly when they are not easily implemented in each

region. Each country has its own unique economic and education situations, which

would undoubtedly become problematic when creating a universal personnel selection

system. With respect to cultural difference, he argued that a standardised personnel

selection system would also ignore cultural differences and culture-specific

circumstances. This would not only affect the individual modules of the system, but

also the basic job requirements, the adaptation of modules to specific countries, and

the use of specific selection methods. He also expressed his concern with Frank’s lack

of interest in testing the validity of the new selection procedures.

Of course, that wasn’t exactly what Frank wanted to hear:

“Don’t tell me about problems, I want solutions, and you should not forget that this is

what I pay you and your team to do. You have until the end of this week to deliver

final and written conclusions of this matter. If not, I will reduce your team in Kuala

Lumpur by half, and I will delegate the development of this new system to global

headquarters. Either you will come up with something useful by the end of this week,

or central headquarters will do the job. End of discussion”.

The team meeting

At the meeting, Hans informed everyone about the current situation with Frank, set

the objectives of the meeting and asked for the detailed recording of everything they

discuss. The Chinese colleagues agreed by nodding their heads uniformly, a

behaviour which was always expected when there was an order from a member with

higher hierarchical status, while the Australian colleagues openly disapproved the

detailed recording of the discussions. During the meeting, there was an apparent

disagreement between a Chinese HR employee and the Australian economist

regarding the definition of the job requirement and their profiles. Yu wanted to

include 15 dimensions, five components that test the candidate’s professional

competencies and 10 dimensions that evaluate social competencies. However,

Andreas openly disagreed with this proposition stating: “I told you many times that

the acquisition of 15 dimensions is simply impossible. It is important to define clearly

distinguishable job requirements that are measurable, describable, and that are equally

relevant in all countries of the region”. Yu, intimidated by her Australian colleague’s

manner, blushed and looked down towards the floor, signalling that she did not dare

to say anything further. She often found it difficult to cope with negative feedback,

particularly when it occurred in front of her colleagues. There had been several times

already that she could not stand up to Andreas, which seemed to affect her more and

more each time. She had once spoken to Hans about her difficulties communicating

with Andreas; however, Hans was quickly irritated by the complaint and asked her to

wait and hope for an improvement of the situation. Yu never discussed the situation

with Hans again. The German in-house psychologist intervened and proposed the

inclusion of six competencies, such as technical and vocational skills, social

competencies, leadership competencies, communicative competencies, flexibility, and

adaptability, which show great validity and relliability. There was disagreement from

some Chinese members who proposed the inclusion of several more and different

competencies, which ended with them feeling irritated and intimidated. Andreas

proposed that they should bring a majority vote with respect to the skills due to the

time pressure, but the Chinese HR member argued: “no, a majority vote is not the

solution. It may lead to good decisions not succeeding because certain team members

follow the uniform opinion of the majority. We should try to reach a consensus on this

issue”. The dispute was solved by Hans who decided which would be the final job

requirements for the selection of managers and who adopted the six dimensions

proposed by the German team members.

The next important issue on the agenda was the definition of the modules and the job

requirements for each module. For this issue, there was agreement that a multinational

selection system should be two-tiered. The first tier consists of three modules: a

viewing of the candidates’ application documents, a telephone conference with the

applicants that should be conducted in an unstructured manner, and the obtaining of

three references from former employers. Unlike the current procedures, references

should not only be used to verify past employment and the duration of employment,

but also include a statement regarding the candidate’s personality. Four modules will

follow in the second tier. Specifically, a panel interview, a biography-oriented in-

depth interview, a simulated group exercise, and testing procedures. All modules were

described in great detail and emphasis was given to the inclusion of standardised tests

in order to increase the validity of the entire process, even though there is evidence

that intelligence and personality tests are not generally highly accepted and cultural

problems exist.

Towards the end of the long and detailed presentation of the modules, Anne

interrupted: “I don’t want to be rude, but isn’t it important to take the candidate’s

perspective into consideration, as well?” But Andreas countered: “Unfortunately,

nobody cares about the candidate’s perspective. We are interested in choosing the

right person, certainly not in satisfying the applicants – these never-ending

discussions on fairness and acceptance. Reality differs significantly from the ideal

procedures we are taught in university”.

Now, Angela jumped into the discussion: “However, let’s not forget that management

is not just a technical matter and sometimes, if you find someone generally useful,

then you could adapt the job to fit the person. The selection process is always a sort of

negotiation between the potential employee and the potential employer. We, as

recruiters, cannot really know what any of these people is really going to be like if

you take them on. Therefore, we need to deploy the basic human skills of eliciting

helpful responses from people and judging the likelihood of one person being a better

bet for the organisation than another. In this sense, there is no ‘right person’, there is

only ‘the better bet’. Some of the most important determinants of how well someone

does the job are ones that arise after the appointment of the individual”.

Hans could not stand any further disputes at the time and took the initiative to

terminate the long meeting which achieved the first step to specify the modules in

content and procedures. However, it did not specify the adaptations for each target

country and the ways of implementing those modules. Hans thought that he should

make the decisions himself and include them in the report to be handled to Frank.

Right after the meeting, Hans went straight to his office and did not come out again

for the rest of the afternoon. As soon as he received the meeting minutes he wrote his

final report for Frank. He later received a short notice sent by Frank informing him

that important basic conditions and necessary adaptations had not been taken into

consideration sufficiently in the new multinational personnel selection system;

therefore, he had handed the case over to global headquarters. Finally, he stated that

there would be staff-related consequences for his department in Kuala Lumpur.

Case study questions

1. Describe in detail all the modules included in the two-tiered selection system

proposed by the team.

2. What is the critical analysis of the case study?

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